TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page

I • HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ••• • ••• • ••••••

I I •

I I I •

Precle~ss l c Per iod... ..... .... . ... .. .... . .... .. . .. .. . .. I Cl~ss i c Period •••••••••• • •• •• • •••• •••• • ••••••••••••••• 2 Medevl~ l, Baroque, and Col onia l Period •••••••••••••••• 3 Industrial Peri od •••.•••• • •••••• • ••••• . • • ••••••••••••• 5

PRESENT-DAY STADIUMS •••• ••••••••••••••••• • •••••••• •• •••••• 6

Pa I azzo de I I o Sport. ....................... . .......... 7 National Gymn~sium and Annex in Tokyo, J~p~n •••••••••• 7 Harris County Domed Stadium •••••••••••• • •••••••••••••• 10

PROPOSED FACILITIES••••• • •• •••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 15

S t a t erne n t of the P rob I em. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • I 5 General Stat ement of Intent ••• •••••••••• •••••••••••••• 18 Pre I lm I na r y PI ann i ng Cons i de rat ions................... 18 Stadium Area Requirements • •• • •••• ••••••• •••••••••••••• 20

f i eke t 0 f f i ce s . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . • • . . • • • 20 Stadium Offices ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••• • • •• 20 Restaurants and D ining Facilities ••••••••••••••••• 21 Commun i ce t ion Center •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2 1 Concess i ons••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 22 Pub I i c Conveni ences ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• :. 22 Players' Dressing Rooms and Dugouts ••••••••••••••• 22 Rernps, Escalators and Elevators ••••••••••••••••••• 23 Seating Areas ••••••• •••••••••• • •••• • •••• ••• ••••••• 24

- iii -

CHAPTER

I I I •

IV.

v.

lv

Spec i a r Areas •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 24 Meehan ice. I Spaces •• •••••• •• •••••••••••••••••••••••• 24

SO L UT I 0 N • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 5

Site: Location a·nd Development ••••••••••••••••••• Circu l atory Spa ces and Relationships ••••••••••••••

..... Vehicular • •••• • •••••• ~••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Pedestrian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....

The PI an ••••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and Electr ical System ••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Mechan ical

A Spec ia l Con side rat I on ••••••••••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Structural Sol"ut ion ••••••••••••• ...................

CONCLUSION . . ........................ -..................... .

25 26 27 28 29 34 37 38

40

LIST OF PLATES

P lete Pe ge

1. Rome Co losseum •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • 4

2. Palazzo de II o Sport !Exter ior View! ••• ~ ••••••••••••••••• 8

3 . Pe lazzo de llo Sport ! In terior Vi ew! •••• ••••••••••••••••• 9

4. Netlonal Gymnes ium and Annex !Exterior View ! •••••••••••• I I

5. National Gymnasium and Annex !Interior Vi ew l •••••••••••• 12

6 . Houston Astrodome •••••••••••• • ••••••• • •.•••••••••••••••• 13

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

I. American League Attendance Informat ion ••••••••••••••••• 30

2 . Nat ional League Attendance Information •••••••••••••••• 31

- vi -

PREFACE

"An age of speciali zat ion levies its tolls. Not the least of these is the insistance that special ism remain specialized . Thus, the word •recreation' has come to have a I imi ted meaning for most of us. 'Rec reationa l faci I ities' at once conjures up swimming pools and gymnsia

1and playground and , perhaps, stadia

and indoor sports places."

Realizing that today ' s average American now spends a considerable

2 amount of time and money in " •••• stadia and indoor places" , a

program of providing suitable facilities to house the major

sporting e vents now faces the Dallas area and re gion. The solution

of the problem must contain not only a playing field for conducting

the events, but the stadium must also be easily accessible by the

majority of people in the region and must afford the spectator

a comfortable atmosphere in which to watch the contest. For, as

1 Wayne R. Wi II iams, Recreation Places, (New York, 1958!, p. II.

2 . I . II W1 l1ams, p. •

viii

the number of spectators continually grows, so do the demands for

newer and better faci I ities from which they might view their

favor ite sporting event . This not only includes a comfortable seat

but also a quick and easy method to get from the ir homes t o their

seats.

It is therefore the intention of this thesis to investigate

alI phases of a spor ts stadium which wi I I house as its two ma jor

events, football and base ba l l , and to reach a solution which wi II

prov ide a conditioned environment that wi I I " •••• ma ke an exciting

experience out of going t o a sports event or even passing them or

3 seeing them fran afar."

3 James T. Burns, Jr., 11Big Tops by Tange at Tokyo Olympics", Progressi ve Architecture , <December, 19641 p . 180.

01APTER I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Almost as early as history there are records of men participat-

ing in various types of canpetitive spor ts. It would therefore

be logical to assume that there were spectator s to observe the

action .

Preclassic Period

"Egyptian rei iefs show a large variety of sports and pastimes."1

Because there were no organized games, the sport.smen of this time

were invariably from the wealthy upper c la ss. The peasants indulged

in such activities as wrest I ing and other tests of ski I I or strength

t o the enjoyment of their family and friends. Most events were

war-oriented with the end result of making good warriors.

1wi II iams, Recreation Plac~, !New Yor k, 1958!, p . 14.

2

The spectators of the sports of this period were usua l ly

smaller groups . Little thought was given to stadia because few

contests were of si ze to m~rit a stad ium audience.

Classic Period

The classic period of Greece and Rome saw a fantastic growth 1n

spectator sports and exhibiti ons. This era marked the beginning

o f structures bui I t speci f ical ly for spectator sports.

Children were al lowed to play and were t rai ned i n running,

jump ing, sword play, swimming, and riding. As the children grew

older they participated in great sport s festivals, t he winners of

which were honored and revered as national heroes.

Grea t cmphitheaters and stadia were bui I t i n order to hold

the " •••• gladiator contests, strugg les of wild beast~, sham sea

2 battles, Chris t ians a nd lion s and other spectacles". The s tructures

were bui It mostly in the cities of the Roman Empire. The most

famous and fami I iar of these is the Flavian Amphitheatre or Rome

Co losseum wh i ch was completed in 80 A.D. It is an impos ing

2 . . 7 W 1 I I 1 ams, p. I •

3

structure ( i I lustration next pagel which even today ri va ls many

of the newest and most modern sports s tad i a . The fundamental

c oncept s of the Rome Col osseum are s o log ical t hat very lit t le

improvement on this original des ign has come about in today's

s t adia . The improvement -that has been made has been in providing

more and more com~or t for the spec tat or with the addition of padded

sea ts and air cond iti on ing.

I t was during t hi~ period that the concept of the s pectator

act ually began to evolve . With the immense amphithea tre seating

as man y as 50 , 000 peop le, as in the case of the Rome Col osseum,

both th e uppe r and lower c lasses were ab le t o enj oy their favorite

spor tin g ~vent s and fest i va ls .

Medevia l, Baroque and Colonia l Peri ods

These three periods saw a lui I i n the sport s extravaganza

whi ch had been s uch a vital part of the earlier Cla ss i c Pe r iod .

Thi s wa s a time of s upress ion. When not at work, peop le s pent

mos t of the ir time in rel axa tion with thei r f ami I ies. The

r ecr ea t i ona I spaces were I awn s or courtyards with a sma I I number

of people parti ci pa t ing in even ts of a less rigorous nature than

617ft. x 512ft. (oval) 164ft. (highest wall) 249,677 sq. ft. 287ft. X 180ft. 42,580 sq. ft. 50,000

5

those of the Classic Period.

The most popular events during these times were the ~ock

battles and jousting tournaments of the Medieval Period. Fencing

reached its . peak during the Baroque, and cock figh ts were popular

in the Colonial era .

Industrial Period

The casual recreational habits of the Colonial Period remained

and were carried over int o the Industrial Period . However, it

was during this time that a type of spectator spor ts began .

3 "In 1832, 100, 000 people turned out to watch a foot race."

AI I types of spectator sporting events became popular including

basebal I, our national pastime. It was during this period that

the sports spectator again took his placd as a part of everyday

li fe.

3 . . W1 I I lams , p~ 29.

CHAPTER I I

PRESENT- DAY STAD IA

As may be clearly seen by looking back into the histor y of

sporting event s , I ittle was done architecturally to pr omote or

enhance the pos ition of t he spectator , excep t, of course , during

the Classic Period . It wa s not until the early twentieth cen tury

tha t archi t ects began to consider the spectator and his comfort.

But even then it seemed that the theory was st i I I to c ram as many

people into the smal lest possible space . Fina ll y during the late

9~0 ' s and ear ly 1960's stad iym architecture began to evolve from

just a mere s tructure fo r seating peop le t o wa t ch a sportings

event to an architectura l structure which offered the spectator

an environment in which he might better enjoy his favorite sport .

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7

Palazzo delIa Sport

Perhaps the one factor which has given architects a greater

incentive to create a better stadium architecture has been the

International Oylmpic Games. The first good ex'cNnple of this was

the Palazzo del lo Sport designed by Pier Luig i Nervi for the 1961

Olympic Games . Nervi supplied a covered space to seat 16,000

people. 1 l l lwstrations next pages! Circulation was easy and

each spec tator had a clear unobstructed view. "It was primari ly

designed for under-cover spor ti ng events, and can eas i I y be

adapted to accommodate boxing, fencing, wrest I ing , tennis, ne t-

ball, weight lifting, etc . Owing to its excellent acoustics, it

has recently been used for large public performances such as plays

4 and operas. "

Nationa l Gymnasium and Annex in Tokyo, Japan

Another fine example of the architecture precipitated by

the Olympics is the National Gymnasium and National Gymnasium

Annex in Tokyo, Japan done by Kenzo Tange for the 1964 Olympic

4Pier Lui gi Nervi, Bui ldings, Projects, St r uc tures 1953-1963,

trans. Guiseppe Nicolletti, !Germany, 1963!, p. 66.

The "Palazzo dello Sport'' IS the largest of the sports arenas constru by Pier Luigi Nerv1 for the 1961 Olympic Games. It was primarily designe

under cover SJ:•O • n;1 avents. and can easily be adapted. as required '" o .... ~mg. tencmg, wrestling, tennis , netball, we1ght-l1ftuig, etc. Ow1 ng ts excellent acoustiCS, it has recently been used for large public perfor

':lances At the request of the Committee, the seats are arranged 1n banks Twelve large external staircases lead to a peripheral gallery, which a series of inter-nal stairs give access to the upper bank of s Total caoac1tv of the hall · 16,000 soectators.

10

Games. Unlike Nervi, who used poured-in-place and precast concrete,

Tange developed for both bui I dings a cable-suspension roof that

creates an interior and exterior space in which the spec t ator

a I ways seems to be the major cons ide ration. A I though Tange

himself considers the site too smal I and the parking area inadequate,

" •••• the gymnasia are strong enough to overcome t hese drawbacks

and make an exciting experie nce out of going to sports events or

even just passing them or seeing them from afar. 115 (I l lustra t ions .

next pages)

Harris County Domed Stad ium

Another influence on stadium design has been t he growth of

interest and the resulting increased number of spec ta tors at

footba I I and baseba I I games. It was the integration of these two

activities into one stadium that has caused the recent construct ion

of several stadiums across t he country which also have attempted to

combine the two activities into a compatible solu t i on.

Without a doubt, the stadium of this type which has caused

most controversy is the Harris County Domed Stadium designed by

5 Burns, p. 184.

14

Lloyd & Morgan and Wilson, Morris, Crain & Anderson, and completed

in 1965. (See Illustration.} Although the exter ior of t he

"Astrodome", as it has been nicknamed, might recei ve much cr i t i cism,

the space created inside i s unsurpassed for specta t or comfort.

Pro~lems have arisen concerning the natural I ighting and t he

problems in growing adequate grass for the playing field. Eve n

though these problems were anticipated, their prospective so lutions

were found to be inadequate after the stadium was comple t ed. At

present art ificial lighting and synthetic grass are being

experimented with.

CHAPTER I I I

PROPOSED FACILITIES

Statement of the Problem

The Da llas area is faced with the ever - increasing problem

of providing suitable facili t ie s fo r its major s por ting events,

fo o tba II and baseba II .

The footba l I activities include the home footbal I games of

Southern Methodist University in the Southwest Conference and the

Dal las Cowboys of t he National Footbal I League , the annual

Texas -Ok lahoma foo tbal I game, and the annual New Year ' s Day

Cotton Bow l Classic. All of t hese eventsa.r.e he ld in the Cotton

Bowl Stadium located in the center of the State Fairgrounds

in Da l las . The seating capacity of the stadium has been more than

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16

su ffi cien t; however, its i n ternal and external c ircula t ion !bo t h

pedest rian and veh icular) has constantly become a wor sening

prob lem becaus e of t he overly crowded and congested area in

whi ch it is located.

The professional basebal I faci I ities, although improved in

t he last two years , cons i s t of a stadium having a max imum capacity

of some 12 , 000, and it i s located in Tarrant County. The stadium is

eas il y accessible by t he Dallas-Fort Wort h Turnpike and seems to

work wei I, but because of its present s ize and locati on in ano ther

c au n ty i t wou I d prove unsatisfacto ry for the needs of the Da I I as

County area if a nd when t he area acqui r es a major league franchise ;

and there seems to be a strong poss ibility of th i s franchi se

materializing in the near future.

Not on ly are both ex i s ting facilit ie s proving to be inadequate

for the needs of Dallas Coun t y, but the treme ndou s popu la ti on

gr owth in the area 1s compo undin g the pr oblem. The metrop o lit a n

Dal las area now has 1,1 50, 000 people; by the year 1985 the Dallas

reg ion, which would compr ise f our adjoining counties includi ng

Fort Worth, wi I I support 3 , 500, 000 people. As the overa ll popu-

I at ion cont i nues t o grow, I ikewi se wi II the spectat or popu lat i on

17

grow. As the growth in the numbers of spectators continues so

wi II their demands for more modern and adequate facilities grow .

It wi I I therefore be the problem of this thes is to solve the

present and future demands of the Dallas County area as stated

above by providing an adequate facility for housing major sports

events . A more complete solution wi II be descr ibed in detai I

later in this text, but the basic solution wil l constitute combin-

ing the requirements for the two major events, football and base-

ba II , into one structu r e .

I t is also the hope of this designer that this proposed

stadium cou ld later be used as the major element in a more

comp lete sports complex. This might be brought about with_ the

eventua l addit i on of one or more structures accommodating such

activities as basketball, ice hockey, swimming , etc .

With the development as stated above , the total complex would

a I low the area to host some future Olympic Games wi thoet ~ greet ctleal

of modifica ti ons . Sti II another use of the stadium facilities

would be that of a mammoth convention center to house, for examp le,

nati onal presidential nomination conventions.

18

General Statement of Intent

With the completion of the Houston Astrodome came the beginning

of a new era in stadium design and a new concept in specta t or comfort.

"Going to a ball game" has now becane more than just sitting

on an exposed wooden bench, watching the players and being eit her

uncomfortably hot or cold. One now may have a complete evening's

entertainment if he chooses, from dinner, to t he game itself, to

an after-the-game cocktai I, all in one building. Also, each

spectator has a comfortable cushioned seat wi th a clear view of

the field in an air conditioned atmosphere. Ingress and egress

is eas ie r and more enjoyable with large low-p itched ramps, reversible

escalators, and elevators.

It is this new idea of spectator comfort combined wit h · a

sound structural system integrating the two major sports into one

building which wi II be the basis governing t he design of t he

proposed Dallas County Stadium as stated in this thesis.

Pre I iminary Planning Cons i de ration

The design program for a multi-use stadium depends on

severa I factors:

1. The number of specta t ors t o be seated fo r each event .

2 . The areas in which to concentrate the spectators with

opti mum view ing cond i tions .

3. A speci fie method for the parking and dispersa l of the

vo lume of au t omobi les which wi II enter t he site.

4 . A solu ti on for ingress and egress by the spec t ators .

5. A structura l system to house a necessari ly large space

and sti II maintain a clear viewing condition for all

spectators.

19

6. A mechanical system which wi l I afford comfort to spectators

and players a l ike .

7. A playing field which wi" l l meet the space area requirements

of the events to be housed in the structur e .

8. A workable solution for a ll auxi I iary spaces, such as

rest rooms , refreshments , dressing rooms, etc .

9 . The f l exib il ity of the stadium al lowing for other events

such as a circus, rodeos , boxing matches, bullfights, etc.

10. The availabi l ity of ut i lit ies .

II . Site development to enhance the structure and to give some

fee l ing of sca le .

20

St-adium Area Requ i rem en t s

Ticket Offices

For the convenience of the patrons there should be several

ticket offices. The offices or booths should be located in central

spots around the perimeter of the stadium in close proximity to

the many entrances. They should be easily accessi b le to the

spectator as he walks from his automobile to t he stadium.

Although the idea of locating ticket booths at the automob i le

entrances to the site has been attempted, it doe s no t seem to be

completely satisfactory because of the traf f ic con ges t ion arising

from the time involved in selecting and paying fo r a t icket and

then waiting for change.

Additional ticket offices within the stadium would be used

f or the purchase of tickets for future games. They would also

serve as information centers for answer ing quest ions concerning

coming events, t he stadium, and any other quer ies which an

interested patron mi ght have.

Stadium Offices

Because of ·the comp I ex i ty of such a stadium, permanent offices

would be furnished. These would include c ler ica l offices,

21

administration offices; offices for the professional teans that

play in t he stadium, and an en gineer ' s planning office . Con -

ferences and meeting rooms would a lso be required for administra-

tive purposes , team meetings, and if desired, outside organ izat ional

meetings .

Restaurants and Dining Faci I ities

The food faci I ities may be divided into the following catagories :

I. Informal cafeteria type dining for the larger number of

spectators.

2 . Formal dining facil ies .

3 . Cocktai I lounge with adjoining dining faci I ities .

The kitchen arrangeme nt for these faci l ities should be centra l ized

to avoid dup l ication of equipment . A vertical system would seem

most logica l because of the stratif ication of seats and also to

minimize the amount of chase and mechanica l spaces to these areas.

Commun i cat i on Center

Because of the nationwide coverage of some sporting events,

considerat i on shou ld be given to the spaces needed by the radio,

television and newspaper media . Specific boxes or booths should

be designated and equipped with such mechanical or electrical outlets

as would be nece ssary .

22

Concessions

The concessions areas in a stadium of this type are for the

spectator 's convenience, but are also a major economic element in

a successfu I operation . They shou ld be located so that the spectator

would be able to get to them easily, with _a minimum amount of effort.

Again the service to the concession areas from centra l stor age

areas shou ld be vertica l to avoid unnecessary costs and confusioN.

Pub I ic Conveniences

Public conveniences such as rest rooms, telephone boo ths, and

drinking fountains should be located adjacent to the concession

areas to afford the spectator easy accessibility . Care should also

be taken 1n locating enough restrooms on alI ~vels and, whenever

possible, in a common stack arrangement. Ash trays and trash

receptacles should also be provided at converient places throughout

the sta dium.

Players' Dressing Rooms and Dugouts

Dressing rooms and dugouts become an integral part of any

stadium. Special consideration should be g iven to the s pace s

al loted i n dressing rooms for dressing, shower in g, rub-downs, etc.

23

The dressing rooms and dugouts should be connected by an underground

passage or corridor .

Because of the multi - use function of the proposed stadium it

wou ld be wei I to provide four dressing rooms instead of the customary

two rooms .

Ramps, Escalators and Elevators

For the most part, wide low- pitched ramps wi I I be used for

ingress and egress to various levels of the stadium. Reversible

type escalators wi I I s erve as a supplementary element to alleviate

the congestion before and after the event s . Elevators wi I I be

used most ly as service elements and used on ly by spectator s in

case o f emergency.

Seat ing Areas

Seating areas wi II be concentrated to afford the most favorab le

viewing cond iti ons along the playing fields . A combinati on of

permanent - type portable sea t ing has been found t o be the most

compa ti b le so lution to serve both th e football and baseball fie lds .

Grou ps of seats wil I be color-coded to correspond with the

s pectato r ' s t icke t, making it easier for him to loca t e his seat .

24

Special Areas

Special areas wi II be provided includ ing a security office and

a completely equipped clinic. These spaces no t on ly wi I I contribute

to a more canplete s tadium but wi II also aid in the overa l l feeling

of comfort by the indi vidual spec tator.

Mechanica l Spaces

Because of the tremendous task involved in cond it ioning a

space as emmence as a football f ield, large mechanical ~aces wi II

be required for housing equipment necessafy. Besides the mechanica l

equipment spaces, a rea wil I be needed for special plumping equipment,

such as sewage storage tanks and large hot water heaters.

CHAPTER IV

SOLUT ION

Site : Location and Development

Because of the regional appeal of the proposed stadium, the

location chosen fo r the Oal las County Stad i um is a mid-point

between Da l las and Fort Worth on the west side of Dallas County . It

is a 300 acre plot contai n ing over 13, 000, 000 squar e feet , and is

directly nor t h of the Dal las - For t Worth Turnpi ke along the West

Fork of the Trinity Rive r , east o f Be lt Line Road , 3 miles sou th

of U. S. Highway 183, and I mile north of U. S. Highway 80. This

particular site was chosen because of its easy accessibility by

the majority of the popu lation in this region and also because

o f the peop le ' s familiarity with t his area since it is ad jacent

t o the Great Southwestern Indus t rial Comp lex and Six F lags of

Texas Amusemen t Park . 1 n addition to the major highway arteries,

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26

Greater Fort Worth lnternati onal Airport is only a short drive

from the site and would allow for easy accessibility for any air

traffic to and from the stadium.

Because of the close relationship of the site to the Trinity

River, certain improvements wi I I have to be made both on and off

the site to make it immune to flooding conditions . With the use

of matching funds provided by tne federal government a system

of dams, pumps, end levies wi I I afford a safe condition. Although

the actua I design of the dams wi II be separate, their location and

the installation fran which the water is controlled wi II be planned

in advance . Not only wi I I this water control system free the stadium

site from high water, but also wi II improve the land to the west

and east of the site for later development .

This water control system wi II also provide a logical reason

for having a large on-site reservoir-a- reflecting pools which will

add to the aesthetic quality of the stadium. This water may also

be used in parts of the mechanical system.

Circulatory Spaces and Relationships

Because of the tremendous number of spectators that wi I I

attend the events he ld at the stadi~m,the design of the vehicular

27

and pedestr i an elements wi I I be kept as simple as possible.

This wi I I decrease the norma l confusion before and after "the

game" .

Vehicular

A t otal of approx ima tely 25,000 parking spaces will be provided

on the site using 2 . 5 persons per car as a criteria for the number

of spaces provided. The parking areas and drives wil I encircle

the s tructure to provide easy access to the stadium from alI

directions. Large sections o f the parking area wi II be designated

for reserved parking in accordance with the spectator's reser ved

ticket , a llowing h im to park in the prox im ity of his seat inside

the stadium. Landscaped walkways wi II also be provided to ma ke his

walk from his car to his seat more enjoyable.

In addition to the on- site parking areas, smaller lots capable

of containing from 150 t o 200 cars w i II be located at central

points throughout the region. Bus service t o the stadium wi II be

provided from t hese lots . The busses wi I I not be provided by the

s t ad ium but wi II be furnished on a contract basis by the major

transi t companies in the area. These companies wi I I then be

28

responsible for the maintenance and upkeep of the busses. A

special area wi II be set aside at the stadium site for parking

400 to 500 busses.

Because many of the events are held on Saturdays, Sundays end

at night s , it wi II be poss ibl e to make use of the large perking

bui !dings in the dow ntown areas of Dallas end Fort Worth, the majority

of wh i ch are vacant a t these times. A rapid overhead trans i t

would then tran spor t the peopl·e from the downtown areas to the

stadium itself. Th is over-head transit would be financed with

funds other than those allocated for the s tadium itselfJ there-

fore, the actual layou t and design of such a system woul d be a

problem outside the scope of this thesis. Terminal point s for

the t ransit , however, wou ld be provided on the stadium site. Such

an over-heed transit system would also be used as a permanent

transportation element between Dallas and Fort Worth.

Pedestrian

Exterior walking distances should be kept to a minimum. The

most direct approach wl I I be · provided from the parking space along

I andscaped walkway s , passing the ticket booths, directly to the

s pectator 's seat.

29

The P len

Although e circular plan has been used for the more recent

stadia wh i ch have combined besebel I end footbel 1, this des igner

found after extensive investigation end s tudy that en el l i ptice:1

plan would afford a larger amount of prime seating.

Investigation into the maximum end average attendance et both

major league baseball end professiona l footba l l games, end a

correlation between these figures end the present end expected

population of the Dallas region helps to determine the maximum

number of seats required for both events in order to provide a

.. sound economical enterprise. ( Illus trations next pege. l

Although the Cotton Bowl cen seat over 70,000 peop le,

it only has e maximum attendance once or twice e year . The

officia ls of the area ere of the opinion · that e sne ll e r stadium

which was more often fi I led would be a more log ica l si tuetion.

With these two thoughts in mind the number of seats for t he

events were calculated .

Footba II •• • ••.••••••••••••••••••••••• 60,000 seats

Besebell ••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••• 45,000 seats

The figure of 60,000 seats for footbel I indicates a maximum

1964-1963 Compara·tive Totals

loKi more Boston Chi CliO Clevelond Detroit Konus City Los An1eles Minnesota New York w .. hin!llon

19M Home Attendance .............. 1,116,215 883,276 1,250,053 653,293 816, 139 M2,478 760,439 1,207,514 1,305,1>38 600, 106 1963 Home Attendance .............. 774,343 942,M2 1,158,848 562,507 821,952 762,3M 821 ,015 1,406,652 1,308,920 -535,604

19b4 Rood Attend a nee ................ 1,057,173 701 ,617 909,606 807,091 882,254 723,696 719,631 908,892 1,941 ,776 583,415 191>3 Rood Attendance .... ............ 928,612 824,747 962, 104 896,214 863,707 M9,1>73 657,245 704,531 1,999,003 609,011

19M Night Game Attendance . 875,287 477,200 746,336 376,916 398,740 596,487 600,894 Number of Night Games 61 •li) 32 39' 50 34 35 35 Night Game Attendance .. 571,325 476,882 1>97,077 273,233 399,725 681,095 486,747 Number of Night Games .. 57 34 41 41 27 38 29

19M SEASON SINGLE GAME DOUBLEHEADER NIGHT GAME 47,987 (vs. N.Y., Aug. 1.5)* 47,987. (vs. N.Y., Aug. 15, 19M)*41>,796 (vs. N.Y., May 16, 1954) 47,987 (vs. N.Y., Aug. 15, 19M) 31,049 (vs. N.Y., June 9)* 36,350 lvs. N.Y., Aug. 7, 19561 41 ,761> {vs. N.Y., Aug. 12, 1934) 36,228 vs. N.Y., June 28, 1949)

OPENING DA 46,364

41 ,1> 16 (vs. Bait., Aug. 2 1 )* 53,940 vs. N.Y., June 8, 1951 * 54,215,vs. N.Y., July 19, 1953) 53,940 vs. N.Y., June 8, 1951) 37, 128 (vs. N.Y., July 12)** 78,382 lvs. Chi., Aug. 20, 1948)* 84,587 vs. N.Y., Sept. 12, 1954) 78,382 vs. Chi., Aug. 20, 1948) 51 ,0441vs. N.Y., July 24)*.# 57,888 vs. Cleve., Sept. 26, 194S: 58,31>9 ~vs. N.Y., July 20, 1947) 56,586 vs. Cleve., Aug. 9, 1948)

CITY 28,11>5 vs. C lev., April 21 )* 34,01>5 (vs. N.Y., Aug. 27, 1961) 35, 147 vs. N.Y., Aug. 18, 191>2) 33,471 vs. N.Y., April29, 1955) ANGELES. 39,81>6 vs. N.Y., July 29)* 53,591 \vs. N.Y., July 13, 1962}* 17,015 vs. Bait., July 24, 1962} 53,591 vs. N.Y., July 13, 191>2!

A 36,288lvs. N.Y., Aug. 'l 42,034 vs. N.Y., July 17, 1963) * 36,160 (vs. L.A., June II>, 1963} 42,034 (vs. N.Y., July 17, 1963 YORK 58,102 vs. Bait., Aug. 9 # 74,747 vs. Bos., May 26, 19471* 81 ,841 (vs. Bos., May 30, 1938} 74,747/vs. Bos., May 21>, 1947} INGTON 40,359 vs. Minn., June 14)#43,022 (vs. Bait., April 8, 1963) 48,147 (vs. N.Y., Aug. I, 1962) 30,701 vs. Cleve., June 17, 1947} Game **Scheduled Dblhdr. #Doubleheader *#Twi· Nite Dblhdr.

35,223 41,660 73,163 53,563 31,895 21,8M 24,606 54,404 43,022

NIGHT GAME ATTENDANCE (1939-1964)

Attendance Year Attendance Year I ,683,584 1923 ...... 4,602,589 1945 .... .. 5,580,420 Night Night Night Night 2,201>,454 1924 ...... 5,255,439 1946 ...... 9,621,1'82 Year Games Attendance Average Year Games Attendance Average 2,344,888 1925 ...... 5,186,851 1947 ...... 9,486,069 1939 21 466,296 22,204 1952 205 3,M0,386 , (7,758 3,024,028 1926 ...... 4,912,583 . 1948 ...... I 1,150,099 1940 ..... 35 632,2211 18,0M 1953 ...... 218 3,101,797 14,22~ 3,120,752 1927 ...... 4,612,951 1949 ...... 10,730,M7 1941 35 663,987 18,971 1954 ...... 213 3,592,902 16,868

1906 ...... 2,938,076 .1928 ...... 4,221,188 1950 .. : ... 9,142,361 1942 77 732,624 9,515 1955 ...... 1200 4,070,390 20,352 1907 ....... 3,398,7M 1929 ...... 4,66i,470 1951 8,882,674 1943 91 879,704 9,667 1956 ...... 226 3,663,391 16,209 ...... 1908 .. .... 3,611,366 1930 .... -4,685,730 1952 ... .. 8 ,293,896 1944 128 1,218,941 9,523 1957 ...... 225 3,889,023 17,285 1909 ...... 3,739,570 1931 ...... 3,883,292 1953 ...... 6,9M,076 1945 110 1,282,450 I 1,659 1958 241 3,543,5q 14,703 1910 ...... J570,689 1932 ...... 3,133,232 1954 ...... 7,922,3M 1946 ..... 122 2,418,840 19,826 f959 272 4,853,335 17,843 1911 ...... ' 39,514 1933 ..... 2,926,210 1955 ...... 8,942,971 1947 11>7 3,369,666 20,177 1960 ...... 299 4,902,978 16,398 1912 ...... 3,263.631 1934 .. .... 3,763,606 1956 ...... 7,893,683 1948 .... 188 4,451,492 23,1>78 1961 403 5,240,290 13,003 1913 ...... 3,526,805 1935 ...... 3,688,007 1957 ...... 8,196,218 1949 ..... . 193 4,124,754 21,372 1962 ...... 400 5,381,522 13,454 1914 ...... 2,747,591 1936 ...... 4,178,922 1958 ...... 7,296,034 1950 ...... 193 3,380,827 17,517 1963 ...... 439 5,046,636 11 ,496 1916 ...... 2,434,684 1937 ...... 4,735,835 1959 ...... 9,149,454 1951 ... ... 195 3,589,280 18,407 19M ...... 450 5,439,404 12,088 1916 ...... 3,451,885 1938 ...... 4,445,684 1960 ...... 9,226,526

2,858,858 1939 ...... 4,270,602 1961 ...... 10, 163,016 1,707,999 1940 .' ..... 5,433,791 1962 .... .. 10,015,056 3,6~.236 1941 ...... 4,911,956 1963 ...... 9,094,847 6,084,300 1942 ...... 4,200,216 19M 9,235,151 4,620,328 1943 ...... 3,696,569 4,874,355 1944 ...... 4,798,168

CLIJB Bl

CL1JB Jlellltle-Beaden(Da::y)

Chicago ........... .46,572 vs. Brooklyn-5-18-47 - """ 46,965 va. Pittsburlh-5-31-48 1,485,166 in 1918 Cincinnati ....... :.35,747 vs. Pittsburgh-4-15-H 32,916 n. ~29-36 36,961 va. Pittsb\U"Ih-4-27-47 1,125,928 in 1956

Houston ............ 25,271 vs. Chicago-4-10-62 28,669 VI. L.A.--8-12-62 30,02'1 va. L.A.-6-1o-62 92t,456 in 1962 Los Angelel ... -78,672 vs.San Francisco-4-18-58 72,140 va.ClncinDatlr8-16-61(TN)53,856 vs. Cincinnati- 7-7-63 2,755,184 in 1962

Milwaukee ..... -48,642 vs. Phlladelphia9-27-59 46,944 vs. New York-8-27-54 47,604 vs. Cincinnati-9-3-56 2,215,404 in 1957 New Yor1t-. ... 48,736 vs. Pittsburgh-4-1'1-64 55,062 vs. San Fran.-5-29-64 57,037 vs. San Fran.-5-31-64 1,732,597 in 1964

PhUadelphia. .. 36,765 vs. Brooklyn-10-2-49 40,007 vs. Cincinnati-8-19-46 40,720 vs. Brooklyn-5-11-47 1,425,891 in 1964

Plttsbureh-.. --44,932 vs. Brooklyn-8-23-56 42,254 vs. Clnclnnati-8-12-40 43,586 vs. New York-8-31-38 1,705,828 in 1960

St. Loula ... - .... 41,284 vs. New York-9-15-35 33,323 vs. Brooklyn-8-25-42 . 45,770 vs. Chicago-7-12-31 1,430,676 in 1949

San Francllco.42,894 vs. Milwaukee-4-14-64 41,943 vs. Milwaukee-5-2-60 42,787 vs. St . Louis-7-7-63 1,'185,356 in 1960

l,M1,920 in I 1,210,277 in

925,345 in 1,634,842 in 1,633,569 in ..

876,780 in 186J 1,391,812 in 1164

1,581,129 JD 1960 1,518,545 in 1946 1,803,709 in 1964

G&mes Attendance 1935 7 123,991

NATIONAL LEAG1JE ANNlJAL ATTENDANCE FIG1JRES - 1901·1964

1936 7 118,356 1937 7 97,188 1938 14 308,574 1939 21 435,841 1940 42 815,724 1941 42 807,606 1942 51 481,162 1943 58 647,158 1944 118 1,099,776 1945 158 1,574,927 1946 135 2,892,378 1947 153 3,676,943 1948 173 3,771,893 1949 188 3,863,428 1950 199 3,483,999 1951 209 3,001,750 1952 215 2,645,263 1953 225 3,688,832 1954 235 3,781,793 1955 243 3,726,409 1956 243 4,347,943 1957 275 4,795,936 1958 277 5,024,566

. 1959 298 5,401,142 1960 314 5,980,952 1961 317 4,815,608 1962 426 6,501,299 1963 423 6,324,616 1964 446 6,997,760

Total 5,519 91,432,813 Note:-In games column, twi-night doubleheaders are

counted as two night games.

1901 - 1,920,031 1902 - 1,683,012 1903 - 2,390,362 1904 - 2,664,271 1905 - 2,734,310 1906 - 2,781,213 1907 - 2,640,220 1908 - 3,512,108 1909 - 3,496,420 1910 - 3,494,544 1911 - 3,231,768 1912 - 2,735,759 1913 - 2,831,531 1914 - 1,707,397 1915 - 2,430,142 1916 - 3,051,634

1917 - 2,361,136 1918 - 1,372,127 1919 - 2,878,203 1920 - 4,036,575 1921 - 3,986,984 1922 - 3,941,820 1923 - 4,069,817 1924 - 4,340,644 1925 - 4,353, 704 1926 - 4,920,399 1927 - 5,309,917 1928 - 4,881,097 1929 - 4,925,713 1930 - 5,446,532 193i - 4,583,815 1932 - 3,841,334

1933 - 3,162,821 1934 - 3,200,105 1935 - 3,657,309 1936 - 3,903,691 1937 - 4,204,228 1938 - 4,560,837 1939 - 4,707,177 1940 - 4,389,693 1941 - 4,777,647 1942 - 4,353,353 1943 - 3,769,342 1944 - 3,974,588 1945 - 5,260,703 1946 - 8,902,107 1947 -10,388,470 1948 - 9,770,743

1949 - 9,484,718 1950 - 8,320,616 1951 - 7,244,002 1952 - 6,339,148 1953 - 7,419,721 1954 - 8,013,519 1955 - 7,674,412 1956 - 8,649,567 \957 - 8,819,601 1958 -10,164,596 1959 - 9,994,525 1960 -10,684,963 1961 - 8,731,502 1962 -11,360,159 1963 -11,382,227 1964 -12,045,190§

Total 337,865,819

32

while the 45, 000 seat figure for basebal I would indlc~te t he cho ice

mos t preferred by the spectator. Because of the plan Itself,

naturally the maximum c~paci ty for baseb~l r would be the same as for

football.

Further investigat i on an·d person~ l experience has shown the

des i gner where the majority of people prefer to sit. The basebal I

fan's f"lrst choice is behind home plate, ~nd his second itnd third

choices are along the first and third base foul lines. The foo tb~ll

spectator prefers the 50-yard li ne seat.

These ideas are what e volved the el liptice l plan. Wi th left,

center, and ri ght field distances for basebal l being de t erm ined

through study of o the r major league perks, a great number of

people can be pos i tioned behi nd home plate in permanent seating;

also, wit h the use of portable sections of seats, a concentration

of people can be located along the fou l l i nes.

The f oo tba l I field extend s length-wise along an axis peral lei

to en imag i nary line between f irst and third base. By dup l iceting

on the opposite side of the field the perm~nent seats behind home

p late, some 50, 000 "preferab le" seats for the footbal l events can

33

be provided. The portable sections of seats wi I I t hen be adjus t ed

in such a position to uti I ize to the fullest extent the preferred

areas of viewing.

To avo i d possibly destroying the playing f i eld, the portable

sections wi II move on two sets of tracks. The main set of t racks

wi I I be at the perimeter of the playing fields, so as not to effect

the field at all; these tracks will absorb most of the we i ght of

the seats. The auxiliary set of tracks wi ll serve mainly as guides

and wi II be layed out and picked up bef ore and after the seats

are moved.

The complementary spaces such as concessions, rest r ooms,

restaurants and ticket offices wi II be at the exter i or l i mits of

the e I I ipse.

Entrances and exits to seating sect i ons w i I I be numerous enough

to avo i d congest ion. One exit will be prov i ded for each 200 to 300

seats. All exits, aisles and stairways wi I I meet or exceed mi n imum

regulations.

The "press box" faci I i ties wi II be located at a suff i cient

height to give a more overall view of the playing field beh i nd

home p l ate and along the 50-yard line.

34

The Mech~nical and Electrical System

The Dall~s County Stadium wi II h~ve over 40, 000, 000 cubic

feet of space to be air conditioned. Because of the simi I iarity

of the space to that of the Houston "Astrodome" a similar solution·

for the air condit ioning will be employed.

"The stad i um d i.ffers greatly from conventional structures i n

that it wi I I be used extens ively only approx imate ly one-third to

one-half of the year, and wit h the exception of a base air

conditioning load, wi II have a very low load factor even during the

t l 0 t 0 0 6 me 1 1s In use."

A great amount of st ratif icat i on must be taken into account

because of t he necessary height of the s tructure, and f or this

reason the stad ium wi II be d ifficult to hea t . S i m i I a r t o the

situation in the "As trodome", however, I ittle heating wi II be

required; only temp orary fresh air when the stadium is occupied.

In fact, cooling to s ome extent may be required year-round,

particularly in the upper seating areas where st ratif ica tion

is mos t noticeable. For footbal I games it wi I I pr obably be

neces sary to keep the stadium cooler for the players; but s ince

6oouglas H. Burden, The Harris County Domed Stad ium, Un­published Thesis, Southern Methodist University, 1965 , p. 12.

spectators w i I I be wearing warmer clothing and coats to the games

during footba II season, they wi II still be canfortab l e .

The actual equipment for ai r conditioning wi II consist of

t wo systems . Because of the economics involved , the first system

wi II include two l arge electric - dr ive centrifugal hermetic machines

to condition the air during periods when the stadium is empty .

The second system wi I I consist of two turbine - drive centr i fugal

machines to boost the conditioning capacity of the first system

during high demand factor periods when the stadium is in use .

High - temperature hot water for heating, and steam for driving

t he turbines wi I I be produced by large gas- fired boi Jers.

The system inc l udes humidity- contro l devices . If the

humidity were not kept under control a bu il d- up would occur because

of t he moisture released from the grass; and as t he cool air o f

the system struck the moisture-laden air , rain would fall . St i II

another aspect of the system wi I I be the release of smoke and hot

air through vent - type exhausts in the roof of the str.ucture .

The operation of the mechanica l systems wi II be completely

automatic and wi I I be controlled from a central point , sim i lar to

the " Brain " which is used at the " Astrodome". The "Bra i n" is

~6

a computer device which checks and graphs the condl tlons throughout

the Houston Stadium.

Because of the vo I urn i nous f I ush-act ion of the pI umb i ng in

restrooms at half-time s and intermissions, storage tanks wi II be

provi ded to allow for normal s ized sewer lines.

A comprehens ive fire alarm system wi I I be installed wh ich

allows one person to sca n the stadium by use of strategically

placed detectors wh ich wi I I report any rapid change in temperature

or warn i f smoke becomes too dense.

I llum i nat ion of the playing fie ld wi II be a major problem,

n o t only for t he p layers' and spectators' convenience, but also fo r

growing grass, which wi II be discussed later.

During the day dif fused sunlight wi I I be the major e lement

of I ight suppl emented wi t h flood I igh t s if necessary. On dark

days and at n ight s PAR- type flood light s of 1500 wa t t s each

loca ted around t he playing field wi II be used to produce a I igh t

level of s ane 300 footcandles.

Exterior I i ghting wi II also be prov ided. These I ights wi II

be to I ight the exterior of the stadium and t o illuminate park in g

areas and wa lkway s for the spectator 's protection .

37

A Speci~l Consideration

Perhaps the most delicate problem in an enc l osed stadium of

type type is providing "re al " grass . The grass must be vigorous

enough to withstand the rigorous treatment i t wi I I receive .

This problem was so lved initial ly at the Houston Stadium.

"F ive kinds of grass we r e installed and tested ov e r a range of I igh t

condit ions . Of the grasse s tested, Tiffway bermuda and zoysia

obtained the best resul ts ."7 However ~fter completion of the stadium

it was found that the glare from skyli ghts in the dome in terferred

with the p layers t o such an extent that the outs ide of the skylights

were pa intei:! and the natural sun ! ight almost comp le t e ly e liminated.

Thi s , of course, resulted in the grass dying complete ly. A synthetic

grass has since been applied , but there has been vary i ng opinions

as to its success.

Realizing that this was a problem beyond this author ' s

training, Mr. E. W. Zukaukas, Jr . of the Horticu l ture Department

at Texas Technological Col lege was consulted.

He suggested three methods, which if combined wou ld almost

assuredly re s u lt in a vigorous growth of grass . They were as

fo I lows:

7 Bur den, p. 26.

38

1. Provide a conditioned air in which to grow the gr~ss .

!This wi II already be done by providing air conditioning

for the spectators. l

2 . Install heating strips in the turf to keep it w~rm.

!This can be done with heat from hot water supp li ed by

the boi lers of the overall mechani ca l system! .

3 . Depending upon the type of ~ass used, a condition to

provide from 50 to 75 per cent natural sunl i ght should

be obtained . !The solution t o this probl em wi II be

discussed in the structural solu ti on . l

The Struc tural Solution

The most complex problem in the so lution of the stadium

proposed in this thesis has been the structural system. M~ny

important fac tors had to be considered and have been out l ined

be lows

I. What type of materi al to use .

2 . What system t o use .

3. Whether to combi ne the roof structure wit h the seating

structure .

4. How to provide a structural system wh ich would allow

enough natural sunlight to penetrate for the growing

o f natural grass.

With these factors in mind a system ultimately evolved

wh ich divorced the roof structure from the stadium seating

structure. The structure for the seating wi II be poured-in-

place reinforced concrete. The roof structure will be a high

strength st eel triangular isometric space truss . The truss wi II

be rectangular in plan having a cl ear span of 980 by 840. Ten

steel lattice frames wi II transfer the forces of the truss to ten

concrete co I umns.

Wire glass panels will be installed in t he top cord of the

space truss to allow natural sun light to penetrate. The roof

wi II have a 6 foot camber t o a I low drainage . Be low the

bottom cord of the truss, plexiglass panels wi I I be s uspended

much like an acoustical cei I ing. These panels wi I I diffuse the

sun I ight and thereby cu t down on the tremendous contrast between

the glass a nd t he structure .

39

CONCLUS ION

The problem s tat ed in this thesis was undertaken for

four reasons.

I • An i n t e re s t i n s p or t i n g a c t i v i t i e s •

2 . A familiar i ty and interest in the Dallas area.

3. The desire and the need for a wel l-p la nned faci I i ty

for sporting events in that area.

4. A concern with the apparent lack of interest in the

past with good stadia arch! tecture.

The first two reasons were somewhat selfish, but t he last

reasons became more and more prominent to the designer as

research was undertaken.

Nowhere was the author able to f ind a book which stated just

what should go into a stadium of the size proposed here. The

-40-

41

solution was f i nally evolve d and completed only by putting together

bits andpieces of information found in periodicals, and even then

much of the information varied in spe cifi cs . For these r eascns

much of the Informati on contained herein has been compiled based

on the author ' s own logic.

It Is desired that this in f ormation may someday be used by

some other st udent to aid him in further refining architecture

in the field of stadia design .

42

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Burden, Douglas H., The Harris County Domed Stadium, Unpublished Thesis for Real Estate Seminar, Sout hern Me thodist University , 1965.

2 . Burns, James T., Jr., "Big Tops by Tange at Tokyo Olymp i cs", Progressive Architecture (December, 1964J, 176-18 1.

3. Feder, Abe, "Lighting", Progress ive Architecture (June, 1965), 188-191.

4. Goble, Emerson (Editorl, "Recreation Bui ld i ngs ~nd Facilities", Architec t ural Record (July, 1965), 195-2 10 .

5. Goble, Emerson (Editorl, "Stadium Compl ex : Oakland, Ca lifor nia", Architectural Record (March, 1964l, 32-37.

6. Haskell, Douglas (Edi torl, "Stadiums", Archi tec tural Forum, CIX (September, 1965 l.

7. Houston Sports Association (Edi torl, I nside the Astrodome, 1965.

8. Howard, Seymour, "Space Frames ", Arch it ect ura I Recor d ( November, 1961 l, p. 198- 196.

9. Information from an interview by the author wit h Jim Harris, member of the Tulsa Oiler Basebal I Club of t h e Texas League, Lubbock, Texas, January I, 1966.

10. Informat i on fran an interview by the author wi t h E. W. Zukauckas, Jr., Associate Professor of Park Adm i nistration, Horticulture & Entomology, Texas Technolog i cal Col l ege, Apri 1 5, 1966.

II. Information in a let t er to the authorfromMr. R. B. Carpenter Dallas City Councilman, Dallas, Texas, December 2 , 1965 .

43

12. Le Messurier, William J., " Structure", Progressive Arch! t ecture (June, 1956) , p. 178-183.

13. Naslund, Kenneth, "Design Considerations for Hor i zontal Space Frames", Archit ec tu ral Record (August , 1964 ) , p . 152- 155.

14. Nas lund, Ken neth, "Model Tests Pred i ct Space Frame Behav i or", Architectural Record (December, 196 1 J, p . 152- 154.

15. Nervi, Pier Luigi, Buildings, Projects, Structures 1953-1963, translation by Gu i seppe N i coletti : Freder i ck A. Praeger, Inc ., New York , 1963.

16. Perk ins , Steve, "Astrodome & Marvel or Dud?", The Dal las T i mes Herald (February 27, 1966) Volume 131, No . 58 : I and 4 (Columns I, 2 , and 3l.

17. Plantinga, John E., "Environmental Control", Progressive Arch! tecture (June, 1965J, 184-187.

18. Ramsey, Charles Geor ge , and Harold Reeve S l eeper, Archi t ec t ura l Graph ic Standards (5th Edition). Joh n Wi ley & Sons, I nc., New York, 1956.

19. Rapp, Robert E., " Space Structures in Steel ", Architectural Record (November, 1961 J , p. 190-194.

20 . Rowan, Jan C. t Ed itor J, "Sea ttl e Co l iseum", Progressi ve Arch i tecture (March, 1964J, 176-181.

21 . Wi I Iiams, Wayne R. Recreat i on Places. Rienho l d Pub I ishing Corporation, New York , 1958.

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> ... ... ...

@

..,