POWER PROJECTION & TECH REVOLUTION1815-1860

Sea Power & Maritime AffairsLesson 4

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Last Class

Navy in the Napoleonic Era, 1873-1815– Re-establishment of Navy & USMC– 1st Barbary War– Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars–War of 1812

Today

Post War of 1812 (1815-1860) Commercial & geographic expansion Navy’s role in expansion Mexican-American War Revolution in Navy technology– Steam propulsion, gunnery, artillery

Navy reorganization & modernization

8 Key Themes

1. Navy as an instrument of foreign policy2. Interaction between Congress and Navy3. Interservice relations4. Technology5. Leadership6. Strategy & Tactics7. Evolution of US Naval Doctrine8. Future missions of Navy and USMC

Commercial ExpansionNavy’s Role

– Protect citizens and commercial interests

Areas of commercial expansion & protection– Caribbean

• Trade 2nd only to British

– Central and South America• Accessory Transit Company

– Cornelius Vanderbilt– Panamanian Isthmus– American “Filibusters” (William Walker, Nicaragua)

– Pacific & Far East• Spice trade• Whaling

New Commercial TreatiesMany diplomatic treaties, with similar objectives:

– Safe Haven for shipwrecked– Trade Rights– Coaling Stations

Examples– Treaty with Thailand - (1833)– Treaty with Sultan of Muscat (Oman) - (1833)– Treaty of Wangxia (China) - (1844)– Clayton-Bulwer Treaty - (1850)

• US and GB had competing rights and interests in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Columbia

– Treaty with GB over Panama Canal • Freedom of movement

Perry Opens Trade with Japan 1853-1854

Bay of Edo (Tokyo)– First time a foreign navy had been in this sacred Bay of

Edo.– First time Japanese had ever seen a steam ship.– Letter from the President to the Emperor.– Leaves letter with high ranking official and leaves.

Returns 10 months later– Perry carried on “Sedan Chair”– Brings gifts

• Including a model steam train that travels 20 mph.

Matthew C. PerryCOMMO, USN

Matthew C. Perry in Japan

Perry Opens Trade with Japan

Treaty of Kanagawa 1. Safe-haven for shipwrecked2. Coaling station3. Permanent American Consul• No trade relationship, American Consul is able

to negotiate open trade within two years.

Geographic Expansion

“Manifest Destiny”– Louisiana Purchase (1803)

• Napoleon needed money to fund war in Europe• Sold for $15,000,000 (roughly 3 cents per acre)

– Transcontinental Treaty (1819) with Spain• Acquired Florida

–Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842)• 49th Parallel• Boarder of Canada• Oregon now US territory

Geographic Expansion

North-Western Territory– Continual dispute with Great Britain and

later Russia Texas Annexation (1845) Mexican-American War (1846)– California, Nuevo Mexico (Arizona and

New Mexico), and Rio Grande as boarder

Expansion of International Influence

Monroe Doctrine (1823)– European countries meddling in western

hemispheric politics.• Tsar of Russia claimed Alaska to CA• Central and South American Colonial Revolutions

– Power vacuum with Spain overthrown– Germany looking for overseas colonies

– Doctrine Stated: 1. Americas off-limits to further European

colonization2. Move in response to independence movements

in Americas US asserting its strength in the Americas.

Expansion of International Influence

Tyler Doctrine (1842)– Treaty of Friendship with Hawaii (1826)– “Any colonization of Hawaii would be a

violation of US national interests”

Science & Technology

1. Sail to Steam2. Wood to Iron3. Solid Shot to Shell4. Better Cannon

Exploration

Age of Charles Darwin– Voyage of the HMS Beagle

(1831)– The Origin of Species (1859)

American Naval Contribution1. Charting the World2. Charting the Oceans3. Supporting Government-

sponsored Exploration

US Navy Charting the World

Wilkes Expedition (1838-1842)– LT Charles Wilkes– 4-year Navy expedition around the

world• Discovered Antarctica (1839)• South Pacific Islands and Pacific Rim

– 85,000 miles sailed– 280 islands charted– 1,500 miles of Antarctica mapped– His collections became basis for

Smithsonian

Wilkes Expedition (1838-1842)

US Navy Charting the World

Arctic Exploration– Numerous

Amazon River Expedition – 1851– CDR William Lewis Herndon– Peru to Brazil

Northwest Exploring Expedition – 1853-1856– Seattle to China

US Navy Charting the Oceans

Matthew F. Maury: – “Pathfinder of the Seas”– Studied ocean currents– Cut 4-days of voyage from

NY to San Francisco

Major PlayersCAPT Matthew C.

PerryCAPT Robert Stockton

Father of the US Steam NavyOrganized 1st corps of Naval Engineers

Major PlayersADM John DahlgrenJohn Ericcson

Father of Modern Naval Ordnance

Age of Steam Robert Fulton

Demologos –War of 1812– Blockade Runner

Design– Paddle wheel– 5-ft walls

Never saw action Destroyed in fire No more until 1830s

Sail to Steam

Why so slow to implement?– Expensive– Inefficient• Bad for sailing & cruising• Overseas coaling stations

– Less broadside– Dangerous in battle– Steaming dirty – Refueling dirty and time consuming– Sailors & officers did not like it

Standing Order: Ships required to use sail power except in battle.

Cruise of the Susquehanna

Why did steam prevail over sail?

Screw Propulsion– Ericsson & Stockton – 1st Screw Propulsion in 1842– USS Princeton

Why was it revolutionary?– Faster–Mechanics under water• Unlikely to be damaged• More cannon

Guns

No major change since 1600’s

Major changes (1840’s)– Stronger guns• Cracks

– “Peacemaker”– Dahlgren Gun– Armstrong Gun

– Rifling– Pivot Gun (turret)

“Peace-maker” Disaster (1843)

Gun Turret

USS Monitor

Solid Shot to Shell

Shot v. Shell : What is the difference? Slow to adopt Crimean War (1850’s) – Russians defeat Turkish fleet using shell– Shell exploded, igniting ships

What is the solution to exploding shell?

Wood to Iron

Why the need?– Protection from shells• Crimean War

– 1st experiments with all-iron ships1. French2. British3. Everyone else

– 4.25-inch standard–Monitor v. Merrimack

La Gloire(France, 1859)

HMS Warrior(Britain, 1860)

Ironclad Video

Reform

AdministrativeEducation

Administrative Reform

Navy Board of Commissioners (1815)– (3) most-senior officers

– John Rodgers, Stephen Decatur, Isaac Hull

– At time, highly political & borderline dysfunctional

Navy Bureaus (1842) – SECNAV Abel Upsher1. Navy Yards and Docks 2. Ordnance and Hydrography 3. Construction, Equipment, and Repair4. Medicine and Surgery 5. Provisions and Clothing (Supply)

– 3 Bureaus added during the Civil War– Otherwise intact to WWII

Administrative Reform

New Code of Naval Regulations (1850)– End Flogging– Retired Lists– First Formal Promotions Boards

Educational Reform

Midshipman System– Est. 1837– 2/C and 3/C Midshipmen ($5/month and $6/month)

USS Somers Mutiny (1842)– CAPT Mackenzie v. MIDN Spencer• Spencer was hung for mutiny• Son of Secretary of War

– Gives impetus to formal school

US Naval Academy

1845 George Bancroft

Wars & Conflicts

2nd Barbary WarPirates of the CaribbeanMexican-American War

2nd Barbary War

Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli William Bainbridge (Boston) v. Stephen

Decatur (NY) Decatur arrives at Gibralter– Defeats Mashouba (flagship) and Estudio

(22)– Sails to Algerian capital

• End to tribute• Free captured merchantmen• Indemnity for captured ships

– Accomplishes same in Tunis and Tripoli

2nd Barbary War

2nd Barbary War

Bainbridge arrives and retraces Decatur’s path– Shows America will maintain a presence

in Mediterranean– Algiers rebukes treaty the next year– Anglo-Dutch naval force defeats them and

ends tribute system entirely Establishment of Mediterranean

Squadron (1815)

Pirates

Gulf Coast Pirates– Operated out of US Territory (Louisiana,

Texas)– Jean Lafitte

Pirates of the Caribbean– Central and Southern American

Revolutions• Venezuelan Letters of Marque - “privateering”

Pirates of the Caribbean

Pirates of the Caribbean Oliver Hazard Perry sent to defeat pirates

Dies of Yellow Fever

West India Squadron Established James Biddle (1st COMMO)

Also falls ill with Yellow Fever David Porter (2nd COMMO) - Good sailor, poor diplomat

Mosquito Squadron - smaller ships Fight pirates in conjunction with British Navy Recaptured 79 vessels in 18 months

Fajardo Incident (Puerto Rico) Court-martialed, resigns, becomes Commander of Mexican

Navy

Overseas Expansion

What is the message? US & navy’s influence is expanding.

Mexican-American War

1846-1848

Manifest Destiny Republic of Texas (1836)

– Alamo– GEN Santa Ana’s forces

defeated in Battle of San Jacinto

– Texas wants annexed

Monterrey Incident (1842)– COMMO Thomas ap Catesby

Jones– Diplomatic embarrassment

Texas Annexation (1845)– MGEN Zachary Taylor sent to

defend Texas – COMMO David Conner (Home

Squadron) transports Taylor’s troops and stays in Gulf

Mexico Declares War Mexico declares

“Defensive War” – April 1846– Sends Army into Texas

and ambushes Taylor’s Army

Congress Declares War– May 13, 1846

Mexican-American War

First war in which US is more powerful than adversary–Mexicans have weaker army–Mexicans have weaker navy• Sell their only two ships• US has unfettered control of the seas

What can the Navy do? Blockade, troop supply & movement.

What navy does this sound like? British Navy

Strategies

1. Blockade2. Push in from Texas3. Take Mexico City

1. Amphibious assault

4. Conquer California **Manifest Destiny**

1. Quick attack and defeat of American army

2. Hold territories3. Destroy American will

to fight

United States Mexico

Who do we sound like? Great Britain

Theaters of WarWar in Texas Gulf Coast California Baja California &

Mexican West Coast

East Coast War Blockade– Challenging supply line

• Out of Pensacola, FL

– Established fleet base at Anton Lizardo

Excellent Army-Navy Cooperation– Navy: COMMO David Conner

(Home Squadron)– Army: GEN Winfield Scott

East Coast

Steam Power at Work

Steam Power Proves its Worth– Steam boats used

to pull ships over sandbar surrounding numerous ports

Landing at Vera Cruz1. Amphibious landing

– 10,000 troops uncontested – 3rd largest Amphibious

Operation in US history

2. Siege city– Army and USMC from land– Navy at sea

• Ships provided gunfire support

3. Slow move inland toward Mexico City– 1.5 years to complete– City fell in 1848– Marines assigned guard of

Montezuma Palace

“From the Halls of Montezuma…”

West Coast War

John D. Sloat – COMMO Pacific Squadron– Ordered to take California• Learns about CAPT John C.

Freemont and the Bear Flag Republic

– Took Monterrey• Marines and sailors

– San Francisco– Self-appointed Governor

West Coast War Robert F. Stockton

– Relieved Sloat as COMMO Pacific Squadron

Combined sailors, Marines, and Freemont’s forces and took

– San Diego– Los Angeles– Left small marine force to occupy Los Angeles and returned

to Monterrey.

Mexicans in California Revolt– Stockton used navy to withdraw forces to San Diego, where

they joined forces with MGEN Stephen W. Kearny– March to Los Angeles and defeat rebellion

West Coast War

West Coast War Treaty of Cahuenga– 1847– Ended war in California– West Coast war moved into Mexico

William Shubrick – Relieved Stockton as COMMO Pacific

Squadron– Blockaded and Amphibious operations on

Baja California & West Coast of Mexico

End of War Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1846)– Ended War– Mexico forfeited claims to Texas– Forfeited California, and Nuevo Mexico

• Arizona and New Mexico

– Rio Grande River set as boarder

Manifest destiny is complete– US Navy outclassed Mexican forces– US now a two-ocean power

• Gold discovered at Sutter’s Mill - (1848)• California Annexed as a free state - (1850)

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