prevalence, methods of rapid weight loss amongst …...before weigh-in. 241 wrestlers completed a...

Journal of High Performance Sport 6 (2020)12-27

12

研究資料

Prevalence, methods of rapid weight loss amongst elite Japanese wrestlers: a questionnaire-based study of the 2016 Japanese Wrestling Championship

エリート日本人レスリング選手を対象とした減量に関するアンケート調査報告

Mio Nishimaki 1), Emi Kondo1), Cheryl Teo2), Kohei Nakajima1), Daichi Yamashita1)

西牧未央 1), 近藤衣美 1), Cheryl Teo 2), 中嶋耕平 1), 山下大地 1)

Abstract : This study aims to investigate weight loss practices of elite Japanese wrestlers who participated at the 2016 Japanese Wrestling Championship. In this study,loss (RWL) as losing 5% or more of their weight relative to their intended weight class, one week before weigh-in. 241 wrestlers completed a questionnaire on their weight loss practices. 109 wrestlers reported RWL and were used for analysis. We found that wrestlers who cut weight over a longer duration utilized a greater variety of weight loss methods than those who cut weight over a shorter duration. Reduced carbohydrate intake was commonly used by wrestlers who cut weight over a longer duration,cut weight over a shorter duration. Dehydration was commonly done by all wrestlers. We also

, and suggest for wrestlers to be educated to improve the effectiveness of these methods. Studies to investigate the revision of the weigh-in rules are recommended to better understand the implications of these changes on RWL and recovery practices in wrestlers.

Key words : rapid weight loss, wrestling, dehydration, weight class, weight loss methodsキーワード：急速減量 ,レスリング, 脱水 , 階級 , 減量方法

1)Japan Institute of Sports Sciences, 2)Singapore Sport Institute1)国立スポーツ科学センター , 2)シンガポールスポーツインスティチュート

E-mail : [email protected]

受付日：2019年 10月 3 日

受理日：2020年 2 月 13日

Rapid weight loss practice amongst elite Japanese wrestlers

13

Ⅰ．IntroductionWrestling is a sport wherein opponents are matched

based on their weight class. Competitors are divided

into weight classes to reduce inequality in muscle

strength and power. However, it is common practice

for wrestlers to lose weight in a relatively short time

before the weigh-in to attain physical advantage over

their opponents, followed by rapid post weigh-in

recovery 3). Acute weight loss is typically defined as 16). Acute

weight loss has been found to correlate with dehydra-

tion and muscle cramps that affect both athletic perfor-

mance and health 10). In response to college wrestlers’

deaths that occurred in 1997 caused by acute weight

loss 9), the National Collegiate Athletic Association set 22). This

also includes limiting weight losses to not more than

1.5% of body weight per week. The Japan Wrestling

Federation Medical Science Committee has been con-

ducting intervention programs to educate junior wres-

tlers on the adverse effects of acute weight loss. These

programs were found to be successful at promoting

better weight loss practices in Japanese wrestlers 1).

Weight cutting is common in combat sports. Almost

all judokas 4) and wrestlers engage in weight loss prac-

tices, regardless of age 17), 31). Combat sport athletes

also tend to begin weight loss practices at a relatively

young age of 12-14 4), 17), 25), 31). Relative weight loss

has been found to be between 1-15% of body weight 19), and most athletes were found to repeatedly cycle

between 3-6% of their body weight throughout a sea-

son6), 17), 25), 26). In a survey of college wrestlers, 41%

during the competitive season 31).

The duration of weight loss can be categorized as

gradual (lasting more than one week) and acute (with-

in one week) 13). The major difference is that gradual

weight loss is achieved by body fat reduction through

negative energy balance 15), whereas acute weight loss

is primarily achieved through fluid manipulation by

passive and active dehydration 5), 18), 30). Some acute

weight loss methods include promoting perspiration

through increased exercise, training in a sauna suit,

use of a sauna, or restriction of fluid intake 13). The

methods of weight loss may vary, depending on the

extent and duration of weight loss. Although weight

loss methods used by combat sport athletes have been

well characterized in the literature, no study to date

has examined the relationship between the duration of

weight loss and the methods used for weight loss.

To prevent unsafe weight loss in weight-classified

used by athletes to make weight, including the extent

and duration of weight loss within each weight class.

This information will help to enforce safe weight loss

practices that promote competition of the sport, and

not weight control. The information can also help

practitioners to establish individualized safe weight

loss recommendations.

of Japanese wrestlers who competed in the 2016 Japa-

nese Wrestling Championship one week before weigh-

ins across all weight classes and wrestling styles;

(ii) examine the relationship between the duration of

weight loss and methods used for weight loss; (iii) in-

vestigate weight loss practices of wrestlers. This was a

highly competitive championship as Japanese wrestlers

won medals in Freestyle, Greco-Roman and Woman’s

wrestling at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics.

Ⅱ．Materials and Methods1 . Participants

Responses through the original questionnaire were

collected before weigh-in from 241 wrestlers who par-

ticipated in the 2016 Japanese Wrestling Champion-

ship from December 21 to 23. The purpose and content

of the questionnaire was explained to the participants,

and their informed consent was obtained. In the case of

underage participants, informed consent was obtained

from their legal guardians. Participants answered the

Nishimaki et al.

14

-

ins. This study was conducted with approval from the

Ethics Committee of the Japan Institute of Sports Sci-

ences (approval No. 058, 2016).

2 . Questionnaires

To investigate the pre-competition weight-cutting

practices of wrestlers, we created a self-reported

questionnaire based on previous studies 2), 20). The

questionnaire investigates the following: (i) weight

one week before weigh-ins; (ii) the duration it took

to make weight for the competition (number of days);

(iii) weight loss methods utilized Multiple answers

were could be selected from these options: decreasing

in meal frequency, increasing in meal frequency, de-

creasing carbohydrate intake, decreasing fat intake, de-

-salt

diet, increasing volume of exercise (more than usual),

saunas and bath, training with rubber/plastic suit; (iv)

age at which the participants started competing; and (v)

above the intended weight class one week before

weigh-in. Excess weight was calculated as follows:

Excess weight (EW)(%) = (body weight one week

before weigh-

(RWL) as losing 5% or more of their weight relative to

their intended weight class, one week before weigh-in.

3 . Statistical Analysis

An unpaired t-test was used to compare the age at

which female and male wrestlers started competing

and when they started to cut weight. Chi-squared tests

were used to examine the relationship between the

type of weight loss method and the duration of weight

analysis of the Woman’s Wrestling data was presented

as the sample size was too small. Chi-squared tests

were also used to examine the relationship between

the duration of weight loss 1 week before weigh-in

(%) and wrestling style in male wrestlers. Pearson’s

product-moment correlation coefficient was used to

examine the relationship between EW (%) 1 week be-

fore weigh-in and the duration of weight loss. Wom-

an’s Wrestling was excluded from this analysis as the

sample size was too small to provide meaningful data.

Table.1 summarises the weight classes and wrestling

styles at the 2016 Japanese Wrestling Championship.

A one-way ANOVA was used to compare EW (kg)

and EW (%) among weight classes within each wres-

tling style, and Bonferroni’s method was used for mul-

tiple comparison tests. When equal variance was not

assumed, a nonparametric test (Kruskal–Wallis H test)

was used. IBM SPSS for Windows (Ver.24) was used

for statistical processing. The significance level was

-

3-days) as done in previous studies 4).

Ⅲ．ResultsFemale wrestlers were found to start competing at a

The distribution of EW within each wrestling style

-

tlers were found have between 5-9.9% EW than Free-

style and Greco-

We found that wrestlers in the lighter weight catego-

ries, regardless of wrestling styles, tend to have great-

er EW than those in the heavier weight categories.

Freestyle wrestlers competing in the three lightweight

classes (57 kg, 61 kg, and 65 kg) had significantly

greater EW (kg) as compared to those competing in

the heaviest weight class (125 kg) (Table.2). Similarly,


15

class (57 kg) compared with three heavyweight classes

(86 kg, 97 kg, and 125 kg). Greco-Roman wrestlers

competing in the two lightweight classes (59 kg and 66

the heaviest weight class (130 kg) (Table.3). EW (%)

kg) as compared with the heavier weight classes (85

kg and 130 kg). In Woman’s Wrestling, EW (kg) was

with the 69 kg and 75 kg weight classes (Table.4).

class (48 kg) compared with the heavier weight classes

(63 kg, 69 kg, and 75 kg).

Table.1 Weight classes and wrestling styles at the 2016 Japanese Wrestling Championship

Figure.1 The distribution of wrestlers with excess weight within each wrestling style (Freestyle : n=86, Greco-Roman : n=86, Woman’s Wrestling : n=69)

12.88.1

0Freestyle

Greco Romann (%

)

0%

56 5

20.3

29.023.3

4.9-0

Greco-Roman

Woman's Wrestling

ore

wei

gh-in

0-4.9%

21 8

56.5

41.961.6

9.9-5 *1 w

eek

befo

5-9.9%†

1.4

21.8

16.37.0

10+

cess

wei

ght

10%

†1.4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Exc

The dist of the wrestlers (%)

Nishimaki et al.

16

Table.2 Amount and percentage of EW in Freestyle wrestlers

Table.3 Amount and percentage of EW in Greco-Roman wrestlers


17

The relationship between EW (%) and the dura-

is shown in Figure 2. No significant correlation was

5% EW to make weight is summarized in Figure 3.

-days

than Greco- -

co- -days to make weight

Table.5 summarizes the methods used by wrestlers

to make weight as categorized by the duration of

weight loss. Common methods used to make weight

intake. Wrestlers who cut weight over a longer dura-

methods, such as manipulation of macronutrient (fat

and carbohydrate) intake, as compared with those who

-

hydrate reduction was most commonly used by those

-days than those who cut

weight within≦3-

in fat intake was reported to be commonly used by

-days than those who

salt diet was more likely to be used by those who cut

-days than those who cut weight over

4-

Table.6 summarizes the weight loss methods used

the duration of weight loss. Descriptive analysis of the

Woman’s Wrestling data was presented as the sample

size was too small.

Ⅳ．Discussion

Japanese wrestlers who competed in the 2016 Japanese

Wrestling Championship; examine the relationship

between the duration of weight loss and methods used

for RWL; and to investigate the weight loss practices

of wrestlers across all wrestling styles and weight

Table.4 Amount and percentage of EW in Woman's Wrestling wrestlers

Nishimaki et al.

18

classes.

We investigated the relationship between the weight

loss methods used and duration of weight loss in male

four categories (≧ 8-days, 6–7 days, 4–5 days, and

≦3-days). Wrestlers who took the longest time to

make weight used a greater variety of methods as com-

pared with others. The weight loss methods chosen

-

ration of weight loss. Wrestlers who engaged in weight

Figure.2 The correlation between EW (%) and weight loss period in

Figure.3 A summary of the duration needed for male wrestlers who

(Freestyle : n=59, Greco-Roman : n=50)Greco-Roman. Woman’s Wrestling was excluded from this analysis as the sample size was too small to provide any meaningful data.

12.88.1

0Freestyle

Greco Romann (%

)

0%

56 5

20.3

29.023.3

4.9-0

Greco-Roman

Woman's Wrestlingor

e w

eigh

-in

0-4.9%

21 8

56.5

41.961.6

9.9-5 *1 w

eek

befo

5-9.9%†

1.4

21.8

16.37.0

10+

cess

wei

ght

10%

†1.4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Exc

The dist of the wrestlers (%)

6.0

20.3-3 Freestyle

Greco-Romanys) 3-days *

24.0

27.15-4

ight

loss

(day

4-5 days

36.0

35.67-6

aon

of w

ei

6-7days

34.0

17.08+Du

r

8-days *

0 10 20 30 40 The distri u on of the athletes (%)


19

loss practices over longer durations of weight loss uti-

lized methods that involved dietary changes, such as

carbohydrate, fat and salt manipulation. Wrestlers who

engaged in weight loss practices over shorter durations

primarily utilized methods that involve reductions to

-

ings 6). Male wrestlers are known to have low levels of

body fat, and further reductions to body fat and chron-

ic maintenance of low levels of body fat can be highly

stressful to the physical and mental wellbeing of the

athlete.

A combination of gradual and acute weight making

strategies is needed for successful weight management

in wrestlers. Gradual weight making involves muscle

and body fat reduction, which requires chronic ma-

nipulation of energy balance. As fat is energy dense,

adopting a low fat diet is useful to achieve this through

energy intake reduction and is used by almost half

(43.1%) of the male wrestlers who required RWL.

Carbohydrate is stored in the body in the form of

glycogen in the liver and muscles. As each gram of

glycogen is bound to approximately three to four

grams of water 24), reduction of glycogen-bound water

with the use of a low carbohydrate diet and appro-

priate glycogen-depleting training can be effective

RWL strategies. However, less than half of the male

Table.5 Difference in EW (%), the prevalence of weight loss methods, and number of weight loss methods in male wrestlers (n=109)

Nishimaki et al.

20

wrestlers (46.8%) in this study who required RWL

utilized this method. Necessary considerations for the

effectiveness of this method include the athlete’s origi-

nal glycogen status, degree of carbohydrate restriction,

and training demands. As wrestling training is highly

glycolytic, a relatively high carbohydrate intake is nec-

essary 7). Adopting a low carbohydrate diet to achieve

RWL may be counterproductive to sustain quality

training, which may possibly explain why many wres-

tlers do not utilize this method to achieve RWL. More

can be done to educate wrestlers on RWL strategies

and how to appropriately periodize this weight loss

method within the training and competition program.

Mouth-rinsing with carbohydrate- based solutions can

also be used to mitigate the effects of low carbohydrate

availability through stimulation of the central nervous

system 8), 28).

Low salt diets are commonly used by athletes in

weight-classified sports to create a temporary reduc-

intake has been shown to improve blood pressure in

individuals with hypertension, and would theoretically

induce a similar but smaller reduction in intravascular

fluid retention in healthy individuals 12), 27). It is one

of many methods that can be used for weight cutting

in the days leading up to the weigh-in. However, this

method does not seem to be popular amongst Japa-

nese wrestlers as only 25.7 % of male wrestlers who

Table.6 Difference in EW (%), the prevalence of weight loss methods, and number of weight loss methods in female wrestlers (n=16)


21

required RWL in this study utilized this method. It is

notable that the greatest proportion of male wrestlers

(48.1%), and fewer wrestlers used this method for

shorter durations of RWL (6-7 days 23.1%, 4-5 days

how the low salt diets were used in this study, we

speculate that it was one of the methods used to in-

duce dehydration during the early phase of the weight

loss, or the other reason. It is also noted that it may be

counterproductive to undergo long periods of sodium

restriction. Prolonged sodium restriction stimulates

greater aldosterone secretion as the body attempts

to promote sodium resorption 29), which results in

increased water resorption. Instead, it will be more ef-

fective to limit sodium restriction to only 2-3 days. We

recognize that appropriate use of low salt diets can be

a useful strategy for weight cutting and but necessary

education is needed to be done in wrestlers to optimize

this method as a viable weight loss strategy.

Compared with a similar study conducted in

2001 17), the proportion of male athletes who needed to

cut weight in this study (77%) is lower than what was

previously found (83%) 20). The proportion of female

athletes who needed to make weight in this study was

also observed to be lower (51% compared with 77% in

the previous study) 20). There are two possible reasons

for this. Firstly, in 2013 there was a rule change that

increased the number of weight classes from 7 to 8. As

a result, wrestlers were able to participate in a more

suitable weight class which inevitably reduced the

need for drastic weight cuts. Secondly, to prevent un-

safe weight making practices, the Japan Wrestling Fed-

eration Medical Science Committee created education

programs for junior wrestlers to build an awareness on

the dangers of RWL in 2007. Guidelines and programs

for safe weight loss were also introduced. Collectively,

these measures have been found to improve unsafe

weight loss practices in Japanese wrestlers 1). Despite

this, it is still concerning that a large number of top

Japanese wrestlers in this study were still found to en-

gage in RWL practices.

It was observed that Freestyle wrestlers tended to

compared with Greco-

Many previous studies have suggested that the phys-

ical and technical-tactical characteristics of Freestyle

and Greco-Roman wrestlers are different. There are

major differences between Freestyle and Greco-Ro-

man wrestling. Freestyle wrestling allows actions

of both the upper and lower body 11) and require leg

attacks 14). On the other hand, holds below the waist

is forbidden in Greco-Roman wrestling. Instead, this

wrestling style emphasizes dynamic moves (e.g.,

lifting, throwing, and resisting opponents). These dif-

ferences contribute towards wrestling style-specific

physical and technical-tactical characteristics 11), 14). It

is beyond the scope of this study to determine how the

different wrestling styles affect the duration of weight

loss. Further studies in this area are warranted and the

information will be useful to establish individualized

safe weight loss recommendations.

Female wrestlers in this study began wrestling at a

younger age as compared with male wrestlers and be-

age. This means that they were likely to be exposed to

unsafe weight loss practices and its associated risks at

an earlier age, and are likely to continue these practices

late into their careers 25). Athletes accustomed to regu-

lar weight cutting at an early age are also known to use

harsher methods for weight loss 3). The prevalence of

disordered eating in competitive youth sports is high

compared to non-athletic youths and early weight cy-

cling practices can exacerbate the development of the

-S) 21). It is

particularly concerning that weight cutting practices in

this group would likely to have coincided with puber-

ty. This exposes them to low energy availability, both

contributed by energy restriction to achieve the weight

cut and increased energy requirements to support rapid

Nishimaki et al.

22

growth and development. As a result, they are vulner-

able to the multiple health risks of low energy avail-

ability including endocrine dysfunction, impaired bone

health and psychological issues 21), 23). It is crucial to

consider the energy requirements to support the growth

and developmental needs of youth athletes and those

entering puberty. Studies to investigate the relationship

between early weight cutting practices and subsequent

weight cycling in wrestlers are warranted.

Wrestling rules were revised in 2017 to prevent

RWL and its associated health risks. Instead of weigh-

ins the day before the competition, this new rule

requires weigh-ins to be conducted on the morning

of the competition. Weigh-ins are also conducted on

the morning of the second day if a competition is held

over two days. The present rule effectively reduces the

recovery period between the time of weigh-in and the

competition from 15 hours to 2 hours. Studies to in-

vestigate the implications of this rule change on RWL

and recovery practices in wrestlers is recommended.

This study has provided us with extensive data to

better understand the general weight making practices

of wrestlers in the week leading up to a competition.

investigated in this study. Another limitation of this

study is the reliance on self-reported data, although it

is assumed that wrestlers tend to be well aware of their

body composition and weight making requirements.

Ⅴ．ConclusionsIn this study, we profiled all wrestlers who com-

peted at the 2016 Japanese Wrestling Championship

one week before their weigh-ins and evaluated the

relationship between the duration of methods used for

the lighter weight categories tend to have greater EW

than those in heavier weight categories. We found that

wrestlers who cut weight over a longer duration uti-

lized a greater variety of weight loss methods, while

those who cut weight over a shorter period utilized

methods that actively and passively modified water

weight. We have also identified trends in the use of

low carbohydrate and low salt diets for RWL, and

suggest for wrestlers to be educated to further improve

the effectiveness of these methods. Future studies to

investigate the early weight cutting practices and sub-

sequent weight cycling in wrestlers are needed. Stud-

ies to investigate the revision of the new weigh-in rule

are recommended to better understand the implications

of the rule change on RWL and recovery practices in

wrestlers.

Acknowledgments: We thank the subjects, parents, and

wrestling coaches for participation and cooperation.

We thank Dr. Katsuji Aizawa, Dr. Hiroshi Arakawa

and Mr. Kotaro Fujiyama for helpful insights and con-

tributions to the data interpretation and discussion.

interest.

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Nishimaki et al.

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Note This is a translated version of a questionnaire. The original version was in Japanese. The data highlighted in red was used to answer the research question.

Questionnaire about pre-competition rapid weight loss

The purpose of this survey is to 1) create guidelines for optimal post weigh-in recovery and 2) investigate the relationship between weight loss and injury risk of the competition. I confirm that I have read and understood the information sheet for the project and I agree to participate in this study. Signature Age If you are under 20 Legal guardian

Would you like to return the results of this survey? Please check “Yes” or “No”. (1) Yes (2) No

If you check “Yes”, we will return your results and the findings of the survey. Please indicate your

address below.

Address Weight history, diet patterns, and weight loss methods leading up to competition

Please fill in your body weight (to the nearest decimal place). Please estimate the amount of food consumed (in percentage), relative to your usual intake. Please estimate the amount of drink consumed (in percentage), relative to your usual intake.

Time Period

One month before

weigh-in

One week before

weigh-in

Three days before

weigh-in

One day before

weigh-in

Morning of the weigh-in

Just before weigh-in

(1) Body

Weight . kg . kg . kg . kg . kg . kg

(2)

Amount of

food

(3)

Amount of

drink

How many days do you usually take to cut weight for the competition? Days before

On a scale of 1 to 100, how good was your weight-cutting approach? Points

The reason Did you lose weight for this competition?

If “Yes”, please answer . (1) Yes (2) No

Please check the weight loss methods utilized for this competition (multiple answers are allowed).

(1) Decreased meal

frequency

(2) Increased meal

frequency

(3) Decreased carbohydrate

intake

(4) Decreased fat

intake

(4) Decreased fluid

intake

(5) Increased fluid

intake (6) Low-salt diet

(10) Others

(7) Increased volume

of exercise (more

than usual)

(8) Saunas and bath (9) Training with rubber/plastic

suit


27

Past experience of weight loss At what age did you begin to practice wrestling? years At what age did you first cut weight for competition? years How many times did you cut weight this year? From January to December 2016times

Please check the list below for food and drink you plan to consume after your weigh-in before the competition.

(1) Rice Rice bowl (2) Bread (3) Noodles (4) Porridges

(5) Meat (6) Seafood (7) Tofu, Natto (8) Eggs

(9) Vegetables, Mushrooms, Seaweeds

(10) Fruits (Includes pre-cut fruits, canned fruits)

(11) Milk, Dairy products

(12) Water, Tea, Coffee, Non-carbohydrate beverages

(13) Oral Rehydration Solutions (OS-1, etc.)

(14) Sports drinks (Does not include calorie-free beverages)

(15) Juice (16) Alcohol beverages

(17) Japanese confectioneries (Manju, rice crackers, etc.)

(18) Western confectioneries (Cakes, Donuts, Cookies, etc.)

(19) Ice creams (20) Jelly drinks

(21) Supplements (Vitamin, minerals, powders, tablets, etc.)

(22) Soup (Miso soup, etc.) (23) Others

End of survey. Thank you for your participation!

prevalence, methods of rapid weight loss amongst …...before weigh-in. 241 wrestlers completed a...

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