phrasal verbs and their derivational pattern (nouns)
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Yearly paper. Phrasal verbs and their derivational pattern (nouns)TRANSCRIPT
Vilnius University
Institute of Foreign Languages
Inga Vaketaite
English – Russian Language Study Programme
Year 2, Group 1
Phrasal verbs and their derivational pattern (nouns)
Yearly Paper
Supervisor: Lecturer A. Dapšiene
2012
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Contents page
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………...……….….3
1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………...…………...4
2. Materials and Methods……………………………………………………………...……...5
3. Using phrasal verbs: theoretical background................................................................5
3.1. A short development of phrasal verbs…………....……………………………...……5
3.2. Linguistic status of phrasal verbs………………….…………………………...……..6
3.3. Features distinguishing phrasal verbs…………………………………………………7
4. Results and Discussion..............................................................................................8
4.1. Derivational pattern of phrasal verbs using a hyphen.............................................9
4.2. Derivational pattern when particle and verb is squished........................................10
4.3. Derivational pattern when particle stands up before verb and those derivational
patterns that are not in great request....................................................................12
4. Conclusions…………………………………………………………………...……...…..13
5. References...………………………………………………………………...…………….14
6. Appendix: nouns coined from phrasal verbs using various patterns...........…….…….....15
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Abstract
The research paper focuses on relation of phrasal verbs and nouns derived from it.
The aim of the research paper is to investigate what are the forming patterns of nouns and
what are the most productive verbs and particles. The methods chosen to achieve the
objectives are descriptive, analytical and statistical. The results show what are the most
productive particles and phrasal verbs and how the meanings of phrasal verb are related to the
meanings of noun.
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1. Introduction
English phrasal verbs have always been one of the most interesting objects in
linguistics. The term of phrasal verb first was used in printed form by Logan Pearsall Smith,
in Words and Idioms (1925). McCarthy & O’Dell (2007), Cowie and Mackin (1975), Waibel
(2007) and many other linguists have been investigating phrasal verbs for many years and a
lot of works have been written.
Phrasal verb is a multi-word unit. It consists of a verb and one or two particles e.g.
bring in (bring → verb, in → particle). The particle may be adverbial particle (1), preposition
(2) or adverbial particle and preposition (3).
(1) Verb + adverbial particle: phrasal verb, e.g. to deal with, to turn of, to sit down
etc.
(2) Verb + preposition: prepositional verb, e.g. to look at, to refer to, etc.
(3) Verb + particle + preposition: phrasal-prepositional verb, to get down to, to get
up with, etc
Sometimes it is possible to guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the context. For
example, take a phrasal verb to sit down. The verb means “to put somebody in sitting
position”. The particle means “from standing or vertical position to a sitting or horizontal
one”. Thus the meaning is close to the meaning of a verb to sit. That’s why sometimes but
not always we can guess the meaning. Otherwise, it is difficult to guess the meaning of a
phrasal verb. That is because the verb is not similar to the meaning with the phrasal verb, for
example, to put off. Verb (to put) and phrasal verb (to put off) have different meanings. The
whole multi-word unit means to delay. The meaning cannot be easily guessed from the
context. Taking into consideration this fact, it is important to understand the use of phrasal
verb in the context.
The aim of the research paper is to investigate productivity of phrasal verbs and their
derivational pattern (nouns).
To achieve the aim the following objectives are:
1) To review a short development of phrasal verbs;
2) To characterize linguistic status of phrasal verb
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3) To discuss features distinguishing phrasal verbs;
4) To analyze productivity of phrasal verbs;
5) To present a statistical-analytical analysis of the collected data.
2. Materials and Methods
The data for the investigation have been collected from Oxford Advanced Learner‘s
Dictionary (2010). The main material of the research paper is a list of 183 phrasal verbs and
nouns converted from them.
The methods that are used in this research paper are descriptive method, the main un-
derlying principle of which is to help introduce the theoretical part of phrasal verbs, the ana-
lytical method which main idea is to provide the analysis of the collected data. The last
method that is used is a statistical method main principle of which is to explore the frequency
of nouns formed from phrasal verbs.
3. Using phrasal verbs: theoretical background
3.1. A short development of phrasal verbs
In Present-Day English phrasal verbs are very common. In linguistics, phrasal verbs
are one of the most frequently discussed matters. They are part of language and it is
important to know how to use phrasal verbs correctly in speech. But in Modern English it is
difficult to analyze phrasal verb because of their polysemy.
The history and rise of phrasal verbs was complex. In Old English times phrasal verbs
were rare. The common ones were inseparable prefix verbs in which the particle was added to
the beginning of the verb. These common inseparable-prefix verbs in Old English are similar
to current phrasal verbs. Later on, the formation of prefixed verbs was no longer productive
in Middle English, because the prefix was losing its meaning.
The powerful influence of French, Anglo- Norman, especially Old Norse has
stimulated the production of English phrasal verbs with post-verbial particles. Although,
French borrowed verbs likely slowed the development of English phrasal verbs. The thing
was that a borrowed verb from French could fill the semantic field of Old English
inseparable-prefixed verb. Nevertheless, in the fifteenth century phrasal verbs recovered and
were productive. By the end of Middle English age, phrasal verbs have been marshaled into
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three groups.
The biggest rise of the phrasal verbs was in Early Modern English. They were
common in letters or dramas (e.g. Shakespeare used phrasal verbs through the plays) than in
academic writing. It states that phrasal verbs occupied a lower class of society. Despite all
these facts, phrasal verbs continued to be a productive part of speech. Today we have a
peculiar and concurrent element of everyday English – phrasal verb.
3.2. Linguistics status of phrasal verb
However, there is no unanimous description of phrasal verbs because different
scholars approach them from various points of view. Cambridge Grammar of English defines
phrasal verb as “<…> a lexical verb and a particle” while Longman Grammar of Spoken and
Written Language defines as “<...>multi-word units consisting of a verb followed by an
adverbial particle”. Despite different standpoints, phrasal verbs are a part of the English
language and play a big role in it.
A further important issue that should be mentioned is a division of multi-word verbs
into “phrasal verbs”, “prepositional verbs”, “phrasal-prepositional verbs”, and other multi-
word verb constructions according to Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written Language.
All of them form idiomatic units. They function like a single lexical verb.
Despite these various combinations, Longman Phrasal Verb Dictionary appends two
more descriptions of phrasal verbs:
1. Phrasal verbs that always have ‘it’ as their object e.g. jump to it, slug it out
(Longman Phrasal Verb Dictionary (2000:xi));
2. Reflexive phrasal verbs, where the object is always ‘myself’, ‘yourself’, etc: e.g.
pride yourself on, avail yourself on (Longman Phrasal Verb Dictionary
(2000:xi)).
As we see different grammars define phrasal verbs variously but we could maintain
that phrasal verb consist of a verb and second component which could be such as up, out, off,
above, through, down, away, etc. There are various terms for the second component such as
postverb, particle, adverbial particle and others. But the most common term is particle.
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Nevertheless, phrasal verbs are an important part of everyday language and they are
productive way of making new words in English. We can notice phrasal verbs in various texts
and contexts. For instance, they occur in songs, recipes, in formal speech and in the Bible,
too, etc. As an example, let’s take British popular rock band group The Beatles. In the song
“Day tripper” we can find an example of using phrasal verbs: “It took me so..... long to find
out, and I found out” (http://www.metrolyrics.com/day-tripper-lyrics-beatles.html). Another
example could be from the Bible: “My people have been lost sheep. Their shepherds have led
them astray, turning them away on the mountains. From mountain to hill they have gone.
They have forgotten their fold.”( http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/mobile/?q=Jeremiah+50).
3.3. Features distinguishing phrasal verbs
The first important issue that should be mentioned is that phrasal verbs are idiomatic.
This kind of phenomenon makes to consider that phrasal verbs are specific part of the speech.
There are a group of phrasal verbs e.g. to mark down, to answer back, that are related to the
meaning of the verbs to mark and to answer. But sometimes it is hard to guess the meaning of
the phrasal verb. It is because that the verb and the particle (the two components of phrasal
verbs) create an independent meaning from the verb. For example, phrasal verb to pull up in
the sentence - He pulled up at the traffic lights. The meaning of phrasal verb “to pull up” is
not related to the normal meaning of “pull” and “up”.
The second important issue that should be discussed is a division of phrasal verbs into
transitive and intransitive. Transitive phrasal verbs (1) take a direct object. The most
common transitive phrasal verbs are bring up, carry on, take up, take over and etc.
Intransitive phrasal verbs do not take an object. (2) The most common phrasal verbs, which
are used intransitively, are to get back, to go off, to ring off and etc.
(1) In Kent, burglars blew up a fireworks factory after trying to break in using
oxyacetylene cutting equipment;
(2) My car broke down on the way to work this morning.
There is group of phrasal verbs such as to chew over, to put off, which can take a
direct object between the verb and the particle or after the phrasal verb. They are usually
called separable phrasal verbs. For example, phrasal verb to chew over: I chewed over the
problem for a few days or I chewed the problem over for a few days.
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But if a direct object is a pronoun (e,g, me, I, their etc), it comes before particle. (3)
(3) A: Leave me out!
B: What do you mean ‘leave me out’?
A: I don’t want to go.
In English, we often create nouns from verbs e.g. a verb to invent → a noun an
invitation. We could also form a noun from a phrasal verb e.g. to break out → outbreak. It is
a productive way to form a new word from a phrasal verb. There are two main ways to coin
nouns from phrasal verbs:
1) The major pattern: In speech, stress pattern changes e.g. to bréak dówn (verb) – a
BREAKdown (noun). In writing, nouns derived from phrasal verbs are either incorporate
(e.g. breakdown) or hyphenated (e.g. round-up). In American English it is frequently used
incorporate form, while in British English the hyphenation is more common.
2) The minor pattern: The creation of this pattern is used a process of conversion. For
example, a disease breaks out – an óutbreak of a disease. In writing, the more popular way is
incorporate verb and particle. The typical nouns of this minor pattern are: an input, an
outflow, an output, an upsurge, an upkeep, and an uptake.
Ginzburg, the expert of lexicology, marks that nouns created from phrasal verbs are
called derivational compounds. There are most created by conversion. Also Ginzburg
mention in “A course of Modern English Lexicology” that „Semantically they are motivated
by transparent derivative relations with the motivating base built on the so-called phrasal
verb and are typical of the colloquial layer of vocabulary” (1979:151). This type of
derivational compound nouns is the most productive.
4. Results and Discussion
I did a research concerning an analysis of collected data. The analysis is about each
derivational patter oh phrasal verbs and their productivity. All the words are taken from
Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary (2010). The main purpose of the research is to get to
know more about nouns created from phrasal verbs, also to know about their structure and
how they function in the sentence. This particular dictionary contains 183 nouns created from
phrasal verbs. All the collected data was written down on separates cards in order to analyze
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them statistically and analytically.
The collected data was variously grouped according to derivational patterns,
meanings and productivity. As it was mentioned previously very often we create nouns from
phrasal verbs. It is one of the most productive ways to create a new word in English.
The collected data is divided by a derivational pattern. There are three main ways how
to form a noun from a phrasal verb. The first way is using a hyphen (e.g. a fill-up). The
second means is squishing a verb and a particle together (e.g. a rundown). The last means is
when a particle stands up before a verb. (e.g. an outbreak).
Also there are few more ways how to create a noun from a phrasal verb but they are
not in great request. One of them is to use a hyphen and add a suffix -ing (e.g. dressing-
down). The other is to move particle before a verb and add a suffix –ing (e.g. an upbringing).
There are also nouns formed from phrasal verbs which can have two derived forms (e.g. to
spill over (phrasal verb) → a spillover or an overspill (nouns)). Unfortunately, there are no
strict rules what we have to use to make a noun from phrasal verb. The best solution to this
problem is to check a dictionary to see whether it needs to covert, hyphen or squish verb and
a particle.
4.1. Derivational pattern of phrasal verbs using a hyphen
First we will look at each derivational pattern more detailed. Each derivational pattern
was investigated variously according to meanings and productivity. First pattern that will be
analyzed is when it is used a hyphen. Overall, there are 96 nouns coined from phrasal verbs
using the first derivational pattern.
The collected data was divided according to meanings. First is when a phrasal verb
has one meaning and also the noun has one meaning (e.g. to lie down → to be or get into a
flat position, especially in bed, in order to sleep or rest; a lie-down → a short rest, especially
on a bed). There are some cases when a phrasal verb is poly-semous and has more than one
meaning but the noun has more meanings than a phrasal verb (e.g. to pay sb off → 1) To pay
sb what they have earned and tell them to leave their job 2) To give sb money to prevent them
from doing sth or talking about sth illegal or dishonest that you have done; a pay-off → 1) A
payment of money to sb so that they will not couse you any trouble or to make them keep a
secret 2) A payment of money to sb to persuade them to leave their job 3) An advantage or a
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reward from you have done). There are also phrasal verbs which have one meaning but the
noun has several meanings (e.g. to check in (at) → to go to a desk in a hotel, an airport, etc
and tell an official there that you have arrived; check-in → 1) The place where you go first
when you arrive at an airport, to show your ticket, etc 2) the act of showing your ticket, etc
when you arrive at an airport).
The fact that should be investigated about the meanings is how a meaning of phrasal
verb is related to the meaning of a created noun. The collected data was divided into a several
groups according to the similarity of meanings. First group contains those meanings which
are similar; the second group contains those meanings that are different. The group which
have different meanings is small one (e.g. to hang up → to end a telephone call by suddenly
and unexpectedly putting the telephone call down; hang-up → 1) an emotional problems
about sth makes you embarrassed or worried 2) a problem that delays sth being agreed or
achieved). The example shows that the meaning of phrasal verb is completely different from
the meaning of a converted noun. The first group, where the meanings are similar, is the
major one but there are also some interesting cases. There are nouns converted from the
phrasal verbs which can denote occasion (e.g. to screw up → to do sth badly; a screw-up →
an occasion when you so sth badly or spoil sth), a place (e.g. to hang out → to spend a lot of
time in a place; hang-out → a place where sb lives or likes go often), a time (e.g. tu build up
to sth → to prepare for a particular moment or event; a build-up → the time before an
important event, when people are preparing for it), a person (e.g. to turn on → to make
excited or interested, especially sexually; a turn-on → a person or thing that people find
sexually exciting), an amount of something, a situation and etc.
The collected data was divided into groups according to productivity. The most
common base form of a verb in this derivational pattern is to write (to write in, to write off, to
write up, and to write down). The most common particle is up. According to Oxford Phrasal
Verbs Dictionary (2001) “The particle up is the most common particle in phrasal verbs”. The
main particle meaning is related with movement upwards. The particle also can have these
meanings: an idea that something is increasing (e.g. to grow up), an idea of preparation for
doing something (e.g. to warm up), an idea of something prevented, stopped (e.g. hold up)
and many other meanings.
4.2. Derivational pattern when particle and verb is squished
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The second derivational pattern that will be investigated is when verb and particle are
squished. This pattern contains 66 nouns derived from phrasal verbs.
Firstly, the investigation will be about meanings. The first group consist of phrasal
verbs that are mono-semantic. This means that a phrasal verb has one meaning. Noun made
from a phrasal verb has also one meaning (e.g. to splash down → to land in the sea or ocean;
a splashdown → a landing of spacecraft in the sea/ocean). This group of words that have
only one meaning is the biggest one. Another group of words are when a verb is mono-
semantic, while a noun has several meanings (e.g. to check out (of) → to pay your bill and
leave a hotel; a checkout → 1) the place where you pay for the things that you are buying in
a supermarket 2) the time when you leave a hotel at the end of your stay). One more group is
reverse to the previous one. In this group phrasal verb is poly-semantic. This means that a
phrasal verb has plurality of meanings, meanwhile a noun has only one meaning (e.g. to pay
out → 1) to pay a large sum of money for sth 2) to pass a length of rope through your hands;
a payout – a large amount of money that is given to somebody).
The collected data of the second derivational pattern was divided into groups
according to the similar meanings of phrasal verbs and nouns. In the first group were those
words which have very similar meaning. The second group has distant meanings. There are
more converted nouns with similar meaning to the phrasal verb (e.g. to mark down → to
reduce the price of sth; a markdown → a reduction in price). But there are such converted
nouns that have distant meanings (e.g. to turn around/round → if a business, economy, etc
turns around or sb turns it around, it starts being successful after it has been unsuccessful for
a time; a turnaround → the amount of time it takes to upload a ship or plane at the end of
one journey and load it again for the next one). From the example we see that meanings are
different and have not very much in common. There are only few converted nouns in the
second derivational pattern which can denote occasion, time, person etc.
In addition to the similarity of meanings, it is worth mentioning that from poly-
semous phrasal verbs, the converted nouns with similar meanings can be not on the first
position. For example, let’s take a plysemous phrasal verb to pick up. Overall it has four
meanings. The first meaning is 1) to get better, stronger, etc; to improve. The converted noun
is a pickup. The meaning that is similar to the first one is only in the third position: 3) an
improvement. The first two meanings are not related to the first meaning of phrasal verb.
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The last point that should be investigated in the second derivational pattern is the
productivity of a verb and a particle. The most common verbs in this pattern are to turn and
to break. The most common particle is out. According to Oxford Phrasal Verbs Dictionary
(2001) out is one of the most common particles in phrasal verb. Oxford Phrasal Verbs
Dictionary state that “The basic meaning of out is movement from side to outside, so it
combines with many verbs of movement” (2001). The particle has also various meanings
depending on the context. The common one is related with leaving (e.g. to check out),
searching, observing (e.g. to work out, to try out), stopping an activity (e.g. to wipe out) and
many other meanings.
4.3. Derivational pattern when particle stands up before verb and those
derivational patterns that are not in great request
The third derivational pattern is made when particle stands up before a verb. There are
6 nouns formed by using this pattern: an input, an output, an outlay, an outcast, an outburst
and an upkeep. This patter is not in great request. All the meanings of phrasal verbs are
related to be meanings of coined nouns. The most common verb in this patter is to put. The
most common particle is out.
Three main derivational patterns were analyzed. But at the beginning of the analysis,
it was written that there are few more ways coining nouns from phrasal verbs. In the first
smaller pattern we use a hyphen and suffix –ing. There are four derived nouns using this
pattern: washing-up, telling-off, summing-up, and dressing-down. As it is was mentioned this
pattern is not great request.
One more interesting phenomenon is that there are nouns which have two derived
forms. There are only four examples: sending-off or send-off, spillover or overspill, bystander
or standby and break out or outbreak. But sometimes the meaning between those two derived
forms is different (e.g. a sending-off → (in football (soccer)) a situation when a referee tells
a player to leave a field because they have broken the rules in a serious way; a send-off → an
occasion when people come together to say goodbye to sb who is leaving).
All the collected data were analysed according to the productivity. The most
productive verbs are to break (to break out, to break in, to break through, to break away, to
break down, to break up) and to turn (to turn around/round, to turn over, to turn out, to turn
up, to turn on, to turn off). The most common particles are up, out and down. As it was
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mentioned previously, the particle up appears mostly in phrasal verbs. It is used in about 15
per cent of phrasal verbs. It is the most prevalent particle. One more common particle is out.
According to Oxford Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2001) the particle is used more than 14 per
cent in phrasal verbs. The third common particle of the collected data is down. The particle is
used in about 7 per cent of phrasal verbs. According to Oxford Phrasal Verbs Dictionary
(2001) the particle down is sometimes opposite of particle up. All three particles have literal
meaning resultant with movement.
5. Conclusions
The aim of this work was to classify English phrasal verbs into groups finding their
derivational pattern (nouns), also investigating their productivity. The history of phrasal verbs
was complex. Nevertheless, phrasal verbs continued to rise and became a productive part of
the language. Nowadays they are used everywhere: in Bible, in songs, in formal speech and
etc.
A division of phrasal verbs into transitive and intransitive, an issue that phrasal verbs
are idiomatic are those features that distinguish phrasal verbs from other parts of the speech.
Moreover, the creation of nouns form phrasal verbs is one of the most productive ways to
form a new word in English.
The analysis of each derivational pattern showed that there are three main patterns
forming nouns from phrasal verbs. Hyphenation was the most productive pattern. We use hy-
phen in more than half of the collected data. Squishing verb and particle also was a product-
ive pattern. There are 66 coined nouns using this pattern. Those two patterns are the majority
of all the collected data. There are also not productive patterns: when a particle stands up be-
fore a verb, also when it is used hyphen and suffix –ing, when coined nouns have two derived
forms. Besides that, the analysis showed that the most common verbs are to break and to
turn. The most common particles: up, out and down.
Having done this research, it could be concluded that nouns coined from phrasal verbs
are a productive way to form new words in English. Nouns coined from phrasal verbs may be
described as a tool to make the language, in this case English, more vivid and colourful.
Nouns coined from phrasal verbs also serve as an effective linguistic segment which is used,
as it was shown, very often and willingly.
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6. References
1. Biber, D., Conrad, S., Finegan E., Johansson, S., Leech, G. 1999. Grammar of spoken and
written English. Harlow: Longman.
2. Bull, V., Francis, B., Phillips, P. & Webb, S (eds). 2010. Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press
3. Carter, R. & McCarthy, M. 2006.Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
4. Ginzburg, R.S., Khidekel, S. S., Knyazeva, G. Y., Sankin, A. A. 1979. A Course in
modern English lexicology. Moscow: Vysaja skola.
5. Longman.2000.Longman Phrasal verbs dictionary. Harlow: Longman.
6. Oxford. 2001. Oxford Phrasal Verbs Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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7. Appendix: coined nouns from phrasal verbs using various patterns
1. In the first column there are nouns formed using a hyphen;
2. In the second column there are nouns formed squishing them as close compounds;
3. In the third column there are nouns formed when particle stands up before verb;
4. In the forth column there are nouns formed using a hyphen and suffix –ing;
5. In the fifth column there are nouns that are formed an can have two derived forms;
6. In the sixth column there are nouns formed with an interesting formation
1. Nouns formed using a hyphen
Write-up – an article in a newspaper or magazine in which somebody writes that they
think about a new book, play, product, etc
Call-up – 1) an order to join the armed forces;
2) the opportunity to play in sports team, especially for your country
Break-up – 1) the ending of a relationship or an association;
2) the devision of a large organization or country into smaller parts
Set-up – 1) a way of organizing sth; a system;
2) a situation in which sb tricks you or makes it seems as if you have done sth wrong
Follow-up – an action or thing that continuous sth that has already started or comes after
sth similar that was done earlier
Round-up – 1) to find and gather together people, animals or things;
2) if a police or soldiers round up a group of people, they find them and arrest or capture
them
Top-up – 1) a payment that you make to increase the amount of money, etc to the level
that is needed;
2) an amount of a drink that you add to a cup or glass in order to fill it again
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Turn-up – 1) the buttons of the leg of a pair of trousers/pants that has been folded over
on the outside;
2) something surprising or unexpected that happens
Break-up – the end of a relationship or an association
Back-up – 1) extra help or support that you can get if necessary;
2) (computing) a copy of a file, etc that can be used if the original is lost or damaged
Pull-out – 1) a part of a magazine, newspaper, etc that can be taken out and kept
separately;
2) an act of taking an army away from a particular place; an act of talking an organization
out of a system
Opt-out – 1) (in Britain) the action of a school or hospital that decides to manage its own
money and is therefore no longer controlled by local authority or similar organization;
2) the act of choosing not to be involved in an argument
Roll-out – an occasion when a company introduces or starts use a new product
Call-out – an occasion when sb is called to do repairs, rescue sb, etc
Face-off – 1) an argument or a fight;
2) the way of starting play in a game of ice hockey
Blast-off – the moment when a spacecraft leaves the ground
Brush-off – rude or unfriendly behaviour that shows that a person is not interested in sb
Lift-off – the act of spacecraft leaving the ground and rising into the air
Show-off – a person who tries to impress other people by showing how good he or she is
at doing sth
Tip-off – secret information that sb gives, for example, to the police to warn them about
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an illegal activity that is going to happen
Trade-off – the act of balancing two things are opposed to each other
Turn-off – 1) a place where a road leads away another larger or more important road;
2) a person or thing that people not find interesting attractive or sexual exciting
Spin-off – 1) an unexpected but useful result of an activity that is designed to produce sth
else;
2) a book, a film/movie, a television programme or an object that is based on a book,
film/movie or television series that has been very successful
Sell-out – 1) a play, concert, etc for which all the tickets have been sold;
2) a situation in which sb is not loyal to a person or group who trusted them, by not doing
sth that they promised to do, or by doing sth that they promised not to do
Play-off – a match/game, or a series of them, between two players or teams with equal
points or scores to decide who the winner is
Cut-off – a point or limit when you stop sth
Cover-up – action that is taken to hide a mistake or illegal activity from the public
Clean-up – the process of removing dirt, pollution, or things that are considered bad or
immortal from a place
Let-up – a period of time during which sth stops or becomes less strong, difficult, etc; a
reduction in the strength of sth
Link-up – a connection formed between two things for example two companies or two
broadcasting systems
Start-up – a company that is just beginning to operate, especially an Internet company
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Screw-up – an occasion when you do sth badly or spoil sth
Hang-up – 1) an emotional problems about sth makes you embarrassed or worried;
2) a problem that delays sth being or achieved
mix-up – a situation that is full of confusion, especially because sb has made a mistake
build-up – 1) an increase in the amount of sth over a period of time;
2) the time before an important event, when people are preparing for it;
3) a very positive ana enthusiastic description of sth that is going to happen, that is
intended to make people excited about it
lock-up – 1) a small prison where prisoners are kept for a short time;
2) a small shop that the owner does not live in; a garage that is usually separate from other
buildings and that is rented to sb
bust-up – 1) a bad argument or very angry disagreement;
2) the end of a relationship
shake-up – a situation in which a lot of changes or made to a company, an organization,
etc in order to improve the way in which it works
tie-up – 1) an agreement between two companies to join together
2) a connection between two or more things;
3) a situation in which sth stops working or moving forward
send-up – an act of making sb/sth look by copying them a funny way
wind-up – something that sb says or does in order to deliberately annoying, especially as a
joke
blow-up – 1) an enlargement of a photograph, picture or design;
2) an occasion when sb suddenly becomes angry
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foul-up – a problem caused by bad organization or a stupid mistake
cock-up – a mistake that spoils people’s arrengements; sth that has been spoiult because it
was badly organized
lay-off – 1) an act of making people unemployed because there is no more work left for
them to do;
2) a period of time when sb is not working or not doing sth that they normally do regularly
rip-off – 1) something that is not worth you pay for it;
2) a copy of sth, especially one that is less expensive or not as good as the original thing
flare-up – 1) a sudden expression of angry or violent feeling;
2) (of an illness) a sudden painful attack, especially after a period without any problems or
pain;
3) the fact of a fire suddenly starting to turn again more strongly than before
get-up – a set of clothes, especially strange or unusual ones
snarl-up – a situation in which traffic is unable to move
slip-up – a careless mistake
grown-up – (used especially by and to children) an adult person
warm-up – 1) a short practise or a series of gentle exercises that you do to prepare
yourself for doing a particular sport or activity;
2) short performance of music, comedy, etc that is intended to prepare the audience for the
main show
hold-up – 1) a situation in which sth is prevented from happening for a short time; 2) an
act of stealing from a bank, etc. using a gun
go-ahead – permission for sb to start doing sth
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get-together – an informal meeting; a party
walk-through – 1) an occasion when you practise a performance, etc without an audience
being present;
2) a careful explanation of the details of a process
follow-through – 1) (in tennis, golf, etc) the final part of stroke after the ball has been hit;
2) the actions that sb takes in order to complete a plan
run-through – a practise for a performance of a play, show, etc
knock-back - a difficulty or problem that makes you feel less confident that you will be
successful in sth that you are doing, especially when sb rejects you or sth that you suggest
or ask
add-on – a thing that is added to sth else
come-on – an object or an action which is intended to attract sb or to persuade them to do
sth
turn-on – a person or thing that people find extremely sexually exciting
carry-on – 1) a display of excitement, anger or silly behaviour over sth unimportant;
2) a small bag or case that you carry onto a plane with you
power-down – a time when machine or system stops working
warm-down – a series of gentle exercises that you do to help your body relax after doing a
particular sport or activity
lie-down – a short rest, especially on a bed
let-down – something that is disappointing because it is not as good as you expected it to
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be
close-down – the stopping of work, especially permanently, in a office, a factory, etc
put-down – a remark or criticism that is intended to make sb look or fell stupid
knock-down – 1) (in boxing) an act of falling to the ground after being hit;
2) (in football(soccer)) an act of hitting a high ball down to the ground or to another player
write-down – (business) a reduction in the value of asserts, etc
tie-in – a period of such as a book or toy that is connected with a new film/movie,
television programme, etc
trade-in – a method of buying sth by giving a used item as part of the payment for a new
one; the used item itself
weight-in – the occasion when the weight of a boxer, jockey, etc is checked officially
cave-in – the fact of sth suddenly collapsing
lie-in – a time when you stay in bed longer than normal in the morning
phone-in – a radio or television programme in which people can telephone and make
comments or ask questions about a particular subject
stand-in – 1) a person who does sb’s job for a short time when they are not available;
2) a person who replaces an actor in some scenes in a film/movie, especially dangerous
ones
check-in – 1) the place where you go first when you arrive at an airport, to show your
ticket, etc;
2) the act of showing your ticket, etc when you arrive at an airport
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break-in – an entry into a building using force, usually to steal smth
buy-in – the fact of accepting a policy or change because you agree with it
write-in – a vote for sb who is not an official candidate in an election, in which you write
their name on your ballot paper
let-out – an event or a statement that allows sb to avoid having to do sth
hang-out – a place where sb lives or likes go often
clear-out – a process of getting rid of things or people that you no longer want
cop-out – a way of avoiding doing sth that you should do, or an excuse for not doing it
stake-out – a situation in which police watch a building secretly to find evidence of illegal
activities
sort-out – an act of arranging or organizing the contents of sth in a tidy or neat way and
removing things you do not want
cut-out – 1) a shape cut out of paper, wood, etc;
2) a piece of safety equipment that stops an electric current from flowing through sth
brew-up – an act of making tea
balls-up – (taboo, slang, especially BrE) something that has been done very badly
sell-off – 1) the sale by the government of an industry or a service to individual people or
private companies;
2) the sale of a large number of stocks and shares, after which their value usually falls
kick-off – 1) the start of a game of football (soccer);
2) the start of an activity
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pay-off – 1) a payment of money to sb so that thwy will not course you any trouble or to
make them keep a secret;
2) a payment of money to sb to persuade them to leave their job;
3) an advantage or a reward from you have done
write-off – 1) a vehicle that has been so badly damaged in an accident that it is not worth
spending money to repair it;
2) a period of time during which you do not achieve anything;
3) (of sth)(business) an act of cancelling a debt and accepting that it will never be paid
make-up – 1) substances used especially by women to make their faces look more
attractive, or used by actors to change their appearance;
2) the different qualities that combine to form sb’s character or being;
3) the different things, people, etc that combine to form sth; the way in which they
combine;
4) a special exam taken by students who missed or failed an earlier one
2. Formed nouns squishing verb and particle
Blackout – 1) period when there is no light as result of an electrical power failure; 2) a
situation when the government or the police will not allow any news or information on a
particular subject to be given to the public;
3) a period of time during a war when all lights must be put out or covered at night, so that
they cannot be seen by an enemy attracting by air;
4) a covering for windows that stops light being seen from outside, or light from outside
from coming into a room;
5) temporary loss of consciousness sight or memory
Blowout – 1) an occasion when a tyre suddenly burst on a vehicle while it is moving;
2) a large meal at which people eat too much;
3) a large party or social occasion;
4) an easy victory;
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5) a sudden escape of oil or gas from an oil well
Breakaway – 1) an occasion when members of a political party or an organization leave it
in order to form a new party, etc;
2) a change from an accepted style
Breakdown – 1) an occasion when a vehicle or machine stops working;
2) a failure of a relationship, discussion or system;
3) detailed information that you get by studying a set of figures;
4) the breaking of substance into the parts of which it is made;
5) nervous breakdown
Breakthrough – an important development that may lead to an agreement or achievement
Burnout – 1) the state of being extremely tired or ill, either physically or mentally,
because you have worked too hard;
2) the point at which a rocket has used all of its fuel and has no power
Buyout – a situation in which a person or group gains control of a company by buying all
or most of its shares
Castaway – a person whose ship has sunk and who has had to swim to lonely place,
usually in island
Changeover – a charge from one system, or method of working to another
Checkout – 1) the place where you pay for the things that you are buying in a
supermarket;
2) the time when you leave a hotel at the end of your stay
Clampdown – sudden action that is taken in order to stop an illegal activity
Clawback – the act of getting money back from people it has been paid to; the money that
is paid back
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Climbdown – an act of admitting that you were wrong or of changing your position in an
argument
Closeout – an occasion when goods are sold cheaply in order to get rid of them quickly
Comeback – 1) if a person in public life makes a comeback, they start doing sth again
which they had stopped doing, or they become popular again;
2) if a thing makes a comeback, it becomes popular and fashionable or successful again;
3) a quick reply to a critical remark;
4) a way of holding sb responsible for sth wrong which has been done to you
Crackdown – severe action taken to restrict the activities of criminals or of people
opposed to the government or sb in authority
Crossover – the process or result of changing from one area of activity or style of doing
sth to another
Cutback – a reduction in sth
Countdown – 1) the action of counting seconds backwards to zero, for example, before a
spacecraft is launched;
2) a period of time just before sth important happens
Drawdown – 1) the act of reducing a supply of sth that has been created over a period of
time;
2)the act of using money that is available to you; the amount used
Dropout – 1) a person who leaves school or college before they have finished their
studies;
2) a person who rejects the ideas and ways of behaving that are accepted by the rest of
society
Fallback – a plan course of action that is ready to be used in an emergency if other things
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fail
Flashback – 1) a part of a film/movie/play etc. that shows a scene that happened earlier in
time than the main story;
2) a sudden, very clear, strong memory of sth that happened in the past that is so real you
feel that you are living through the experience again
Getaway – 1) an escape from a difficult situation, especially after committing a crime;
2) a short holiday/vacation; a place that is suitable for a holiday/vacation
Giveaway – 1) something that a company gives free, usually with sth else that is for sale;
2) something that makes you guess the real truth about sth/sb
Handout – 1) food, money ir clothes that are given to a person who is poor;
2) money that is given to a person or an organization by the government, etc., for
example, to encourage commercial activity;
3) a free document that gives information about an event or a matter of public interest, or
that states the views of a political party, etc.;
4) a document that is given to students in class or people attending a talk, etc. and that
contains a summary of the lesson/talk, a set of exercises, etc.
Handover – 1) the act of moving power or responsibility from one person or group to
another; the period during which this is done;
2) the act of giving a person or thing to sb in authority
Knockout – 1) (in boxing) a blow that makes an opponent fall to the ground and be unable
to get up, so that he or she loses the fight;
2) a person or thing that is very attractive or impressive
Layout – the way in which the parts of sth as the page of a book, a garden or a building
are arranged
Layover – a short stay somewhere between two parts of a journey
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Leftover – 1) food that has not been eaten at the end of a meal;
2) an object, a custom or a way of behaving that remains from an earlier time
Lockout – a situation when an employer refuses to allow workers into their place of work
until they agree to various conditions
Lookout – 1) a place for watching from, especially for danger or an enemy coming
towards you;
2) a person who has the responsibility of watching for sth, especially danger, etc.
Makeover – the process of improving the appearance of a person or a place, or of
changing the impression that sth gives
Markdown – a reduction in price
Markup – 1) an increase in the price of sth based on the difference between the cost of
producing it and the price it is sold at;
2) the symbols used in computer documents and tell the computer how it is to appear on
the computer screen, or how it is to appear when printed
Meltdown – 1) a serious accident in which the central part of a nuclear reaction melts,
causing harmful radiation to escape;
2) (economic) a situation where sth fails or becomes weaker in a sudden or dramatic way
Payback – 1) the money that you receive back or money that you have invested
(especially when this is equal to the amount that you invested to start with); the time that it
takes to get your money back;
2) the advantage or reward that sb receives for sth they have done; the act of paying sth
back
Payout – a large amount of money that is given to sb
Pickup – 1) a vehicle with low sides and no roof at the back used, for example, by
farmers;
2) a person sb meets for the first time, for example, in a bar, with whom they start a sexual
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relationship;
3) an improvement;
4) an occasion when sb/sth is collected;
5) the part of a record player or musical instrument that changes electronical signals into
sound, or sound into electric signals
Playback – the act of playing music, showing a film/movie or listening to a telephone
message that has been recorded before; a recording that you listen to or watch again
Printout – a page or set of pages containing information in printed form from a computer
Pushover – 1) a thing that is easy to do or win;
2) a person who is easy to persuade or influence
Rollover – 1) the act of allowing money that is owed to be paid at a later date;
2) a prize of money in a competition or lottery in a particular week, that is added to the
prize given in the following week if nobody wins it;
3) the turning over of a vehicle during an accident
Runaway – a person who has suddenly left or escaped from sb/sth, especially a child who
has left home without telling anyone
Rundown – 1) a reduction in the amount, size or activity of sth, especially a business;
2) an explanation or a description of sth
Setback – a difficult or problem that delays or prevents sth or makes a situation worse
Shakedown – 1) a situation in which sb tries to force sb else to give them money using
violence, threats, etc.;
2) a thorough search of sb/sth;
3) a test of a vehicle to see if there are any problems before it is used generally
Shutdown – the act of closing a factory or business or stopping a large machine from
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working, either temporarily or permanently
Singalong – an informal occasion at which people sing songs together
Sleepover – a party for children or young people when a group of them spend the night at
one house
Splashdown – a landing of spacecraft in the sea/ocean
Stopover – a short stay somewhere between two parts of a journey
Strikeout – (in baseball) a situation in which the player who is supposed to be hitting the
ball has to stop because he or she has tried to hit the ball tthree times and failed
Takeaway – 1) a restaurant that cooks and sells food that you take away and eat
somewhere else;
2) the meal that you buy at this type of restaurant
Takeover – 1) an act of taking control of a company by buying most of its shares; 2) an
act of taking control of a country, an area or a political organization by force
Touchdown – 1) the moment when plane or spacecraft lands;
2) (in rugby) the act of scoring points by pushing the ball down on the area of ground
behind the other team’s goal line;
3) (in American football) an act of scoring points by crossing the other team’s goal line
while carrying the ball, or receiving the ball when you are over the other team’s goal line
Turnout – 1) the number of people who attend a particular event; 2) the number of people
who vote in a particular election
Tryout – 1) an act of testing how good or effective sb/sth is before deciding whether to
use them in the future;
2) a competition or series of tests to find best players for a sport team or an important
event
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Turnaround – 1) the amount of time it takes to upload a ship or plane at the end of one
journey and load it again for the next one;
2) a piece of work that you have been given and return it;
3) a situation in which sth changes from bad to good;
4) a complete change in sb’s opinion, behaviour, etc.
Turnover – 1) the total amount of goods or services sold by a company during particular
period of time;
2) the rate at which employees leave a company nad are replaced by other people; 3) the
rate at which goods are sold in a shop/store and replaced by others;
4) a small pie in the shape of a triangle or half a circle, filled with fruit or jam
Walkout – 1) a sudden strike by workers;
2) the act of suddenly leaving a meeting as a protest against sth
Walkover – an easy victory in a game or competition
Washout – an event, etc that is complete failure, especially because of rain
Wipeout – 1) complete destruction, failure or defeat;
2) a fall from a surfboard
Workout – a period of physical exercise that you do to keep fit
3. Formed nouns when particle stands up before verb
Output – 1) the amount of sth that a person, a machine ar an organization products;
2) the information, results, etc produced by a computer;
3) the power, energy etc. produced by a piece of equipment;
4) a place where energy, power, information, etc leaves a system
Input – 1) time, knowledge, ideas, etc. that you put into work, project, etc. in order to
make it succeed; the act of making sth in;
2) the act of putting information into a computer or, the information that you put in;
3) a place or means for electricity, data, etc. to enter a machine or system
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Outlay – the money that you have to spend in order to start a new project
Upkeep – 1) the cost or process of keeping sth in good condition;
2) the cost or process of giving a child or an animal things that they need
Outcast – a person who is not accepted by other people and who sometimes has to leave
their home and friends
Outburst – 1) a sudden strong expression of an emotion;
2) a sudden increase in a particular activity or attitude
4. Coined nouns using a hyphen and a suffix -ing
Telling-off – the act of speaking angrily to sb, especially a child, because they have done
sth bad
Summing-up – 1) a speech that the judge makes near the end of a trial in count, in which
he or she reminders the jury about the evidence and the most important points in the case
before the jury makes is decision
2) an occasion when sb states the main points if an argument, etc
Up-bringing – the way in which a child is cared for and taught how to behave while it is
growing up
Dressing-down – an occasion when sb speaks angrily to a person because they have done
sth wrong
Washing-up – 1) the act of washing plates, glasses, pans, etc. after a meal;
2) the dirty plates, glasses, pans, etc. that have to be washed after a meal
5. Coined nouns that have two derived forms
Sending-off – (in football(soccer)) a situation when a referee tells a player to leave a field
because they have broken the rules in a serious way
send-off – an occasion when people come together to say goodbye to sb who is leaving
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breakout – an escape from prison, usually by group of prisoners
outbreak – the sudden start of sth unpleasant, especially violence or a disease
spillover – 1) something that is too large or too much for the place where it starts, and
spends to other places;
2) a result or the effects of sth that have spread to other situations or places
overspill – people who move out of a city because it is too crowded to an area where there
is more space
bystander – a person who sees sth that is happening but is not involved
standby – a person or thing that can always be used if needed, for example, of sb/sth is not
available or if there is an emergency
6. Coined nouns from phrasal verbs with an interesting formation
Hand-me-down – a piece of closing that the original owner no longer wants to wear
Onlooker – a person who watches sth that is happening but is not involved in it
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