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Plato For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation). Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/; [1] Greek: Πλάτων Plátōn “broad”pronounced [plá.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BCE) was a philosopher, as well as mathematician, in Classical Greece. He is considered an essential figure in the development of philosophy, especially the Western tradition, and he founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his teacher Socrates and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy and science. [2] Alfred North Whitehead once noted: “the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.” [3] Plato’s dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, religion and mathematics. His lasting themes include Platonic love, the theory of forms, the five regimes, and innate knowledge, among others. His theory of forms launched a unique perspective on abstract objects, and led to a school of thought called Platonism. Plato’s writ- ings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and refer- encing of Plato’s texts. [4] 1 Biography 1.1 Early life Main article: Early life of Plato Little can be known about Plato’s early life and educa- tion, due to a lack of surviving accounts. The philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically ac- tive families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies. His father contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, gymnastics and phi- losophy by some of the most distinguished teachers of his era. 1.1.1 Birth and family The exact time and place of Plato’s birth are not known, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and in- fluential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina [c] between 429 and 423 BCE. [a] His father was Ariston. According to a disputed tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus. [5] Plato’s mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon. [6] Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, the brief oligarchic regime, which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (404–403 BCE). [7] Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of his philosophical Academy). [7] The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, [8] and presumably brothers of Plato, but some have argued they were uncles. [9] But in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the is- sue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato. [10] The traditional date of Plato’s birth (428/427) is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laertius, who says, “When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Her- modorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara.” As Debra Nails argues, “The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite.” [11] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, “But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena.” Thus, Nails dates Plato’s birth to 424/423. [12] According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his at- tentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested. [13] Another legend re- lated that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. [14] Ariston appears to have died in Plato’s childhood, al- though the precise dating of his death is difficult. [15] Per- 1

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PlatoFor other uses,see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon(disambiguation).Plato (/pleto/;[1]Greek: Pltnbroadpronounced [pl.tn] in Classical Attic; 428/427or 424/423 348/347 BCE) was a philosopher, as wellas mathematician, in Classical Greece. He is consideredanessential gureinthedevelopment ofphilosophy,especiallytheWesterntradition, andhefoundedtheAcademy in Athens, the rst institution of higher learningin the Western world. Along with his teacher Socratesand his most famous student,Aristotle,Plato laid thefoundations of Western philosophy and science.[2]Alfred North Whitehead once noted: the safest generalcharacterization of the European philosophical traditionis that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.[3]Platos dialogues have been used to teach a range ofsubjects, includingphilosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric,religion and mathematics. His lasting themes includePlatonic love, the theory of forms, the ve regimes, andinnate knowledge, among others. His theory of formslaunched a unique perspective on abstract objects, andled to a school of thought called Platonism. Platos writ-ings have been published in several fashions; this has ledto several conventions regarding the naming and refer-encing of Platos texts.[4]1 Biography1.1 Early lifeMain article: Early life of PlatoLittle can be known about Platos early life and educa-tion, due to a lack of surviving accounts. The philosophercame from one of the wealthiest and most politically ac-tive families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him asa bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies.His father contributed all which was necessary to give tohis son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must havebeen instructed in grammar, music, gymnastics and phi-losophy by some of the most distinguished teachers of hisera.1.1.1 Birth and familyThe exact time and place of Platos birth are not known,but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and in-uential family. Based on ancient sources, most modernscholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[c]between 429 and 423 BCE.[a] His father was Ariston.According to a disputed tradition, reported by DiogenesLaertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king ofAthens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus.[5]Platos mother was Perictione, whose family boasted ofa relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker andlyric poet Solon.[6] Perictione was sister of Charmidesand niece of Critias, both prominent gures of the ThirtyTyrants, the brief oligarchic regime, which followed onthe collapse of Athens at the end of the PeloponnesianWar (404403 BCE).[7] Besides Plato himself, Aristonand Perictione had three other children; these were twosons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone,the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successorof Plato as head of his philosophical Academy).[7] Thebrothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in theRepublic as sons of Ariston,[8] and presumably brothers ofPlato, but some have argued they were uncles.[9] But in ascenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the is-sue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato.[10]The traditional date of Platos birth (428/427) is basedon a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laertius, whosays, When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylusthe Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized inthe manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Her-modorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara. AsDebra Nails argues, The text itself gives no reason toinfer that Plato left immediately for Megara and impliesthe very opposite.[11] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notesthat his coming of age coincided with the taking of powerby the Thirty, remarking, But a youth under the age oftwenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted toenter the political arena. Thus, Nails dates Platos birthto 424/423.[12]According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his at-tentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then thegod Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result,Ariston left Perictione unmolested.[13] Another legend re-lated that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on hislips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness ofstyle in which he would discourse about philosophy.[14]Ariston appears to have died in Platos childhood,al-though the precise dating of his death is dicult.[15] Per-12 1 BIOGRAPHYictione then married Pyrilampes, her mothers brother,[16]who had served many times as an ambassador to thePersian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader ofthe democratic faction in Athens.[17] Pyrilampes had ason from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famousfor his beauty.[18] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampessecond son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who ap-pears in Parmenides.[19]In contrast to reticence about himself,Plato often in-troduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues,orreferredtothemwithsomeprecision: Charmideshas a dialogue named after him; Critias speaks in bothCharmides and Protagoras; and Adeimantus and Glaucontake prominent parts in the Republic.[20] These and otherreferences suggest a considerable amount of family prideand enable us to reconstruct Platos family tree. Accord-ing to Burnet, the opening scene of the Charmides is aglorication of the whole [family] connection ... Platosdialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates, but alsothe happier days of his own family.[21]1.1.2 NameAccordingtoDiogenesLartius, thephilosopherwasnamed Aristocles () after his grandfather. Itwas common in Athenian society for boys to be namedafter grandfathers (or fathers). But there is only one in-scriptional record of an Aristocles, an early Archon ofAthens in 605/4 BCE. There no record of a line fromAristocles to Platos father, Ariston. However, if Platowas not named after an ancestor named Plato (there is norecord of one), then the origin of his renaming as Platobecomes a conundrum.The sources of Diogenes account for this fact by claim-ing that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbedhimPlaton, meaningbroad,onaccount ofhisro-bust gure[22] or that Plato derived his name from thebreadth (, platyts) of his eloquence, or elsebecause he was very wide (, plats) across theforehead.[23] Recently a scholar has argued that even thename Aristocles for Plato was a much later invention.[24]Although Platon was a fairly common name (31 instancesare known from Athens alone[25]), the name does not oc-cur in Platos known family line. The fact that the philoso-pher in his maturity called himself Platon is indisputable,but the origin of this naming must remain moot unlessthe record is made to yield more information.1.1.3 EducationApuleius informs us that Speusippus praisedPlatosquickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the rstfruits of his youth infused with hard work and love ofstudy.[26] Plato must have been instructed in grammar,music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teach-ers of his time.[27] Dicaearchus went so far as to say thatPlato wrestled at the Isthmian games.[28] Plato had alsoattended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates,he rst became acquainted with Cratylus (a disciple ofHeraclitus, a prominent pre-Socratic Greek philosopher)and the Heraclitean doctrines.[29] W. A. Borody arguesthat an Athenian openness towards a wider range of sex-ualitymayhavecontributedtotheAthenianphiloso-phers opennesstowardsawiderrangeofthought, acultural situation Borody describes as polymorphouslydiscursive.[30]1.2 Plato and PythagorasPythagoras,depicted as a medieval scholar in the NurembergChronicleAlthough Socrates inuenced Plato directly as related inthe dialogues, the inuence of Pythagoras upon Plato alsoappears to have signicant discussion in the philosoph-ical literature. Pythagoras,or in a broader sense,thePythagoreans, allegedly exercised an important inuenceon the work of Plato. According to R. M. Hare, this inu-ence consists of three points: (1) The platonic Republicmight be related to the idea of a tightly organized com-munity of like-minded thinkers, like the one establishedby Pythagoras in Croton. (2) There is evidence that Platopossibly took from Pythagoras the idea that mathematicsand, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure ba-sis for philosophical thinking as well as for substantialtheses in science and morals".(3) Plato and Pythagorasshared a mystical approach to the soul and its place in thematerial world. It is probable that both were inuencedby Orphism.[31][32]Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closelyfollowed the teachings of the Pythagoreans,[33]andCicerorepeats this claim: Platonemferunt didicissePythagoreaomnia (They say Plato learned all thingsPythagorean).[34]BertrandRussell, inhis AHistoryof Western Philosophy, contended that the inuence of1.4 Later life 3PythagorasonPlatoandotherswassogreat that heshould be considered the most inuential of all Westernphilosophers.[32]1.3 Plato and SocratesMain article: Socratic problemThe precise relationship between Plato and Socrates re-Plato and Socrates in a medieval depictionmains an area of contention among scholars. Plato makesit clear in his Apology of Socrates, that he was a devotedyoung follower of Socrates. In that dialogue, Socrates ispresented as mentioning Plato by name as one of thoseyouths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if hewere in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and question-ing why their fathers and brothers did not step forwardto testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such acrime (33d-34a). Later, Plato is mentioned along withCrito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as oering to pay ane of 30 minas on Socrates behalf, in lieu of the deathpenalty proposed by Meletus (38b). In the Phaedo, thetitle character lists those who were in attendance at theprison on Socrates last day, explaining Platos absenceby saying, Plato was ill. (Phaedo 59b)Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues. Inthe Second Letter, it says, no writing of Plato exists orever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of aSocrates become beautiful and new (341c); if the Letteris Platos, the nal qualication seems to call into questionthe dialogues historical delity. In any case, Xenophonand Aristophanes seem to present a somewhat dierentportrait of Socrates fromthe one Plato paints. Some havecalled attention to the problem of taking Platos Socratesto be his mouthpiece, given Socrates reputation for ironyand the dramatic nature of the dialogue form.[35]Aristotle attributes a dierent doctrine with respect tothe Ideas to Plato and Socrates (Metaphysics 987b111).Putting it in a nutshell, Aristotle merely suggests thatSocrates idea of forms can be discovered through investi-gation of the natural world, unlike Platos Forms that existbeyond and outside the ordinary range of human under-standing.1.4 Later lifePlatomayhave traveledinItaly, Sicily, Egypt andCyrene, Libya.[36] Said to have returned to Athens at theage of forty,Plato founded one of the earliest knownorganized schools in Western Civilization on a plot ofland in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[37] TheAcademy was a large enclosure of ground about six stadiaoutside of Athens proper.One story is that the name ofthe Academy comes from the ancient hero, Academus.Another story is that the name came from a supposed aformer owner, a citizen of Athens also named Academus.Yet another account is that it was named after a memberof the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian namedEchedemus.[38] The Academy operated until it was de-stroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BCE. Neopla-tonists revived the Academy in the early 5th century, andit operated until AD 529, when it was closed by JustinianI of Byzantium, who saw it as a threat to the propagationof Christianity. Many intellectuals were schooled in theAcademy, the most prominent one being Aristotle.[39][40]Throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with thepolitics of the city of Syracuse. According to DiogenesLaertius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was un-der the rule of Dionysius.[41] During this rst trip Diony-siuss brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one ofPlatos disciples,but the tyrant himself turned againstPlato. Plato almost faced death, but he was sold into slav-ery, then Anniceris[42] bought Platos freedom for twentyminas,[43] and sent him home. After Dionysiuss death,according to Platos Seventh Letter, Dion requested Platoreturn to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide him tobecome a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to ac-cept Platos teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion,his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Plato againsthis will.Eventually Plato left Syracuse.Dion would re-turn to overthrowDionysius and ruled Syracuse for a shorttime before being usurped by Calippus, a fellow discipleof Plato.4 2 PHILOSOPHY1.5 DeathA variety of sources have given accounts of Platos death.One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,[44] suggestsPlato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl playedthe ute to him.[45] Another tradition suggests Plato diedat a wedding feast. The account is based on DiogenesLaertiuss reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[46] According to Tertullian, Platosimply died in his sleep.[46]2 PhilosophyPlato(left) andAristotle(right), adetail ofTheSchool ofAthens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, rep-resenting his belief in knowledge through empirical observationand experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethicsin his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens,representing his belief in The Forms2.1 Recurrent themesPlato often discusses the father-son relationship and thequestion of whether a fathers interest in his sons hasmuch to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancientAthens, a boy was socially located by his family identity,and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of theirpaternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not afamily man, and saw himself as the son of his mother,who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socratesmocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and train-ers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea thatgood character is a gift from the gods. Crito remindsSocrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, butSocrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is foundrecruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritancehas been squandered. Socrates twice compares the rela-tionship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship (Lysis 213a, Republic 3.403b), and in thePhaedo, Socrates disciples, towards whom he displaysmore concern than his biological sons, say they will feelfatherless when he is gone.In several of Platos dialogues, Socrates promulgates theidea that knowledge is a matter of recollection, and not oflearning, observation, or study.[47] He maintains this viewsomewhat at his own expense, because in many dialogues,Socrates complains of his forgetfulness. Socrates is oftenfound arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and thatit comes from divine insight. In many middle period dia-logues, such as the Phaedo, Republic and Phaedrus Platoadvocates a belief in the immortality of the soul,andseveral dialogues end with long speeches imagining theafterlife. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledgeand opinion, perception and reality, nature and custom,and body and soul.Several dialogues tackle questions about art: Socratessays that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not ratio-nal. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of di-vine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) inthe Phaedrus (265ac), and yet in the Republic wants tooutlaw Homers great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion,Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer thathe expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggeststhat Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek worldas the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: asdivinely inspired literature that can provide moral guid-ance, if only it can be properly interpreted.Socrates and his company of disputants had somethingto say on many subjects, including politics and art, reli-gion and science, justice and medicine, virtue and vice,crime and punishment, pleasure and pain, rhetoric andrhapsody, human nature and sexuality, as well as love andwisdom.2.2 MetaphysicsMain article: Platonic realismPlatonism is a term coined by scholars to refer to theintellectual consequences of denying, as Platos Socratesoften does, the reality of the material world. In severaldialogues, most notably the Republic, Socrates inverts thecommon mans intuition about what is knowable and whatis real. While most people take the objects of their sensesto be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of peo-ple who think that something has to be graspable in thehands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such peopleare eu amousoi ( ), an expression that means2.4 Epistemology 5literally, happily without the muses (Theaetetus 156a).In other words, such people live without the divine in-spiration that gives him, and people like him, access tohigher insights about reality.Socratess idea that reality is unavailable to those who usetheir senses is what puts him at odds with the commonman, and with common sense. Socrates says that he whosees with his eyes is blind, and this idea is most famouslycaptured in his allegory of the cave, and more explicitlyin his description of the divided line. The allegory ofthe cave (begins Republic 7.514a) is a paradoxical anal-ogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world isthe most intelligible (noeton) and that the visible world("(h)oraton) is the least knowable, and the most obscure.Socrates says in the Republic that people who take thesun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are livingpitifully in a den of evil and ignorance.Socrates admitsthat few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, andthose who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attainthe heights, but when they go back down for a visit orto help other people up, they nd themselves objects ofscorn and ridicule.AccordingtoSocrates, physical objects andphysicalevents are shadows of their ideal or perfect forms, andexist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfectversions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary,inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical ob-jects, physical objects are themselves eeting phenomenacaused by more substantial causes, the ideals of whichthey are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinksthat perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where)and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it.The allegory of the cave (often said by scholars to rep-resent Platos own epistemology and metaphysics) is inti-mately connected to his political ideology (often said toalso be Platos own), that only people who have climbedout of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodnessare t to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened menof society must be forced from their divine contempla-tions and be compelled to run the city according to theirlofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust uponhim by the people who are wise enough to choose a goodmaster. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Repub-lic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is thewise choice of a ruler.2.3 Theory of FormsMain article: Theory of FormsThe theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) typically refersto the belief that the material world as it seems to us isnot the real world, but only an image or copy of thereal world. In some of Platos dialogues, this is expressedby Socrates, who spoke of forms in formulating a solu-tion to the problem of universals.The forms, accordingto Socrates, are archetypes or abstract representations ofthe many types of things, and properties we feel and seearound us, that can only be perceived by reason (Greek:). (That is, they are universals.) In other words,Socrates was able to recognize two worlds: the apparentworld, which constantly changes, and an unchanging andunseen world of forms, which may be the cause of whatis apparent.2.4 EpistemologyMain article: Platonic epistemologyManyhaveinterpretedPlatoasstatingevenhavingbeen the rst to writethat knowledge is justied truebelief, an inuential view that informed future develop-ments in epistemology.[48] This interpretation is partlybased on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato arguesthat knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief bythe knower having an account of the object of her orhis true belief (Theaetetus 201cd). And this theory mayagain be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that truebelief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is boundwith an account as to the question of why the objectof the true belief is so (Meno 97d98a).[49] Many yearslater, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the prob-lems of the justied true belief account of knowledge.That the modern theory of justied true belief as knowl-edge which Gettier addresses is equivalent to Platos is ac-cepted by some scholars but rejected by others.[50] Platohimself also identied problems with the justied true be-lief denition in the Theaetetus, concluding that justi-cation (or an account) would require knowledge of dif-ferentness, meaning that the denition of knowledge iscircular (Theaetetus 210ab).[51]Later in the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example toexpound Platos view that knowledge in this latter senseis acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact con-cerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, whocould not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slaveboys lack of education). The knowledge must be present,Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form.In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, andthe Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge withthe apprehension of unchanging Forms and their rela-tionships to one another (which he calls expertise inDialectic), including through the processes of collectionand division.[52] More explicitly, Plato himself argues inthe Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to therealm from which it is gained. In other words, if one de-rives ones account of something experientially, becausethe world of sense is in ux, the views therein attainedwill be mere opinions. And opinions are characterizedby a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand,6 2 PHILOSOPHYif one derives ones account of something by way of thenon-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging,so too is the account derived from them. That apprehen-sion of forms is required for knowledge may be taken tocohere with Platos theory in the Theaetetus and Meno.[53]Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base ofthe account required for justication, in that it oersfoundational knowledge which itself needs no account,thereby avoiding an innite regression.[54]2.5 The stateMain article: The Republic (Plato)Platos philosophical views had many societal implica-Papirus Oxyrhynchus, with fragment of Platos Republictions, especially on the idea of an ideal state or govern-ment. There is some discrepancy between his early andlater views. Some of the most famous doctrines are con-tained in the Republic during his middle period, as wellas in theLaws and theStatesman. However,becausePlato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is oftenspeaking for Plato. This assumption may not be true inall cases.Plato, through the words of Socrates, asserts that soci-eties have a tripartite class structure corresponding tothe appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul.The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes ofsociety.[55]Productive (Workers) the labourers, carpenters,plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers,etc. These correspond to the appetite part of thesoul.Protective (Warriors or Guardians) those who areadventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces.These correspond to the spirit part of the soul.Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) thosewho are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in lovewith wisdom, well suited to make decisions for thecommunity.These correspond to the reason partof the soul and are very few.In the Timaeus, Plato locates the parts of the soul withinthe human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit inthe top third of the torso, and the appetite in the middlethird of the torso, down to the navel.[56][57]Accordingtothis model, theprinciples of Atheniandemocracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as onlya few are t to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion,Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Platoputs it:Until philosophers rule as kings or those whoare nowcalled kings and leading men genuinelyand adequately philosophise, that is, until po-litical power and philosophy entirely coincide,while the many natures who at present pursueeither one exclusively are forcibly preventedfrom doing so,cities will have no rest fromevils,... nor, I think, will the human race. (Re-public 473c-d)Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painterCarl Johan WahlbomPlato describes these philosopher kings as those wholove the sight of truth (Republic 475c) and supports theidea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctorand his medicine. According to him, sailing and healthare not things that everyone is qualied to practice by na-ture. A large part of the Republic then addresses howthe educational system should be set up to produce thesephilosopher kings.However,it must be taken into account that the idealcity outlined in the Republic is qualied by Socrates asthe idealluxurious city, examined to determine how itisthat injusticeandjusticegrowinacity(Republic2.6 Unwritten doctrines 7372e). According to Socrates, the true and healthycity is instead the one rst outlined in book II of the Re-public, 369c372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, mer-chants, and wage-earners, but lacking the guardian classof philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as per-fumed oils, incense, prostitutes, and pastries, in additionto paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupa-tions such as poets and hunters, and war.In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illumi-nate the state of ones soul, or the will, reason, and desirescombined in the human body. Socrates is attempting tomake an image of a rightly ordered human, and then latergoes on to describe the dierent kinds of humans that canbe observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in variouskinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but onlyused to magnify the dierent kinds of individual humansand the state of their soul. However, the philosopher kingimage was used by many after Plato to justify their per-sonal political beliefs. The philosophic soul accordingto Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in vir-tuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate lovefor wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom.Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right rela-tions between all that exists.Wherein it concerns states and rulers,Plato has madeinteresting arguments. For instance he asks which isbettera bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant.He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, thanbe a bad democracy (since here all the people are nowresponsible for such actions, rather than one individualcommitting many bad deeds.) This is emphasised withinthe Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny onboard a ship.[58] Plato suggests the ships crew to be inline with the democratic rule of many and the captain,although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Platosdescription of this event is parallel to that of democracywithin the state and the inherent problems that arise.According to Plato, a state made up of dierent kinds ofsouls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule bythe best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then toan oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (ruleby the people), and nally to tyranny (rule by one person,rule by a tyrant).[59] Aristocracy is the form of govern-ment (politeia) advocated in Platos Republic. This regimeis ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded onwisdom and reason. The aristocratic state, and the manwhose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Platosanalyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed tothe other four types of states/men, who are discussed laterin his work. In Book VIII, Plato states in order the otherfour imperfect societies with a description of the statesstructure and individual character.In timocracy the rul-ing class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-likecharacter.[60] In his description, Plato has Sparta in mind.Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is thecriterion of merit and the wealthy are in control.[61] Indemocracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athenswith traits such as equality of political opportunity andfreedom for the individual to do as he likes.[62] Democ-racy then degenerates into tyranny from the conict ofrich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined so-ciety existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popularchampion leading to the formation of his private armyand the growth of oppression.[63][59][64]2.6 Unwritten doctrinesFor a long time, Platos unwritten doctrine[65][66][67] hadbeen controversial. Many modern books on Plato seemtodiminish its importance; nevertheless, the rst importantwitness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in hisPhysics (209 b) writes: It is true, indeed, that the accounthe gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is dif-ferent from what he says in his so-called unwritten teach-ings ( ). The term" "literally means unwritten doctrines and it stands for themost fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, whichhe disclosed only orally, and some say only to his mosttrusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret fromthe public. The importance of the unwritten doctrinesdoes not seem to have been seriously questioned beforethe 19th century.A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially dis-cussed in Phaedrus (276 c) where Plato criticizes the writ-ten transmission of knowledge as faulty, favoring insteadthe spoken logos: he who has knowledge of the justand the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest,write themin ink, sowing themthrough a pen with words,which cannot defend themselves by argument and can-not teach the truth eectually. The same argument isrepeated in Platos Seventh Letter (344 c): every seri-ous man in dealing with really serious subjects carefullyavoids writing. In the same letter he writes (341 c):Ican certainly declare concerning all these writers whoclaim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... theredoes not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise ofmine dealing therewith. Such secrecy is necessary in or-der not to expose them to unseemly and degrading treat-ment (344 d).It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowl-edge to the public in his lectureOntheGood(), in which the Good ( ) is identiedwith the One (the Unity, ), the fundamental onto-logical principle. The content of this lecture has beentransmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describesthe event in the following words: Each came expectingto learn something about the things that are generally con-sidered good for men, such as wealth, good health, phys-ical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happi-ness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came,including numbers, geometrical gures and astronomy,and nally the statement Good is One seemed to them, Iimagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some be-littled the matter, while others rejected it.[68] Simplicius8 3 THE DIALOGUESquotes Alexander of Aphrodisias,who states that ac-cording to Plato, the rst principles of everything, includ-ing the Forms themselves are One and Indenite Dual-ity ( ), which he called Large and Small( )", and Simplicius reports aswell that one might also learn this from Speusippus andXenocrates and the others who were present at Platos lec-ture on the Good.[24]Their account is in full agreement with Aristotles de-scription of Platos metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysicshe writes: Now since the Forms are the causes of every-thing else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elementsare the elements of all things. Accordingly the materialprinciple is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and theessence is the One ( ), since the numbers are derivedfrom the Great and Small by participation in the One(987 b). From this account it is clear that he only em-ployed two causes: that of the essence, and the materialcause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in ev-erything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms.He also tells us what the material substrate is of which theForms are predicated in the case of sensible things, andthe One in that of the Forms - that it is this the duality(the Dyad, ), the Great and Small ( ). Further, he assigned to these two elementsrespectively the causation of good and of evil (988 a).The most important aspect of this interpretation of Platosmetaphysics is the continuity between his teaching andthe neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[69] or Ficino[70]which has been considered erroneous by many but mayin fact have been directly inuenced by oral transmissionof Platos doctrine. A modern scholar who recognizedthe importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato wasHeinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech duringthe 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[71]All the sources related to the havebeen collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Tes-timoniaPlatonica.[72] These sources have subsequentlybeen interpreted by scholars from the German TbingenSchool of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krmer orThomas A. Szlezk.[73]2.7 DialecticThe role of dialectic in Platos thought is contested butthere are two main interpretations: a type of reasoningand a method of intuition.[74] Simon Blackburn adopts therst, saying that Platos dialectic is the process of elicit-ing the truth by means of questions aimed at opening outwhat is already implicitly known, or at exposing the con-tradictions and muddles of an opponents position.[74] Asimilar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz,who suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowedfrom Hegel.[75] According to this view, opposing argu-ments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinionis shaped by the synthesis of many conicting ideas overtime. Each new idea exposes a aw in the acceptedmodel, and the epistemological substance of the debatecontinually approaches the truth. Hartzs is a teleologi-cal interpretation at the core, in which philosophers willultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge andthus reach the end of history. Karl Popper, on the otherhand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for vi-sualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of un-veiling the Great Mystery behind the common mans ev-eryday world of appearances.[76]3 The dialoguesSee also: Stephanus paginationThirty-ve dialogues and thirteen letters (theEpistles)have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though mod-ern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least someof these. Platos writings have been published in severalfashions; this has led to several conventions regarding thenaming and referencing of Platos texts.The usual systemfor making unique references to sectionsof the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century editionof Platos works by Henricus Stephanus. An overview ofPlatos writings according to this system can be found inthe Stephanus pagination article.One tradition regarding the arrangement of Platos texts isaccording to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Dio-genes Laertius to an ancient scholar and court astrologerto Tiberius named Thrasyllus.The works are usually grouped into Early, (sometimes bysome into Transitional), Middle, and Late period.[77][78]This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy ofcriticism by some (Cooper et al),[79] given that its recog-nised that there is no absolute agreement as to the truechronologicity, since the facts of the temporal order ofwriting are not condently ascertained.[80]Early : Apology (of Socrates), Charmides, Crito,Euthyphro, Gorgias, (Lesser) Hippias (minor), (Greater)Hippias (major), Ion, Laches, Lysis, ProtagorasMiddle/Transitional : Cratylus, 'Euthydemus, Meno,Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium,Middle/Late : TheaetetusLate : Critias, Sophist, Statesman / Politicus, Timaeus ,Philebus, LawsChronologicity was not a consideration in ancient times,in that grouping of this nature are virtually absent (Tar-rant) in the extant writings of ancient Platonists.[81]3.1 Writings of doubted authenticityJowett mentionsinhisAppendixtoMenexenus, thatworkswhichborethecharacterofawriterwereat-3.3 Narration of the dialogues 9tributed to that writer even when the actual author wasunknown.[82]For below:(*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whetherPlato is the author, and () if most scholars agree thatPlato is not the author of the work.[83]First Alcibiades (*), Second Alcibiades () , Clitophon (*) ,Epinomis (), Epistles (*), Hipparchus (), Menexenus(*),Minos () (Rival) Lovers (), Theages ()3.1.1 Spurious writingsThe following works were transmittedunder Platosname, most of them already considered spurious in an-tiquity,and so were not included by Thrasyllus in histetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled asNotheuomenoi (spurious) or Apocrypha.Axiochus, Denitions, Demodocus, Epigrams,Eryxias, Halcyon, On Justice, On Virtue, Sisyphus.3.2 Composition of the dialoguesNo one knows the exact order Platos dialogues were writ-ten in, nor the extent to which some might have beenlater revised and rewritten. A signicant distinction ofthe early Plato and the later Plato has been oered byscholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarizedby Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: E.R. Dodds isthe classical scholar whose writings most illuminated theHellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational [...]In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul [...] Doddstraces Platos spiritual evolution from the pure rational-ist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist,inuenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the laterworks culminating in the Laws.[84]Lewis Campbell was therst[85]tomakeexhaustiveuse of stylometry to prove objectively that theCritias,Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist,andStatesman wereall clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides,Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separategroup, which must be earlier (given Aristotles statementin his Politics[86] that the Laws was written after the Re-public; cf. Diogenes Laertius Lives 3.37). What is re-markable about Campbells conclusions is that, in spiteof all the stylometric studies that have been conductedsince his time, perhaps the only chronological fact aboutPlatos works that can now be said to be proven by sty-lometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus,Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Platos dialogues,the others earlier.[87]Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writ-ers are skeptical of the notion that the order of Platoswritings can be established with any precision,[88] thoughPlatos works are still often characterized as falling at leastroughly into three groups.[89] The following representsone relatively common such division.[90] It should, how-ever, be kept in mind that many of the positions in theordering are still highly disputed, and also that the verynotion that Platos dialogues can or should be orderedis by no means universally accepted.Among those who classify the dialogues into periods ofcomposition, Socrates gures in all of the early dia-logues and they are considered the most faithful repre-sentations of the historical Socrates.[91] They include TheApology of Socrates, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Ion,Laches, Lesser Hippias, Lysis, Menexenus, and Protago-ras (often considered one of the last of the early dia-logues). Three dialogues are often considered transi-tional or pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, and Meno.Whereas those classied as early dialogues often con-clude in aporia, the so-called middle dialogues providemore clearly stated positive teachings that are often as-cribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. These di-alogues includeCratylus, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic,Symposium, Parmenides, and Theaetetus. Proponents ofdividing the dialogues into periods often consider theParmenides andTheaetetus to come late in this periodand be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat thetheory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly(Theaetetus).[92] Ritters stylometric analysis places Phae-drus as probably after Theaetetus and Parmenides,[93] al-though it does not relate to the theory of Forms in thesame way. The rst book of the Republic is often thoughtto have been written signicantly earlier than the rest ofthe work, although possibly having undergone revisionswhen the later books were attached to it.[92]The remaining dialogues are classied as late and aregenerally agreed to be dicult and challenging pieces ofphilosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by sty-lometric analysis.[87] While looked to for Platos matureanswers to the questions posed by his earlier works, thoseanswers are dicult to discern. Some scholars[91] indi-cate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late di-alogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, butthere isn't total consensus that theParmenides actuallyrefutes the theory of Forms.[94] The so-called late di-alogues include Critias, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, States-man, and Timaeus.[91]3.3 Narration of the dialoguesPlato never presents himself as a participant in any ofthe dialogues,and with the exception of theApology,thereisnosuggestionthat heheardanyofthedia-logues rsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator buthave a pure dramatic form (examples: Meno, Gorgias,Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narratedby Socrates, wherein he speaks in rst person (examples:Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras,begins in dramatic formbut quickly proceeds to Socrates10 3 THE DIALOGUESnarration of a conversation he had previously with thesophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narrationcontinues uninterrupted till the dialogues end.Platos Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873)Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium also begin in dra-matic form but then proceed to virtually uninterruptednarration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an accountof Socrates nal conversation and hemlock drinking, isnarrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city notlong after the execution took place.[95] The Symposium isnarrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparentlyto Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is re-counting the story, which took place when he himself wasan infant, not from his own memory, but as rememberedby Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago.TheTheaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dra-matic form imbedded within another dialogue in dra-matic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus (142c-143b), Euclides says that he compiled the conversationfrom notes he took based on what Socrates told him ofhis conversation with the title character.The rest of theTheaetetus is presented as a book written in dramaticform and read by one of Euclides slaves (143c). Somescholars take this as an indication that Plato had by thisdate wearied of the narrated form.[96] With the excep-tion of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indicationas to how these orally transmitted conversations came tobe written down.3.4 Trial of SocratesMain article: Trial of SocratesThe trial of Socrates is the central, unifying event of thegreat Platonic dialogues. Because of this, Platos Apologyis perhaps the most often read of the dialogues. In theApology,Socrates tries to dismiss rumors that he is asophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief inthe gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists thatlong-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise,and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socratesfamously denies being wise, and explains how his life asa philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. Hesays that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle puthim at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the rea-son he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-stateof Athens.If Platos important dialogues do not refer to Socratesexecution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters orthemes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadowthe trial: In the Theaetetus (210d) and the Euthyphro (2ab) Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruptioncharges. In the Meno (94e95a), one of the men whobrings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns himabout the trouble he may get into if he does not stop crit-icizing important people. In the Gorgias, Socrates saysthat his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cookwho asks a jury of children to choose between the doc-tors bitter medicine and the cooks tasty treats (521e522a). In the Republic (7.517e), Socrates explains whyan enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble ina courtroom situation.The Apology is Socrates defensespeech, and the Crito and Phaedo take place in prison af-ter the conviction. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guestat the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whomSocrates disparages in theApology as having wasted agreat amount of money on sophists fees.3.5 Unity and diversity of the dialoguesTwo other important dialogues, the Symposium and thePhaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters.In the Apology (19b, c), Socrates says Aristophanes slan-dered himin a comic play, and blames himfor causing hisbad reputation, and ultimately, his death.In the Sympo-sium, the two of them are drinking together with otherfriends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the mainstory line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant intheSymposium and theProtagoras) and by theme (thephilosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras isalso strongly linked to the Symposium by characters:allof the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the excep-tion of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Calliasin that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias arepresent for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examplesof characters crossing between dialogues can be furthermultiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gatheringof Socratic associates.In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for,Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue,has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies whotravel with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is notto say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friendin one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of hismockery in another. For example, Socrates praises thewisdom of Euthyphro many times in theCratylus, butmakes him look like a fool in theEuthyphro. He dis-parages sophists generally, and Prodicus specically inthe Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus forcharging the hefty fee of fty drachmas for a course onlanguage and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaete-tus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus andhas directed many pupils to him. Socrates ideas are also3.6 Platonic scholarship 11not consistent within or between or among dialogues.3.6 Platonic scholarshipThe safest general characterisation of the European philosoph-ical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.(Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929).Although their popularity has uctuated over the years,the works of Plato have never been without readers sincethe time they were written.[97] Platos thought is oftencompared with that of his most famous student, Aristo-tle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Agesso completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholasticphilosophers referred to Aristotle as the Philosopher.However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Platocontinued.The only Platonic work known to western scholarshipwasTimaeus, until translationsweremadeat atimepost the fall of Constantinople, which occurred during1453,[98] George Gemistos Plethon brought Platos orig-inal writings from Constantinople in the century of itsfall.It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Di-alogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Councilof Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches,was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lecturedon the relation and dierences of Plato and Aristotle,and red Cosimo with his enthusiasm;[99] Cosimo wouldsupply Marsilio Ficino with Platos text for translationtoLatin. DuringtheearlyIslamicera, PersianandArab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic andwrote commentaries and interpretations on Platos, Aris-totles and other Platonist philosophers works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Manyof these comments on Plato were translated from Ara-bic into Latin and as such inuenced Medieval scholasticphilosophers.[100]During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence ofinterest in classical civilization, knowledge of Platos phi-losophy would become widespread again in the West.Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artistswho broke with Scholasticism and fostered the ower-ing of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Platos phi-losophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences.His political views, too, were well-received: the visionof wise philosopher-kings of the Republic matched theviews set out in works such as Machiavelli's The Prince.More problematic was Platos belief in metempsychosis,transmigration of the soul, as well as his ethical views(on polyamory and euthanasia in particular), which didnot match those of Christianity. It was Plethons studentBessarion who reconciled Plato with Christian theology,arguing that Platos views were only ideals, unattainabledue to the fall of man.[101]By the 19th century, Platos reputation was restored, andat least on par with Aristotles. Notable Western philoso-phers have continued to draw upon Platos work sincethat time. Platos inuence has been especially strongin mathematics and the sciences. He helped to distin-guish between pure and applied mathematics by wideningthe gap between arithmetic, now called number theoryand logistic, now called arithmetic. He regarded lo-gistic as appropriate for business men and men of warwho must learn the art of numbers or he will not knowhow to array his troops, while arithmetic was appro-priate for philosophers because he has to arise out ofthe sea of change and lay hold of true being.[102] Platosresurgence further inspired some of the greatest advancesin logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Fregeand his followers Kurt Gdel, Alonzo Church, and AlfredTarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist whotakes philosophy seriously would have to avoid system-atization and take on many dierent roles, and possiblyappear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a onewould have the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an in-dispensable and eective tool of his research.[103]Many recent philosophers have diverged from what somewould describe as the ontological models and moral ide-als characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number ofthese postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to dis-parage Platonism from more or less informed perspec-tives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Platosidea of the good itself along with many fundamentalsof Christian morality, which he interpreted as Platon-12 3 THE DIALOGUESism for the masses in one of his most important works,BeyondGoodandEvil (1886). Martin Heidegger ar-gued against Platos alleged obfuscation of Being in his in-complete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philoso-pher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Societyand Its Enemies (1945) that Platos alleged proposal fora utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypi-cally totalitarian. The political philosopher and professorLeo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker in-volved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more po-litical, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss political ap-proach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Platoand Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic politicalphilosophers, especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, asopposed to the Christian metaphysical tradition that de-veloped from Neoplatonism. Deeply inuenced by Ni-etzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects theircondemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for asolution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledgeas 'the crisis of the West.'3.7 Textual sources and historyFirst page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Ox-oniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule.See also: List of manuscripts of Platos dialoguesSome 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.[104] Thetexts of Plato as received today apparently represent thecomplete written philosophical work of Plato and aregenerally good by the standards of textual criticism.[105]No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek repre-sents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed frommultiple sources which are compared with each other.These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vel-lum (mainly from 9th-13th century AD Byzantium), pa-pyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from theindependent testimonia of other authors who quote vari-ous segments of the works (which come from a variety ofsources). The text as presented is usually not much dier-ent from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, andpapyri and testimonia just conrm the manuscript tradi-tion. In some editions however the readings in the papyrior testimonia are favoured in some places by the editingcritic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for theRepublic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri ishampered due to some poor editing practices.[106]In the rst century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had com-piled and published the works of Plato in the originalGreek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not sur-vived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greekmanuscripts are based on his edition.[107]The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many ofthedialoguesistheClarkePlato(CodexOxoniensisClarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39),which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquiredby Oxford University in 1809.[108] The Clarke is giventhe siglum B in modern editions. B contains the rst sixtetralogies and is described internally as being written byJohn the Calligrapher on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea.It appearstohaveundergonecorrectionsbyArethashimself.[109] For the last two tetralogies and the apoc-rypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is CodexParisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was writ-ten nearly contemporaneously toB, circa 900 AD.[110]A must be a copy of the edition edited by the patriarch,Photios, teacher of Arethas.[111][112][113]A probably hadan initial volume containing the rst 7 tetralogies whichis nowlost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetusappend. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldestmanuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobo-nensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with asupposed date in the twelfth century.[114] In total thereare fty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, whileothers may yet be found.[115]To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyriand the independent evidence of the testimony of com-mentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote andrefer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant)are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments ofPlatos texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even citesthe Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic inthe Nag Hammadi library as evidence.[116] Important au-thors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger,13Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus.During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and,along with it, Platos texts were reintroduced to WesternEurope by Byzantine scholars. In September or Octo-ber of 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco Berlinghieriprinted1025copiesofFicinostranslation, usingtheprintingpressat theDominicanconvent S.JacopodiRipoli.[117][118]Cosimo had been inuenced towardstudying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Flo-rence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon.Henri Estiennes edition, including parallel Greek andLatin, was published in 1578. It was this edition whichestablished Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[119]3.8 Modern editionsThe Oxford Classical Texts oers the current standardcomplete Greek text of Platos complete works. In vevolumes edited by John Burnet, its rst edition was pub-lished 1900-1907, and it is still available from the pub-lisher, having last been printed in 1993.[120][121] The sec-ond edition is still in progress with only the rst volume,printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, avail-able. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cam-bridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includesGreek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus,Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, liter-ary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.[122][123]OnedistinguishededitionoftheGreektext isE. R.Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive Englishcommentary.[124][125]The modern standard complete English edition is the1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M.Cooper.[126][127] For many of these translations Hackettoers separate volumes which include more by way ofcommentary, notes, and introductory material. ThereisalsotheClarendonPlatoSeriesbyOxfordUniver-sity Press which oers English translations and thoroughphilosophical commentary by leading scholars on a fewof Platos works, including John McDowell's version ofthe Theaetetus.[128] Cornell University Press has also be-gun theAgora series of English translations of classi-cal and medieval philosophical texts, including a few ofPlatos.[129]4 See alsoCambridge PlatonistsList of speakers in Platos dialoguesMethexisPlatos tripartite theory of soulPlatonic AcademyPlatonic lovePlatonic solidPlatonic realismProclusSeventh LetterTheia maniaEllen Francis Mason, translator of Plato5 Notesa.^Plato is a nickname from the adjective plats broad. Diogenes Laertius mentions three pos-sible meanings of the nickname:[130] ' - , [], . , .And he learnt gymnastics under Ariston, theArgive wrestler. And from him he receivedthe name of Plato on account of his robust g-ure, in place of his original name which wasAristocles, after his grandfather, as Alexan-der informs us in his Successions of Philoso-phers. But others arm that he got the namePlato from the breadth of his style, or from thebreadth of his forehead, as suggested by Nean-thes.Seneca mentions the meaning of Platos name in connec-tion to a moral lesson:[131]Illud simul cogitemus, si mundum ipsum, nonminus mortalem quam nos sumus, providentiapericulis eximit, posse aliquatenus nostra quo-que providentia longiorem prorogari huic cor-pusculo moram, si voluptates, quibus pars ma-ior perit, potuerimus regere et coercere. Platoipse ad senectutem se diligentia protulit. Eratquidem corpus validum ac forte sortitus et il-li nomen latitudo pectoris fecerat, sed naviga-tiones ac pericula multum detraxerant viribus;parsimonia tamen et eorum quae aviditatemevocant modus et diligens sui tutela perduxitillum ad senectutem multis prohibentibus cau-sis.Let us at the same time reect, seeing thatProvidence rescues from its perils the world14 6 FOOTNOTESitself, which is no less mortal than we our-selves, that to some extent our petty bodiescan be made to tarry longer upon earth by ourown providence, if only we acquire the abilityto control and check those pleasures wherebythe greater portion of mankind perishes. Platohimself, by taking pains, advanced to old age.To be sure, he was the fortunate possessor ofa strong and sound body (his very name wasgiven him because of his broad chest); but hisstrength was much impaired by sea voyages anddesperate adventures. Nevertheless, by frugalliving, by setting a limit upon all that rouses theappetites, and by painstaking attention to him-self, he reached that advanced age in spite ofmany hindrances.b.^The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens arguesin hisChronicles that Plato was born in the rst yearof the eighty-eighth Olympiad (427 BCE), on the sev-enthdayofthemonthThargelion; accordingtothistraditionthegodApollowas bornthis day.[132]Ac-cording to another biographer of him, Neanthes, Platowas eighty-four years of age at his death.[132] If we ac-cept Neanthes version, Plato was younger than Isocratesby six years, and therefore he was born in the secondyear of the 87th Olympiad, the year Pericles died (429BCE).[133]According to theSuda, Plato was born inAegina in the 88th Olympiad amid the preliminaries ofthe Peloponnesian war,and he lived 82 years.[134]SirThomas Browne also believes that Plato was born in the88thOlympiad.[135]RenaissancePlatonists celebratedPlatos birth on November 7.[136] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendor estimates that Plato was born when Dio-timos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29,428 BCE and July 24, 427 BCE.[137] Greek philologistIoannis Kalitsounakis believes that the philosopher wasborn on May 26 or 27, 427 BCE, while Jonathan Barnesregards 428 BCE as year of Platos birth.[138] For herpart, Debra Nails asserts that the philosopher was bornin 424/423 BCE.[136] According to Seneca Plato died atthe age of 81 on the same day he was born.[139]c.^Diogenes Laertius mentions that Plato was born, ac-cording to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidi-ades the son of Thales. Diogenes mentions as one of hissources the Universal History of Favorinus. Accordingto Favorinus, Ariston, Platos family, and his family weresent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retainingtheir Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, fromwhich they were expelled by the Spartans after Platosbirth there.[140] Nails points out, however, that there isno record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians fromAegina between 431411 BCE.[141] On the other hand,at the Peace of Nicias,Aegina was silently left underAthens control, and it was not until the summer of 411that the Spartans overran the island.[142] Therefore, Nailsconcludes that perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhapshe went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was bornon Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating ofAristons death (or Platos birth).[141] Aegina is regardedas Platos place of birth by Suda as well.[134]6 Footnotes[1] Jones 2006.[2] Plato. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.[3] Whitehead 1978, p. 39.[4] Irwin 2011, pp. 6364, 6870.[5] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III Nails 2002, p. 53 Wilamowitz-Moellendor 2005, p. 46[6] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I[7] Guthrie 1986, p. 10 Taylor 2001, p. xiv Wilamowitz-Moellendor 2005, p. 47[8] Plato, Republic 368a Wilamowitz-Moellendor 2005, p. 47[9] Some have held that Glaucon and Adeimantus were unclesof Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that theywere brothers. Cf. Ph. d. Gr. ii. 1, 4th ed. 1889, p. 392,and Abhandl. d. Berl. Akad., 1873, Hist.-Phil Kl. pp. 86.[10] Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6.1[11] Nails 2002, p. 247.[12] Nails 2002, p. 246.[13] Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1 Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I Plato. Suda.[14] Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36[15] Nails 2002, p. 53 Taylor 2001, p. xiv[16] Plato, Charmides 158a Nails 2003, pp. 228229[17] Plato, Charmides 158a Plutarch, Pericles, IV[18] Plato, Gorgias 481d and 513b Aristophanes, Wasps, 97[19] Plato, Parmenides 126c[20] Guthrie 1986, p. 11.[21] Kahn 2004, p. 186.[22] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV[23] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV Notopoulos 1939, p. 13515[24] see Tarn 1981, p. 226.[25] Guthrie 1986, p. 12 (footnote).[26] Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2[27] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV Smith 1870, p. 393[28] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, V[29] Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a[30] Borody 1998.[31] R.M. Hare, PlatoinC.C.W. Taylor, R.M. HareandJonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato,and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999(1982), 103189, here 1179.[32] Russell, Bertrand (1991).History of Western Philosophy.Routledge. pp. 122124. ISBN 0-415-07854-7.[33] Metaphysics, 1.6.1 (987a)[34] Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39.[35] Strauss 1964, pp. 5051.[36] McEvoy 1984.[37] Cairns 1961, p. xiii.[38] Robinson 1827, p. 16.[39] Dillon 2003, pp. 13.[40] Press 2000, p. 1.[41] Riginos 1976, p. 73.[42] Not to be confused with Anniceris the Cyrenaic philoso-pher.[43] Diogenes Laertius, Book iii, 20[44] Riginos 1976, p. 194.[45] Schall 1996.[46] Riginos 1976, p. 195.[47] Baird & Kaufmann 2008.[48] Fine 2003, p. 5.[49] McDowell 1973, p. 230.[50] Fine 1979, p. 366.[51] McDowell 1973, p. 256.[52] Taylor 2011, pp. 176187.[53] Lee 2011, p. 432.[54] Taylor 2011, p. 189.[55] Blssner 2007, pp. 345349.[56] Plato, Timaeus 44d & 70[57] Dorter 2006, p. 360.[58] Plato, Republic 488[59] Blssner 2007, p. 350.[60] Republic 550b[61] Republic 554a[62] Republic 561ab[63] Republic 571a[64] Dorter 2006, pp. 253267.[65] Rodriguez-Grandjean 1998.[66] Reale 1990. Cf. p.14 and onwards.[67] Krmer 1990. Cf. pp.38-47.[68] Elementa harmonica II, 3031; quoted in Gaiser 1980, p.5.[69] Plotinus describes this in the last part of his nal Ennead(VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One ( ). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zumEinen (2006) that Plotinus ontologywhich should becalled Plotinus henology - is a rather accurate philosophi-cal renewal and continuation of Platos unwritten doctrine,i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krmer and Gaiser.[70] In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: Themain goal of the divine Plato ... is to showone principle ofthings, which he called the One ( )", cf.Montoriola1926, p. 147.[71] Gomperz 1931.[72] Gaiser 1998.[73] For a brief description of the problem see for exampleGaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is given by Krmer1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale1990. A thorough analysis of the consequences of such anapproach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another supporter ofthis interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert,cf. Albert 1980 or Albert 1996. Hans-Georg Gadameris also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 andGadamer 1980. Gadamers nal position on the subjectis stated in Gadamer 1997.[74] Blackburn 1996, p. 104.[75] Hartz, Louis. 1984. ASynthesis of World History. Zurich:Humanity Press[76] Popper 1962, p. 133.[77] C. D. C. Reeve(DeltaKappaEpsilonDistinguishedProfessor of Philosophy, University of North Carolina,Chapel Hill) - A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues(page vi - Introduction) Hackett Publishing 2012 - 592pages ISBN 1603849173 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed. thisthe rst source of < Early, Middle,(Transitional), Late >[78] Robin Barrow (Professor of Philosophy of Education atSimon Fraser University, Canada and Fellowof The RoyalSociety of Canada) - Appendix 2:Notes on the authentic-ity and Groupings of Platos works (in) Plato BloomsburyPublishing, 18 Dec 2014 ISBN 1472504852 [Retrieved2015-3-31]16 6 FOOTNOTES[79] Preface - page x (of) Platonic Writings/Platonic Readings(edited by CL. Griswold Jr) Penn State Press, 1 Nov 2010ISBN 0271044810 [Retrieved 2015-3-31][80] JM. Cooper (Stuart Professor of Philosophy, PrincetonUniversity c.1997), D. S. Hutchinson - Complete Works- xii Hackett Publishing, 1997 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed.this source was 1st source for criticism of < chronologicalorder >)[81] HTarrant (ProfessorofClassicsat theUniversityofNewcastle, New South Wales) - Platos First Interpreters(Cornell University Press, 2000) ISBN 080143792X [Re-trieved 2015-3-31][82] B Jowett - APPENDIX I (1st paragraph) - MENEX-ENUS[Retrieved 2015-3-31][83] The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be au-thentic is noted in Cooper 1997, pp. vvi.[84] Bloom 1982, p. 5.[85] Burnet 1928b, p. 9.[86] Aristotle, Politics 1264b24-27.[87] Cooper 1997, p. xiv.[88] Kraut 2013; Schoeld 2002; and Rowe 2006.[89] Brickhouse & Smith.[90] See Guthrie 1986; Vlastos 1991; Penner 1992; Kahn1996; Fine 1999b.[91] Dodds 2004.[92] Brandwood 1990, p. 251.[93] Brandwood 1990, p. 77.[94] Meinwald 1991.[95] The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for thePythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any de-tails yet (Burnet 1911, p. 5).[96] Burnet 1928a, 177.[97] Cooper 1997, p. vii.[98] C.U.M. Smith - Brain, Mind and Consciousness in theHistory of Neuroscience (page 1) Springer Science &Business, 1 Jan 2014, 374 pages, Volume 6 of History,philosophy and theory of the life sciences SpringerLink :Bcher ISBN 9401787743 [Retrieved 2015-06-27][99] Lackner 2001, p. 21.[100] See Burrell 1998 and Hasse 2002, pp. 3345.[101] Harris, Jonathan(2002). ByzantinesinRenaissanceItaly. ORB: TheOnlineReferenceBookforMedievalStudies. College of Staten Island, City University of NewYork. Retrieved 9 February 2015.[102] Boyer 1991, p. 86: 'Plato is important in the history ofmathematics largely for his role as inspirer and directorof others, and perhaps to him is due the sharp distinctionin ancient Greece between arithmetic (in the sense of thetheory of numbers) and logistic (the technique of compu-tation). Plato regarded logistic as appropriate for the busi-nessman and for the man of war, who must learn the artof numbers or he will not know how to array his troops.The philosopher, on the other hand, must be an arithmeti-cian because he has to arise out of the sea of change andlay hold of true being."'[103] Einstein 1949, pp. 683684.[104] Brumbaugh & Wells 1989.[105] Irwin 2011, pp. 64 & 74. See also Slings 1987, p. 34:"...primary MSS. together oer a text of tolerably goodquality (this is without the further corrections of othersources).[106] Slings 1987, p. 31.[107] Cooper 1997, pp. viiixii.[108] Manuscripts - Philosophy Faculty Library (InternetArchive)[109] Dodds 1959, pp. 3536.[110] Dodds 1959, p. 37.[111] RD McKirahan - Philosophy Before Socrates (SecondEdition): An Introduction with Texts and Commentary:AnIntroductionwithTextsandCommentaryHackettPublishing,1 Mar 2011 ISBN 1603846123 [Retrieved2015-3-20][112] RS Brumbaugh - Plato for the Modern Age (p.199) Uni-versity Press of America, 1 Jan 1991 ISBN 0819183563[Retrieved 2015-3-20][113] JDuy-ThelonelymissionofMichael Psellos(in)Byzantine Philosophy and Its Ancient Sources edited byK Ierodiakonou (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN0199269718 [Retrieved 2015-3-20][114] Dodds 1959, p. 39.[115] Irwin 2011, p. 71.[116] Slings 2003, p. xxiii.[117] J Hankins - (p.301) ISBN 9004091610 [Retrieved 2015-3-20][118] Allen 1975, p. 12.[119] Suzanne 2009.[120] Cooper 1997, pp. xii & xxvii.[121] Oxford Classical Texts - Classical Studies & Ancient His-tory Series - Series - Academic, Professional, & General -Oxford University Press[122] Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics - Series - Academicand Professional Books - Cambridge University Press7.2 Secondary sources 17[123] CambridgeClassical TextsandCommentaries-Series-Academic and Professional Books - Cambridge UniversityPress[124] Irwin 1979, pp. vi & 11.[125] Dodds 1959.[126] Fine 1999a, p. 482.[127] Complete Works - Philosophy[128] Clarendon Plato Series - Philosophy Series - Series - Aca-demic, Professional, & General - Oxford University Press[129] Cornell University Press : Agora Editions[130] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, 3.4; translation by RobertDrew Hicks[131] Seneca, Epistulae, VI58:29-30; translationbyRobertMott Gummere[132] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, II[133] Nietzsche 1967, p. 32.[134] Plato. Suda.[135] Browne 1672.[136] Nails 2006, p. 1.[137] Wilamowitz-Moellendor 2005, p. 46.[138] Plato. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002. Plato. Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V(in Greek). 1952.[139] Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 31: natali suo decessit et annumumum atque octogensimum.[140] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III[141] Nails 2002, p. 54.[142] Thucydides, 5.18 Thucydides, 8.927 References7.1 Primary sources (Greek and Roman)Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, I. See original textin Latin Library.Aristophanes, The Wasps. Seeoriginal text inPerseus program.Aristotle, Metaphysics. See original text in Perseusprogram.Cicero, De Divinatione, I. See original text in Latinlibrary. Diogenes Lartius, LifeofPlato, translated byRobert Drew Hicks (1925).Plato. Charmides. TranslatedbyBenjaminJowett. Wikisource. See original text in Perseusprogram.Plato. Gorgias.Translated by Benjamin Jowett.Wikisource. See original text in Perseus program.Plato, Parmenides. 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Platos Alleged Epitaph.Collected Papers 1962-1999. Brill Academic Pub-lishers. ISBN 9004123040.Taylor, Alfred Edward (2001) [1937]. Plato: TheManandHisWork. Courier Dover Publications.ISBN 0-486-41605-4.Taylor, C. C. W. (2011). Platos Epistemology.In Fine, G. The Oxford Handbook of Plato. OxfordUniversity Press. pp. 165190.Vlastos, Gregory(1991). Socrates: Ironist andMoral Philosopher. Cambridge University Press.Whitehead, Alfred North (1978). Process and Real-ity. New York: The Free Press.Wilamowitz-Moellendor, Ulrich von (2005)[1917]. Plato: HisLifeandWork(translatedinGreek by XenophonArmyros). Kaktos. ISBN960-382-664-2.8 Further readingAlican, Necip Fikri (2012). RethinkingPlato: ACartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Rodopi. ISBN978-90-420-3537-9.Allen, R. E. (1965). Studies in Platos MetaphysicsII. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0710036264Ambuel, David (2007). ImageandParadigminPlatos Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The DialoguesasDrama, Rowman & Littleeld Publishers, Inc.ISBN 0-8476-7662-5Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of GreekPhilosophy: FromThales to the Stoics Analysisand Fragments, Traord Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: ContinuumLibrary ofEducational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8408-5.Cadame, Claude(1999). Indigenous andMod-ernPerspectivesonTribal InitiationRites: Educa-tionAccordingtoPlato, pp. 278312, in Padilla,Mark William(editor), Rites of Passage in AncientGreece: Literature, Religion, Society, BucknellUniversity Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-XCooper, John M. &Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.)(1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publish-ing Company, Inc. ISBN 0-87220-349-2.Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Platos Di-alogues. ParmenidesPublishing. ISBN978-1-930972-02-5Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Si-mon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69500-2.Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissmination, Paris:Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69-199)ISBN 2-02-001958-2Field, G.C. (Guy Cromwell) (1969). The Philosophyof Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by R. C. Cross.ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-888040-5.Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Episte-mology Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-875206-7Finley, M. I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discover-ies and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., USAGarvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest PhilosophyBooks. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-9053-0.Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Phi-losophy (Plato - The Man & His Dialogues - EarlierPeriod), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Phi-losophy(LaterPlato&theAcademy) CambridgeUniversity Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0Havelock,Eric (2005). PrefacetoPlato(HistoryoftheGreekMind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8Hamilton, Edith &Cairns, Huntington (Eds.)(1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Includingthe Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 0-691-09718-6.Harvard University Press publishes the hardboundseries Loeb Classical Library, containingPlatosworks in Greek, with English translations on facingpages.Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: Aplay based on Aristophanes Clouds and Platos Apol-ogy, Crito, andPhaedo, adaptedformodernper-formance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.21ISBN978-0-8020-9783-5(cloth); ISBN978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper)Hermann, Arnold (2010). Platos Parmenides: Text,Translation & Introductory Essay, Parmenides Pub-lishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1Irwin, Terence (1995). Platos Ethics, Oxford Uni-versity Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-508645-7Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: ABeginnersGuide.London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 0-340-80385-1.Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato.Translated into English with analyses and introduc-tions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK,UIN:BLL01002931898Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric inPlatos Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press.ISBN 0-521-80852-9.Kraut, Richard (Ed.) (1993). The Cambridge Com-panion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-43610-9.Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris,ditionsJulliard; Reedited1979, Paris, Grasset.Foreword by Julien GracqLilar,Suzanne (1963), Lecouple,Paris,Grasset.Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Grin London,Thames and Hudson.Lilar, Suzanne(1967) Apropos de Sartre et del'amour , Paris, Grasset.Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho - The Hunt forVirtue: Beauty,Truth and Goodness Nine Dialoguesby Plato: Pheadrus,Lysis,Protagoras,Charmides,Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist.Authorhouse. ISBN 1-4184-4977-6.Mrquez, Xavier (2012) AStrangersKnowledge:Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Platos States-man, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation:AHistorical IntroductiontoPhilosophy. McGrawHill. ISBN 0-19-517510-7.Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in PlatosStatesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato -and other Essays in Platos Metaphysics. ParmenidesPublishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.)(2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: PlatosTimaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy InsightsSeries. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). Genres inDialogue:Plato and the Construct of Philosophy,Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-XOxford University Press publishes scholarly editionsof Platos Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Textsseries, and some translations in the Clarendon PlatoSeries.Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis(Ed.),Hermann,Arnold (Ed.) (2013)Presocrat-ics &Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor ofCharles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading thePlatonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN0-253-21071-2.Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: OnBeginninginPlatos Timaeus. Indiana University Press. ISBN0-253-21308-8.Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Platos Late Ontology:A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN978-1-930972-09-4Seung, T. K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: HumanValueandSocialOrder. Rowman and Littleeld.ISBN 0-8476-8112-2Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek andRomanBiographyandMythology. University ofMichigan/Online version.Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the GreekWorld - Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4Thesle, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Col-lectionofStudiesbyHolgerThesle, ParmenidesPublishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2Thomas Taylor has translated Platos completeworks.Thomas Taylor (1804). The Works of Plato, viz. HisFifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles 5 volsVlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Prince-ton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Platos Universe - with anew Introducution by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Pub-lishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-122 9 EXTERNAL LINKSZuckert, Catherine (2009). Platos Philosophers:The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University ofChicago Press


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