profiency compendium

8/12/2019 Profiency Compendium

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M id Sweden UniversityDepartment of Humanities

Writing in English


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Introduct ion______________________________________________________________ 3Formal Requirements for the Essay______________________________________ 3Essay Topics___________________________________________________________ 4

1. Essay Struct ure_______________________________________________________ 4

1.1 A note on style______________________________________________________ 51.2 Before you get started_______________________________________________ 61.3 The Introduction_____________________________________________________ 71.4 The Body ___________________________________________________________ 81.5 The Conclusion _____________________________________________________ 9

2. Paragraph Structu re___________________________________________________ 102.1 Unity and the Topic Sentence _______________________________________ 102.2 Supporting sentences______________________________________________ 122.3 Coherence_________________________________________________________ 133.1 What is a sentence?________________________________________________ 153.2 What sentence types are used in essay writing?______________________ 153.3 What are simple, compound and complex sentences? ________________ 163.4 Choosing sentence structure in your essay __________________________ 173.5 Things to watch out for _____________________________________________ 18

4. Grammatical Details___________________________________________________ 20

4.1 Subject-Verb Concord ______________________________________________ 204.2 Plural Forms of Nouns______________________________________________ 264.3 The Verb Group ____________________________________________________ 284.4 Prepositions _______________________________________________________ 304.5 Translation of Swedish Man_________________________________________ 334.6 There is/there are, there was/were, it is/was__________________________ 344.8 Some Notes on Punctuation_________________________________________ 364.9 Some Notes on Spelling ____________________________________________ 38

Appendix 1: Example Essay__________________________________________________ 39Appendix 2: Examples of Different Styles_______________________________________ 41Appendix 3: References_____________________________________________________ 42Appendix 4: An Example Process Portfolio_____________________________________ 43


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Introduction

This compendium is structured around four aspects of essay writing: 1. The overall essay

structure, 2. Paragraph structure, 3. Sentence structure, and 4. Detailsgrammatical pitfalls towatch out for.

There is no particular reason for this organization as all of these parts are of equal importance,

and the compendium should thus be seen as a reference book. A totally unstructured essay

written in perfect English is probably worse than a well structured essay full of grammatical

mistakes. It is thus important to be proficient at all levels in order to produce a good essay.

Writing a structured text is a skill which is relevant for all academic education, regardless the

subject. As indicated, there is a range of areas you need to pay attention to when writing. In

order to improve your skills, you need to make an honest self-evaluation and subsequently

focus on areas where you feel you are less confident (use the check-list below).

1 2 3 4 51. Spelling2. Punctuation3. Vocabulary4. Subject-Verb Agreement5. Sentence Structure6. Grammar and/or Avoiding Swenglish7. Formal Style8. Clarity of Meaning9. Cohesion10. Paragraph Structure11. Logical Argument12. Layout and Documentation

Formal Requirements for the Essay

All essays should:

a. be approximately 2 A4 pages

b. be properly set up on the page (lay-out):i. 1.5 spaces between lines


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ii. 12p Times New Roman

iii. Straight margins

iv. Correct paragraph structure

v. Name and class on top of first page

c. be properly structured (including introduction and conclusion)

d. where relevant, be properly annotated with references to

sources (SeeAppendix 3)

Essay Topics

Select a topic from the following list (your supervisor may have further suggestions):

1. What are the benefits and dangers of English as a world language?

2. Is the influence of English on Swedish positive or negative?

3. Academic English, informal English and journalese are different styles of writing:

does using the appropriate style matter?

4. Which English, American English or British English, should be taught in Sweden?

5. Should grammar teaching be prescriptive or descriptive in second language teaching?

6. How important is the teacher for success in learning a second language?

1. Essay Structure

Three common types of essays are the descriptive, the argumentative and the discursive

essays. A descriptive essay describes a situation, an event or an object. It does not argue for or

against anything. An argumentative essay opens with a boldly expressed point of view and

then the rest of the essay presents arguments (examples, proof or logic) to support that point

of view. Normally, it refers to opposing arguments but demonstrates that these are weak or

even false. A discursive essay, which is what you are going to write, presents both sides of an

issue in a more balanced way. It discusses a topic in an objective way and presents arguments

for and against a certain point of view, giving them equal weight. In the end, however, it

normally reaches a conclusion; in other words, the writer states what s/he thinks. (For an

example of a discursive essay, see Appendix 1.)


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1.1 A note on style

Formal situations require formal language. Formal writing tasks such as job applications and

academic essays require the greatest care and effort as they provide a permanent record and

can influence other peoples impressions of us and our abilities. Despite what some people

believe, writing formal language does not entail the use of pompous, complicated, over-long

words. You should avoid:

1. Colloquial words or phrases:I think we got that a bit wrong.

could be replaced by I think we made a mistake.

while He is into classical music.

could be rewritten He is interested in classical music.

2. Exaggerated or meaningless words:He is terribly rich. (omit terribly.)

3. Overused idioms and clichs:At this moment in time we cannot solve the problem.

could be rephrased We cannot solve the problem now.

4. Verbose language or officialese:

I wish to respectfully remind you of our years of faithful service to your company...

might be rewritten

I would like to remind you that for many years we have provided a service to your

company...

5. Jargon: unless you are writing for an audience which shares your interests or experiences,

avoid technical words and phrases which might confuse the general reader.

For formal writing, simple and direct language can be the most effective means of

communication.

If you want to look at further examples of different styles in writing, seeAppendix 2.


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1.2 Before you get started

Before you start writing it is extremely important to plan your work. Start off by doing a

mind map of the topic by writing down any thought which may come to mind. After this, pickout the major points and write short sentences which represent each point. Then arrange these

sentences in logical order (points for/points against; important/less important, for example)

thereby deciding in which order they should appear in your essay.

The following is an example of how a discursive essay on University studies, for and

againstmight be structured:

Example of introduction

Before, only a privileged minority used to study at university: now 40% of the population

does. This essay will try to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of university education.

Example of structure of essay body

Disadvantages:

University education is expensive and leaves you with a bill which you have to pay for

the rest of your life.

Against For

Expensive Fun

Education too theoretical Formal education is often aprerequisite for many jobs

You have to move from home Fun to meet new people

Means you enter the job market late What are the alternatives?Unemployment?

Isolated world A chance to develop your intellect

Spend money only to find it is not what you wanted Dont know what you miss
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You have to leave home and might lose touch with your old friends.

Education is not really practically oriented.

When you leave university you still do not have any real professional skills.

People who enter the job-market at an early age have the opportunity to learn a trade

and make a career within a company.

Advantages:

Many jobs require a formal education, even if this education may seem irrelevant at

first sight.

You get a freedom of choice on the job market and do not have to stick to one

company.

Leaving home means broadening you horizons, meeting new people and developing

your intellect. You do not know what is out there until you try.

After all, what is the alternative? Not many jobs about for the uneducated of today.

Example of structure of essay conclusion (a summary & evaluation of arguments above)

= Studying is expensive and may leave you with an education which is of little use.

= But studying will result in a broadening of your horizons and a greater freedom of choice

on the job market.

Now start writing your essay!

The following sections will give more details on what to think of when you write.

1.3 The Introduction

The introductionhas two main functions: firstly, to act as an attention grabber making the

reader interested in what you are writing, and secondly, as a statement of what you aim to do

in the essay (a thesis statement). A comment on the title may also be necessary, for example

for an essay on the legalisation of drugs, you would need to define what you mean by drugs.
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The attention grabber tends to be an opening sentence (or two)which catches the readers

attention and interest, to make the reader want to read on. This part can be rather general

dealing with the topic as a whole, or an interesting example.

In the thesis statement you should explain how the essay will approach the title topic,

preferably avoiding phrases such as I will discuss, which tend to be overused. Here is an

unsuccessful introduction to an essay entitled Is a Womans Place in the Home?, followed

by an improved version:

a.

This essay will discuss whether a womans place is in the home or not. Throughout history, women have been

restricted to the home and housework, and it was not until recently that this has changed. In the following

paragraphs, I will present my arguments and show my opinion.

b.

Throughout history women have been restricted to the home and housework, and not until recently has this

changed. This essay will describe these changes and discuss whether a womans place is in the home or not.

The first introduction fails because it repeats the title; the second sentence could have been

used instead to set the scene and attract the interest of the reader. The third sentence is

redundant as all discursive essays should have this structure; it does not lead the reader in to

this particular essays main body of argument. Two other points worth mentioning are:

do not give important information in the introduction that could instead be a main

point in the main body, or give a lot of background information.

do not end the introduction with a question; this does not tell the reader what iscoming next!

1.4 The Body

Inthe bodyof an essay your arguments are presented and your points are made. A discursive

essay should present arguments for and against, give the advantages and disadvantages, or put

forward both positive and negative aspects of a topic. In such an essay it is preferable to
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present all the arguments on one side, allowing you to develop the argument in a logical order

and in more depth, and then to present the opposing arguments. It is helpful to present the

arguments you disagree with first, as your presentation of the arguments you agree with will

then lead into your conclusion.

1.5 The Conclusion

Basically, aconclusionshould sum up your main points and include your final opinion which

should come as a natural result of the points you have made. Some words of advice are:

dont over-summarise, i.e. dont repeat all your main points as explicitly as in the

main body.

ensure that your conclusion, i.e. your final judgment, is clear, and that you have

justified this in your arguments given in the main body.

keep the conclusion as brief as possible: you should have given all the relevant points

in the main body, so there is no need to prove your point again.

end the essay positively: avoid trivial, vague, negative or philosophical endings which

will detract from all the good arguments you have presented in the main body.
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2. Paragraph Structure

A paragraph is a form of punctuation. Like all punctuation, it divides a text into units of sense;

a paragraph indicates that a new idea or aspect is being developed. A paragraph thus dealswith one aspect of the subject you are writing about, and a golden rule of writing is that one

paragraph represents one idea.

In order to clearly indicate to the reader what this idea is, the central theme of the paragraph is

given in the first sentence, thetopic sentence.. The opening sentence is thus a kind of promise

to the reader: I am going to discuss this idea - the idea presented in the topic sentence. The

rest of the sentences will then explain, enlarge and/or illustrate this key sentence.

A paragraph can be any length, depending on the type of text. In your writing, however, it is

best to avoid overlong paragraphs as it is easy to lose sight of the main theme of the

paragraph. In a piece of writing which examines, develops and weighs up various arguments,

you are more likely to need paragraphs of four to five sentences. Although paragraph length

in a text can vary, in a discursive essay it is reasonable to expect that equal consideration be

given to each argument, and thus paragraph length should be fairly consistent.

In the following sections we will go through some of the important things to bear in mind

when you write a paragraph.

2.1 Unity and the Topic Sentence

One of the qualities your writing must have is unity. This means that what you write deals

with one and only one main idea at a time. It is a very common mistake to bring into a

paragraph irrelevant facts or ideas which, although interesting, do not have any direct bearing

on the main idea of that paragraph expressed by the topic sentence. The topic sentence should

be supported by the sentences which follow.

A topic sentence is a sentence whose main idea or claim controls the rest of the paragraph; the

body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence the topic sentence's main

idea or claim. The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph.
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The topic sentence should:

clearly state what the message of the paragraph is.

contain key terms which will focus the readers attention.

be short and simple (i.e. not complex sentences in which it is hard to find the main

subject).

Some examples of topics (the subjects of the paragraphs are indicated in brackets):

Traditionally, there have been many reasons why fathers have not partaken in the

upbringing of their children. (- a paragraph giving a number of explanations why

fathers have been not been so active from the home in the past).

Nowadays, the social system in Sweden actively encourages fathers to look after their

children.(- a paragraph on the benefits available for fathers who want to look after

their children).

However, social roles are maintained in a number of ways. (-a paragraph on how

male and female roles are maintained through factors such as advertisements, peer

pressure etc).

Fathers taking an active interest in their children would improve society in many

ways. (- a paragraph on the benefits of fathers being more active as parents).

When presenting an argument which is not your own in an essay, it is sometimes necessary to

give your evaluation of the argument. One way to indicate your point of view to the reader is

by using topic sentence openings such as the following:

It is generally agreed that...

It must be remembered that...It has now been proved that...

It is often taken for granted that...

It has often been questioned whether...

There is no doubt that...

It stands to reason that...

It is easy/difficult/impossible to believe/prove/argue that...

It is obvious/probable/likely/possible that...

It is unlikely/strange/ridiculous that...

It is doubtful that...

It would be absurd to suppose that...

It remains to be seen whether...


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By using these formal phrases to introduce a new argument, you can show, more or less

strongly, whether your attitude to the argument is positive, negative or neutral. However, it is

unadvisable to use these formal phrases to open every paragraph: where appropriate, you

should indicate your evaluation of the argument in the supporting sentences.

Topic sentence openings can also be phrases such as:

On the other hand...

Another interesting argument for...

The final reason for...

These phrases, which again should not be overused or echoed relentlessly through the essay,

can be used to link paragraphs together, to show the connection between one paragraph and

the next, giving coherence to the essay as a whole.

2.2 Supporting sentences

Supporting sentencesare those that follow the topic sentence and constitute the information

contents of the paragraph. These supporting sentences can have several functions:

Supporting sentences that illustrate:

Every survey ever held has shown that the image of an attractive woman is the most effective advertising

gimmick. She may sit astride the mudguard of a car, or step into it ablaze with jewels; she may lie at a mans feet

stroking his new socks; she may hold the petrol pump in a challenging pose, or dance through woodland glades

in slow motion in all the glory of a new shampoo; whatever she does, her image sells.

The topic sentence in this example (in italics) tells the reader what to expect in the rest of theparagraph - that attractive women are effective in advertising. This promise is fulfilled - we

are given a few illustrations of familiar advertising scenes featuring beautiful women.

Supporting sentences that explain:

Different individuals may attach different meaning to the word family. Some may include all relatives they can

think of under this term,but by family I refer to the nuclear group of mother, father and one or more children,

but no other relatives...


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A second type of supporting sentence is an explanation, definition or limitation of the topic of

the topic sentence. If there is a need for this type of supporting sentence, it should

immediately follow the topic sentence, so that you and your reader know from the start what

you are going to deal with.

Supporting sentences that lead into different levels of support:

Stockholm is a city with a high academic standing. It is, for example, the home of the University of Stockholm.

This university has one particular outstanding faculty, that of the Humanities. Among its many renowned

departments, the Department of English is probably at the very top...

Many paragraphs have a complex structure, with several levels of support. In this example

only the second sentence directly supports the topic sentence. Each other sentence supports

the sentence that precedes it.

Of course, these types and levels of supporting sentence will be combined (and usually more

subtle) in the paragraphs in your essays.

2.3 Coherence

Coherence is an important quality necessary in your writing. Coherence means that your

writing is logically developed and connected to make a clear argument. It is not enough just to

have relevant ideas, you must show that they are relevant by linking them in a logical way.

Below are examples of various devices used to link ideas between sentences:

repetition of key words:

Thefamilyis under attack.Familylife is described as harmful.

using a synonym or paraphrase:

The family is still an economicunit.Financial questions are still important.

The family provided mutual support; they could help each otherin difficult times.

using an antonym:

At one timethe family wasself-supporting.Nowit is highlydependenton the rest of society.
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using an adverbial reference:

The family system is still predominant in most Third World countries. There the family

provides the only source of support.

using a pronoun:

Changes in the economy are the main reason for the problem. This is not the only reason,

however.

using conjunctive adverbs and adverbial conjunctions:

Linking adverbials should be used when the connection between sentences may not be

obvious to the reader: a writer knows which way his argument is going, but a reader is not so

well-informed.

Addition again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first,further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover,next, second, still, too

Comparison also, in the same way, likewise, similarlyConcession granted, naturally, of courseContrast

and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite that, even so,for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise,regardless, still, yet

Emphasis certainly, indeed, in fact, of courseExample or

illustrationafter all, as an illustration, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, inother words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is,to illustrate, thus

Summary all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion,in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary,on the whole, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize

Time sequenceafter a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, atlength, at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally,formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the

past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second,shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then,thereafter, until, until now

Causality as a result, consequently


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3. Sentence Structure

3.1 What is a sentence?

A sentence needs a subject and a finite verb but above all it needs to make complete sense.

Imagine yourself standing on a busy railway platform: a stranger rushes up to you and says, I

bought a new pair of shoes yesterday. She then hurries away and is lost in the crowd. You

may well be surprised at her behaviour, but you can understand her message. If she had

approached you and said, Wearing a black mac, before disappearing into the crowd, you

would have been more astonished. Who was wearing a black mac? Why hadnt she completed

her message? In order for a message to be exact, clear and unambiguous, it must be divided

into units of sense, that is, sentences. This is especially valid in writing as words are ones

only means of communication.

3.2 What sentence types are used in essay writing?

Sentences in academic essay writing are usually declarative sentences, that is, statements

which express a fact or an opinion, e.g.: Women of today are expected to pursue a career and

raise a family.

The other sentence types are not so frequently used in academic writing: imperative sentences

should not be used in academic writing unless one is giving helpful instructions such as: see

page 10. It is bad style to give commands such as: Do not study at university!The reader

should not be told what to do! Rephrase instead, e.g.: Studying at university probably involves

more disadvantages than advantages and these should be considered carefully before you

embark on an expensive and, at worst, fruitless adventure.

Questions or interrogative sentences should also be used sparingly in essays: question and

answer such as: How can we change peoples attitudes towards refugees? We can start by

ensuring that our schools are integrated ...can be replaced by a declarative sentence:In order

to change peoples attitudes towards refugees, we can...


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The fourth sentence type, exclamative sentences, for example: How lovely! What an

interesting idea! should not be used in discursive essay writing. These are used to express

strong emotion which would be out of place in such writing. Moreover, they lack the

grammatical structure of formal sentences, that is, the subject and finite verb found in the

other sentence types.

3.3 What are simple, compound and complex sentences?

Sentences are classified as simple, compound or complex depending on the type of clause or

clauses in the sentence (see module 1: Grammar)

A simple sentence has one main clause which consists of a subject and a finite verb. A main

clause, like a sentence, must make complete sense, that is, have a complete meaning:

He served the customer.

S finite verb

The angry shopkeeper did not serve the impatient customer.

S finite verb

A compound sentence has two or more main clauses, each with a finite verb. These clauses

could stand alone, but instead they are linked by conjunctions, linking adverbials or semi-

colons. If the subject in the main clauses is the same, the subject is often omitted from all but

the first main clause. ThusBrian opened the book. He did not read it. becomes

Brian opened the book but (he) did not read it.

S finite verb (S) finite verb

A complex sentence consists of one or more main clause and at least one subordinate clause.

A subordinate clause cannot stand alone and depends on the main clause for its meaning. A

subordinate clause functions as part of a main clause (often the adverbial element). Unlike a

main clause asubordinate clausedoes not always have a finite verb:

Feeling like death, she crawled to the hospital.

non-finite verb

When he was a student, he worked abroad every summer.

finite verb


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3.4 Choosing sentence structure in your essay

Too many short, simple sentences make your writing jerky and boring. On the other hand, too

many complex sentences make your text difficult to follow. Therefore, try to combinesentence typesto achieve greater fluency.

In academic writing, simple sentences are often used to introduce a new idea in the topic

sentence at the beginning of a paragraph, for an example: The gender of the speaker is an

important factor affecting language usage (followed by a paragraph on gender differences in

language). Simple sentences are also effective when you want to emphasise something.

Compound sentences are used for joining two closely related ideas in a way which indicates

that both are equally important, for example:In this essay, I will give examples of how women

are disadvantaged in modern society, and discuss how these inequalities could be eliminated.

Note that you only combine main clauses in this way when they are closely related (topic).

In academic writing, many sentences tend to be complex sentences. This is because using

complex sentences allows the writer to indicate a whole variety of relationships between

ideas, and not simply list ideas as if they were unrelated (as would happen with a series of

simple sentences) or link them together as if they were equally important (as with compound

sentences). Below is an example of a complex sentence which illustrates this:

Although immigrants are often referred to as unskilled labour on the job market, many

researchers point out that this is a constructed truth; people who need to flee from a country

and have the resources to do often belong to the intellectual elite.

Finally, when deciding on the structure of sentences, the principle of end-focus should be

considered. The known information is normally placed at the beginning of the sentence, while

the new information, the development of your point, is placed at the end, where it receives the

greatest attention by the reader. The example above follows this principle. Due to end-focus,

the first of the examples below is preferable to the second:
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1. During the past three centuries England and, more recently, the United States have been

extremely influential nations economically. The economic power of these English-speaking

nations is probably one of the reasons for the languages spread worldwide.

2. During the past three centuries England and, more recently, the United States have been

extremely influential nations economically. One of the reasons for the languages spread

worldwide is probably the economic power of these English-speaking nations.

3.5 Things to watch out for

Sentence fragments and fragmentary sentences:A sentence fragment is a set of words that is punctuated as a sentence even though it

is not grammatically an independent sentence. Below are three types of sentence

fragments to avoid:

Subordinate clauses:

Fragments should be avoided. Because they are ungrammatical.

I woke up late. My head throbbing.*

Subordinate clauses should not be treated as complete sentences in this way.

Phrases:

Last term the class was very rowdy. Especially during the last month.

Parents are making an effort to deal with the problem of teenage drinking. An effort

that can help reduce alcoholism.*

Similarly, adverbial and noun phrases should not be treated as sentences.

Coordinated expressions:

John became interested in environmental problems. And later helped in the battle

against pollution.*

They have left their homes. And taken all their possessions with them.*


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Coordinating conjunctions should not be used to begin a sentence, especially when

the subject and, in some cases, the verb has been omitted.

Run-on sentences and comma splices:

If we coordinate two sentences into one sentence without using a coordinating

conjunction, we must use a colon (if the second sentence is an explanation of the first)

or a semi-colon:

I used to be afraid of him: he had such a loud voice.

I used to be afraid of him; I have since grown to like him.

If we fail to use any punctuation, the resulting error is arun-on sentence:

I used to be afraid of him I have since grown to like him.*

If we use a comma instead of a colon or semi-colon, the resulting error is a comma

splice:

I used to be afraid of him, I have since grown to like him.*

N.B. In formal writing a semi-colon rather than a comma is even used when the

sentences are coordinated by a linking adverbial:

I used to be afraid of him; however, I have since grown to like him.

or

I used to be afraid of him. However, I have since grown to like him.

but not

I used to be afraid of him, however, I have since grown to like him.*

However, we may use commas between coordinated sentences if they are short andthey are similar in their structure:

She came home, did the laundry, cleaned the house, and made the dinner.

The more they earned, the more they wanted.

The first unit describes sentence structure, the second describes essay structure.
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4. Grammatical Details

There are a number of areas where foreign students of English have problems; the list below

only represents a short selection of some of the most common pitfalls.

4.1 Subject-Verb Concord

Subject-verb agreement or concord is something which, when not followed, sticks out like a

sore thumb in most native speakers ears. In addition, English teachers tend to watch out for

and penalise any such mistakes. It is thus something which you as students should try to

avoid.

Subject-verb concord is really only a problem in the present tense or when an auxiliary verb is

involved. In such cases, the main verb takes an s in the third person singular (he/she/it), and

the auxiliary verb, especially the verb to be changes depending on which grammatical

person is being referred to. To manage agreement correctly, you must thus be able to identify

the subject of a sentence and recognise whether it is singular or plural.

Basic Principle:

Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs.

My teacher is brilliant/ My teachers are brilliant.

There are, however, some areas which are particularly problematic, and where it is difficult to

know whether the subject is singular or plural. Here are some of the most commonly

encountered pitfalls:

Identifying the subject can be problematic when:

the subject comes after the verb:

e.g. after: here, there, now, on the table etc.

There werefifteen apples in the basket. (plural subject)


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In Liverpool there aretwo ice-rinks. (plural subject)

when the subject is separated from the verb by a long subordinate clause:

The result, which was one of many findings presented at the conference, was

published in the Guardian.

The indefinite pronouns anyone/anybody, everyone/everybody, someone/somebody,

no one/nobodyare always singular: and, therefore, require singular verbs:

Everyone in England has heard of the Beatles.

When the subject of a sentence begins with the determiner every, you should

read this as every individual and thus a singular:

Every man and woman alive issocially conditioned somehow.

However, if you repeat everybefore each noun, you should make the verb plural.

Every woman and every child were evacuated?

Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each

of the cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and

requires a singular verb.

Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.

Pronouns or nouns referring to part of a whole are singular if:

- they qualify an uncountable noun:

Most of the coffee has been drunk.

- they qualify a quantity that is less than one whole,


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A third of the book has been read.

but plural if:

- they refer to a countable quantity larger than one.

Two and a half apples are to be found on the table.

If it refers to part of a collective noun it can be singular or plural:

A third of the population is/are illiterate

Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along withare not the same as and.

These words introduce subordinate clauses (a little bit of extra information) that

modify the subject (mayorin this case), but they do not compound the subject (as the

word andwould do).

- The first module, as well as the third module, concerns language structure.

- The first moduleand thethird module concern language structure.

When the words or, ei ther ... or and neither ... nor join singular nouns or

pronouns, a singular verb is needed, and this verb agrees with the noun or

pronoun nearest to it :

- John or Kate is going to be there

- Neither blue nor green is a suitable colour

- Neither he nor I am likely to be there

- This book or those magazines are enough.

The conjunction or and nor do thus not conjoin (as and does), but present

alternatives:when nor or or is used, the subject closer to the verb determines the

number of the verb. Whether the subject comes before or after the verb doesn't matter;

the proximity determines the number.

- Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.

- Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.


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Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house"

sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb

whenever that is possible.

The words thereand hereare never subjects. Look for the subject after the verb.

- There are two reasons for this.

- Here are some examples.

If your sentence compounds a positive (active a doer) and a negative subject

(preceded by not not active) the verb should agree with the positive subject

(the one doing the action or the one which the complement refers to).

- The lectures, but not the course book, were relevant.

- It is not the students, but the lecturer who decides on the exam.

- It is the sun, and not the drinks, that has made my head spin.

Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a subject complement (a

complement represents a characteristic and comes after a linking verb such

as the verb to be see grammar).

- A tent and a sleeping bag are the required equipment.

(a tent and a sleeping bag is the subject, not equipment)

- A major force in economics today is women.

(force is the subject, not women)

Sometimes identifying whether the noun itself is plural or singular can be problematic. Some

noun forms can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're really singular and vice-versa.

This is especially true for irregular plural noun forms and some collective nouns

(especially those which are not seen as collectives in Swedish). Note also that words such as

glasses, knickers and scissors are regarded as plural unless they are preceded by the phrase a

pair of. In such cases the wordpairbecomes the subject (singular).
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Some specific pitfalls to watch out for:

The word number is singular when it follows the, plural when it follows a: :

- The number of drinks you can have is limited.

- A number of people were watching the fight.

Collective nouns (the name given to several persons or things of the same

kind regarded as one group e.g. f lock, crowd, team, class) are singular when

they refer to a unit and plural when they refer to the individuals or elements

of a unit.

- The class was silent.

- The flock was grazing silently.

- The team were depressed when they lost the match.

Compound nouns formed with and referring to one thing take a singular

verb:

- The lord and master speaks to his servants every morning.

Compound nouns formed with andreferring to more than one thing take a

plural verb:

- The lady and her maid follow the fashion.

Beware of plural nouns that do not end in s e.g. people, teeth, the police.

They also naturally take plural verbs:

- Thepeople were all in agreement.

- The police are taking care of the matter.


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Similarly nouns ending in s that refer to one thing e.g. news, politics,

measles, maths, take a single verb:

- Politics bores me stiff.

- Star Wars is a great film

On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are

nonetheless plural and require a plural verb.

- My assets were wiped out in the depression.

- The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.

- Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.

Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of

are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning.

(The same is true, of course, when all, any, more, mostandsomeact as subjects.)

Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and

require singular verbs. Some numerical expressions (fractions and

percentages) can, however, be plural if the individuals within a numerical

group are acting individually.

The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb:

- More than one student has tried this.

- Some of the voters are still angry.

- A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.

- Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.

- Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.

- Forty percent of the students are in favour of changing the policy.

- Forty percent of the student body is in favour of changing the policy.

- Two and two is four. (one sum)

- Ten miles is far to walk. (one distance).


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4.2 Plural Forms of Nouns

The regular way of forming plurals in English is simply to add the letter s. There are,however, numerous exceptions. Note the following:

more than one gallery = galleries

more than one Kennedy = The Kennedys (family names, just add s)

more than one Jones = Joneses (unless they end in s)

Also note the plurals of words ending in ch, x, s:

more than one sketch = sketches

more than one box = boxes

more than one gas = gases

more than one bus = buses

more than one kiss = kisses

and those ending in o:

more than one potato = potatoes

more than one hero = heroes

. . . however. . .

more than one memo = memos

and plurals of words that end in -forfe:

more than one leaf = leaves

more than one hoof = hooves

more than one life = lives

more than one self = selves

however,

more than one dwarf = dwarfs

more than one roof = roofs


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Some plurals change their root form in the plural:

more than one child = children

more than one woman = women

more than one man = men

more than one person = people

more than one goose = geese

more than one mouse = mice

Others do not change at all:

more than one barracks = barracksmore than one deer = deer

Latin or Greek forms in the plural:

more than one nucleus = nuclei

more than one syllabus = syllabi

more than one focus = foci

more than one fungus = fungi

more than one cactus = cacti (cactusesis acceptable)

more than one thesis = theses

more than one crisis = crises

more than one analysis = analyses

more than one phenomenon = phenomena

more than one index = indices (indexesis acceptable)

more than one appendix = appendices (appendixesis acceptable)

more than one criterion = criteria

When a noun names the title of something or is a word being used as a word, it is singular

whether the word takes a singular form or not.

Small Facesis the name of the pop group.

Apples was founded in California.

Settlersis my favourite game.


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Compound words create special problems when we need to pluralize them. As a general rule,

the element within the compound, that word which is pluralized, will receive the plural -s, but

it is not always that simple.Daughters-in-lawfollows the general rule, but cupfulsdoes not.

Also see Grammar module, and when in doubt always consult a dictionary.

You can also practice these rules by doing the following exercises (key), and translation

exercise 1(key),translation exercise 2(key).

4.3 The Verb Group

The verb group in a sentence presents a number of potential problems, one being subject/verbconcord (see above). Other problems include a) choice of tense and aspect, b) irregular verbs,

and c) deciding whether verbs should be followed by the infinitive or the present participle.

Choice of tense and aspect:

Since Swedish tends not to use the progressive aspect as such, it is often problematic for

Swedes to decide whether to use theprogressive or the simplepresent/past tense. We went

through the uses of the simple and the progressive in the Grammar unit and we will not repeat

the rules here, but when writing you should pay special attention to this aspect.

Deciding tense can also be a problem, especially in complex sentences where the subordinate

clause does not have the same time reference as the main clause. The table taken from

Websters grammar site will provide you with some clues on how to go about choosing tense

in such subordinate clauses.

Certain verbs in English are either followed by the infinitive (to work) or the present

participle (working). Some take both, sometimes with a slight change of meaning depending

on which form is used.

Irregular verbs:

Make sure that you use correct simple past and past participle form. There are a number of

irregular verbs in English and when in doubt consult alist of irregular verbs.
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Deciding whether verbs should be followed by the infinitive or the present participle:

Verbs that take the infinitive:

ask, agree, choose, continue, decide, expect, help, manage, promise, refuse, tell, want

e.g. she wants to buy a farm

Verbs that take theing participle:

admit, avoid, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, imagine, practise, risk

e.g. I dislike washing-up.

Verbs that take both infinitive anding:

allow, advise, permit, forbiduseing if there is no object, infinitive if there is an object

e.g. I wouldnt advise taking the car.

I wouldnt advise you to take the car.

forget, remember useing when referring to the past, infinitive for the future

e.g. I remember buying my first bicycle.

Dont forget to buy soap.

trytakesing when we talk about making an experiment, infinitive when making an effort

e.g. I tried sending her flowers, but it didnt help.

I tried to change the wheel on the car, but I couldnt do it.

stoptakes -ing when it means to quit, but with the infinitive it means in order to do something

e.g. I stopped smoking.

I stopped to pick up a hitch-hiker.

hate, like, begin, start, can be used withing or infinitive without much change in meaning.

Infinitives are used after question words

e.g. what, why, whether, when, who

e.g. I dont know how to thank you

-ing is used after prepositions

e.g. She went out without looking.I believe in discussing things properly.


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-ing is used when a Swedish infinitive is used as the subject of the sentence

e.g. Att skriva brev kan ta lng tid. Writing letters can take a long time.

If you are unsure about these and feel that you need more practice, try the following

translation exercises(key).

4.4 Prepositions

Prepositionsare problematic because they are not always logical, and there is a tendency for

non-native speakers to transfer the prepositional rules of their mother tongue to the second

language. Some general guidelines on the use of different prepositions are given below, but itis difficult to give general rules since specific usage can be very idiomatic. Mastering the use

of prepositions in a second language thus involves a lot of practice.

Prepositions of time (at, on, in )

At is used for specif ic time (Well meet at ten), on is used for dates and days (On

Christmas Day we eat ham) and in is used for non-specif ic times, usual ly indicating alonger per iod (In summer the grass is green).

Prepositions of place (at, on, in)

Atis used for specif ic addresses (The Prime Minister lives at 10 Downing Street), onis

used for streets, avenues, roads and i slands (There is a lot of acti vity on Granby Street) andin is used for land areas larger than islands (I live in Sweden)

Other prepositional usage is difficult to generalise without listing different usages. The

following sites (Webstersand theOnline Writing Lab)are useful sources.

Common prepositional mistakes made by Swedes because of interference from

Swedish:

i) Translation of fr

1. ' Fr' is often translated as 'for', but not always as illustrated by the following

translations:

a) Namnet r frmmande fr mig./The name is strange to me.
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b) Nr r kyrkan ppen fr allmnheten?/When is the church open to the public.c) Hans bcker r knda fr allmnheten./His books are known to the public.

d) Hans bcker r knda fr sin glnsande humor./His books are known for their brillianthumour (en egenskap)

e) Denna egenskap r mycket karakteristisk fr henne./This quality is very characteristicof her.

f) Rdhuset r en typisk byggnad fr perioden./The town hall is a typical building of theperiod.

g) Hon intresserar sig fr allt mjligt./She takes an interest in all sorts of things.h) Han anklagades fr brottet./He was accused of the crime.i) Jag skms verkligen fr mitt slarv./I am really ashamed of my negligence.(of a thing)

j) Jag skms fr att tala om det fr dig./I am ashamed to tell you.(no prep beforeinfinitive)

k) Han misstnks fr att ha stulit pengarna./He was suspected of having stolen the money.l) Hon lste en dikt fr oss./She read a poem to us.

ii) Translation of under

When underrefers to positionit is usually translated as under, beneathor below in English.

Under is used to mean literally underneath (e.g. under the table,), but also metaphorically

meaning less than (e.g. under five hundred,). Beneath is rarely used today except in certain

expressions (e.g. to marry beneath one). Below means lower than, literally (e.g. below the

belt, the temperature is below zero) and metaphorically (e.g. a captain is below a major))

When underrefers to timeit can be translated as for, during, over, all through, throughout,

in, on.

for is used when it refers to how long something goes on

e.g. the concert went on for three hours.

during tells you in which period of time (when) something was going on,

when it is important to stress the duration of the period (under loppet av ).

e.g. we went to the concert during our visit to Stockholm.

incan be used for a state, or to refer to the period in which (inom) something

happened


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e.g. they waited in silence

in the Middle Ages there were ..

over, all throughand throughout are used when talking about the length of a

period of time

e.g. They played hockey all through/throughout the winter.

There has been an increase in vandalism over the last few years.

The following translations further illustrate these usages:

1. Han somnade under frestllningen./He fell asleep during the performance.2. De har knt varandra under mnga r./They have known each other for many years.3. Det var under hans vrdighet att urskta sig./It was beneath his dignity to apologise.4. Han var under medellngd./He was under average height.5. Det var mycket oroligt under sommaren 1968./There was a lot of unrest during the

summer of 1968.

6. Bebisen skrek under hela filmen./The baby cried throughout the entire film.

7. Han lrde knna henne under en resa till Turkiet./He got to know her during (on) atrip to Turkey.

8. Vi har gjort mnga misstag under rens lopp./We have made a lot of mistakes over theyears.

9. Under min studenttid var jag ansvarsls./In my student days I was irresponsible.10.Under sommaren gde allvarliga upplopp rum i Brixton./During the summer there was

serious rioting in Brixton.

iii) Translation of p

'P' is rarely translated as 'on' in English as the following translations illustrate:

1. Vi tog in p Grovesnor Hotel./We put up at the G Hotel2. Han skodde sig p min bekostnad./He lined his pocket/feathered his nest at my

expense

3. Jag har prenumerat pNewsweeki mnga r./I have subscribed to Newsweek for manyyears.

4. Vi hoppas p en lnelyft./We are hoping for a rise.


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5. r du helt sker p detta?/Are you really sure of that?6. Jag ska fundera p detta i ett par dagar./I'll think about it for a day or two.7. Hon tog en tidning frn hyllan och blddrade i den p mf./She took a magazine off

the shelf and leafed through it at random.

8. Inget mindre n Tysklands framtid stod p spel./Nothing less than the future ofGermany was at stake.

9. Gick du verkligen med p ndringarna i kontraktet?/Did you really agree to thechanges in the contract?

10.Under natten hade ngon tnt p ladan./During the night someone had set fire to thebarn.

11.Vi var oerhrt besviken p honom./We were incredibly disappointed in him.12.Tnk p ett ord som brjar p samma bokstav som ditt namn./Think of a word that

starts with the first letter of your name.

If you feel you need more practice on prepositions try the following exercises:

Translation 4(key);Translation 5(key);Quiz

4.5 Translation of Swedish Man

Man in Swedish can be translated as one,you, we, theyorpeople or the sentence can be re-

written using thepassivevoice.

Oneis usually only used in formal English. It must include all people, including the person

making the statement e.g. one is obliged to be polite to one's neighbours.

In the above case (when the speaker is included) it is more usual in informal English to usewe

e.g. We all try to keep on good terms with our neighbours.

orIn England we always have turkey for Christmas dinner.

In technical English the passive voice is often used to make the sentence even more

impersonal e. g. The concrete blocks are placed on top of the layer of gravel.

Use youwhen the speaker directs himself to a real or supposed audience, and even sometimes

when the speaker is included e.g. You shouldn't take your parents for granted.
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Use theywhen talking about another time period or place where the speaker cannot include

himself e.g. They didn't use so many additives in their food in those days.

or They don't eat horsemeat in England.

Sometimes they seems to be too specific in the context, especially in formal usage. One can

then use peopleor another relevant noun, or the passive voiceto express the generalisation.

e.g. People/the public/American citizens considered the use of alcohol to be sinful during

Prohibition./The use of alcohol was considered sinful during Prohibition.

If you feel the need, try your hand at theseexercises(key)

4.6 There is/there are, there was/were, it is/was

There is /are

- is used to say that something exists or is happening.

- can be translated by det finns

- is also used with words like a lot of, many, much, several, more, enough, andnumbers

When these expressions are used, the verb to beagrees with the noun phrase that follows.

There's a bus at ten to five.

Were there many people on the bus?

There are thirty days in April.

It is

- is used for a thing, action, or a situation that has already been mentioned

- can be translated by det r only

- is used for time, weather and distance

- is used to introduce a to-infinitive or a that-clause (see examples below)

It was nice to meet your fr iends.

It's a pity that you can' t come with us.
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The machine has broken. It is very old.

It is half past five already.

4.7Relative Clauses

Defining relative clauses

- cannot be left out - essential part of sentence

- no comma before relative clause

Main forms used - those in brackets less usual

Person Thing

Subject who (that) that (which)

Object ----- (that) ---- (that)

When rel. pron. is the object of the clause it is often omitted:

The doctor who helped me mostwas Dr. Clerk (subject)

The doctor I found most helpfulwas Dr. Clerk (object)

When following a superlative, all, every(thing), any(thing), onlyetc. thatis usually used:

The only thing that matters is that you are safe.

Non-defining relative clauses

- add extra information

-

can be left out of a sentence- are written with commas around them

Main forms used

Person Thing

Subject , who , , which ,

Object , who , , which ,

(, whom ,)

N.B. thatcannot be used in a non-defining clause.
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Prepositions are usually put at the end of a non-defining rel. clause, but in formal English

they are put before the relative pronoun, which must then be whom or which:

The book, of which none of us had heard, was written in the seventeenth century.

Whose is used in both defining and non-defining clauses to refer to possession. It can even

refer to things:

The journal, whose opinions are extremely radical, can be bought at any newsagent's.

4.8 Some Notes onPunctuation

Commas

- Commas are used to separate items in a list.

We serve wine, whisky, brandy, and port.

It is not necessary to separate the last two items with a comma (brandy and port). Both

styles are acceptable, but whichever one you choose, be consistent.

- Commas are not used before that, if what, whereetc. in reported speech, or after verbs of

saying or thinking.

He said that he was going.

I don't know what he wants.

- Commas are used to mark a pause rather than the end of a clause. Commas are used after

certain adverbs (however, besides, furthermore) and other introductory phrases (As we

agreed on the telephone yesterday, ) and sometimes before linking words in long

sentences(and, but etc.)

- Commas are used before and after non-defining relative clauses (John Hooper, who you

met yesterday, is the Manager of ) and before and after a phrase in apposition (Mr.

Smith, our Managing Director, is)
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/marks.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/marks.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/marks.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/marks.htm


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Direct Speech

In books single quotation marks are normally used. In hand-written accounts double quotation

marks are more usual. Unlike in Swedish, a dash is not the usual way to mark speech in

English texts. Notice the use of quotation marks, commas, full stops, question marks, and

exclamation marks in the following sentences:

John said, "the trouble is, I can't afford it."

"The trouble is, I can't afford it," said John.

"Where are you going?" said Mary.

"Look out, Peter!" shouted Mary.

"I'm cold," he said. "There's going to be a frost tonight."

"I'm cold," he said, then added "and hungry."

Apostrophes

- Apostrophes are used to show the possessive (genitive). If the noun in the genitive ends in

s,the apostrophe is placed after the finals.If the noun does not end ins,the apostrophe is

placed before the genitives.e.g.

TheManager's office The ladies' toilet

A week's holiday Two hours' journey

- Apostrophes are also used to show where letters have been missed out in contracted

forms, or where numbers have been missed out e.g.

I'm afraid we can't help you.

We opened in September '97.

Semicolon

- Semicolons show a longer pause than a comma. The two sentences are grammatically

independent, but their meaning is closely connected. e.g.

Lunches are served in the restaurant; snacks can be bought at the coffee shop.

Colon

- Colons are used before a list. e.g.

Check the following items before the guests arrive: towels, soap, shampoo, and toiletpaper.


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Hyphens

- Hyphens are used after certain prefixes in some compound nouns and compound e.g.

Air-conditioning tape-recorder

- Hyphens are also used when expressions of measurement, amount and quantity are used

as adjectives before a noun (N.B. they are normally used in the singular) e.g.

A five-star hotel a ten-pound note

A hundred-watt bulb a three-hour film

Capital letters

Capital letters are used in English for:

1. Nationality words e.g. Swedish, Swede

2. Weekdays, months, holidays e.g.Monday, June, Christmas

3. Titles before people's names e.g.Dr. Smith, Professor Williams

4. Names of institutions and buildings e.g. The Foreign Office, the Town Hall

5. Opening and closing phrases in a letter e.g.Dear Sir, Yours faithfully

6. The main words in a heading or book title e.g. Suggested Menus for Conference Dinner

4.9 Some Notes on Spelling

Spell-checks have made our lives easier in recent years but a spell-check cannot take care of

all problems:

i) Words that are often confused (make sure you know how to use them):

hear/here; its/it's; off/of; no/now/know; lose/loose; quiet/quite; their/there/they're;

threw/through/thorough; to/too/two; weather/whether; witch/which; were/where/we're;

whose/who's; choose/chose.

ii) More homophones

advice/advise; effect/affect; aloud/allowed; brake/break; course/coarse;

company's/companies; cue/queue; dependent/dependant; desert/dessert; license/licence;

past/passed; personal/personnel; practise/practice; tale/tail; principle/principal; waist/waste;

weather/whether; pear/pair; bored/board.


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Appendix 1: Example Essay

Name: Your Name

Course: English A, Internet, Autumn 2010

Supervisor: Teachers Name

Yes or No to Nuclear Power?

Energy is something that most of us take for granted. In our everyday lives we are surrounded

by electronic equipment which all form an intricate part of our life styles. The stereo, the

television set, the computer and the refrigerator are just a few examples. When we switch on a

gadget, we expect it work, and probably get furious if it does not. But this life style demands

energy and energy has a price, regardless the source. Nuclear power is one of our biggest

energy sources and by far the most controversial. The main issue regarding this energy source

is whether we should maintain it or not. This essay will try to provide the answer to this

question by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power.

Nuclear power represents nearly half of the Swedish electricity production. This puts

Sweden in first place on the list of countries with most nuclear power per capita. The reason

why we have this prevalence of nuclear power is naturally because of its advantages.To begin with, nuclear power does not contribute to global warming. In Sweden, as in

many other countries, nuclear power has to a large extent replaced the usage of fossil fuel, and

thereby given reduced emissions of greenhouse gases. In fact, without this energy source, it is

safe to say that Sweden, like most of the other countries that have signed the Kyoto Protocol

(an agreement on reducing the emission of greenhouse gases), would have obvious difficulties

in fulfilling the demands of reduced emissions.

Furthermore, nuclear power is a reliable energy source. Whereas, for example, windpower plants have to be shut down if it is too windy and waterpower is sensitive to drought,

nuclear power produces the same amount of electricity regardless of weather conditions. And

such an energy source, of which we humans are in total control, is naturally very valuable in

our modern society, where everything is dependent on the supply of electricity.

Another argument in favour of nuclear power is its effectiveness. Uranium, which is

used as fuel in nuclear reactors, is very rich in energy. This means that, in comparison to other

energy sources, fewer power plants are needed to produce a certain amount of energy. In


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Sweden, for instance, we have eleven active nuclear reactors at four locations, which produce

as much electricity as our hundred largest waterpower plants combined.

However, there is a downside: highly radioactive products arise when energy is

produced by splitting uranium nuclei. The tremendous amounts of radiation that are present in

a nuclear reactor make the consequences of an accident extremely serious and extensive. A

well-known example of such a scenario is the Chernobyl accident in 1986. There, an

explosion in one of the reactors caused the release of one hundred times more radiation than

that which was released by the atom bombs over Nagasaki and Hiroshima. The radioactive

material was spread by the wind over large parts of Europe, and has thereby affected the lives

of millions in the form of, for example, weakened immune systems and cancer.

It is not only inside the nuclear reactor that radiation constitutes a threat. By using

nuclear power we are also producing one of the most dangerous waste products known to

mankind. This nuclear waste is highly radioactive, and thus needs to be kept in storage for

about 100,000 years until it has been neutralised. Sweden, like most countries, is planning to

store the nuclear waste deep down in the bedrock. However, since this has never been done

before, there are no guarantees that this method will be safe. Swedish bedrock may be stabile

today, but no one knows what the situation will be like in a hundred years, let alone in

100,000 years.

Besides the radiation problem, nuclear power also has the disadvantage of not being

based on a renewable source. Uranium is, assuredly, one of the most common metals on our

planet, but if the consumption of uranium continues at the same pace as today, the known

supplies will only last another 80 years.

In conclusion, nuclear power is a reliable and effective energy source, and it is arguably

one of mankinds most useful inventions. However, most people realise that a society based

on the consumption of non-renewable sources is untenable in the long run. The reliance on the

use of nuclear power is no exception. In order for us to be able to preserve our way of life andthereby secure our long term futures, we have to find alternative energy sources energy

sources which are renewable, reliable and clean.

Comments:

What makes this a good example of the discursive genre is the fact that both sides of the

argument are given equal weight in the text. The author does finally state her own opinion,

but waits with this until the conclusion. Other points to note is the rigid adherence to the

principle of one paragraph representing one idea and the use of topic sentences at the

beginning of each paragraph. Also note how examples and facts are used to illustrate the

points made. Furthermore the author makes use of several cohesion devices such as linkingadverbials to signal the purpose of different passages thus making the text easy to follow


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Appendix 2: Examples of Different Styles

Formal Style(the conclusion of the example essay)

In conclusion, nuclear power is a reliable and effective energy source, and it is arguably one

of mankinds most useful inventions. However, most people realise that a society based on the

consumption of non-renewable sources is untenable in the long run. The reliance on the use of

nuclear power is no exception. In order for us to be able to preserve our way of life and

thereby secure our long term futures, we have to find alternative energy sources energy

sources which are renewable, reliable and clean.

Informal Style

(the same paragraph re-written in informal style)

At the end of the day I reckon that nuclear power is a really great energy source, and its an

amazing invention, probably one of the most important actually. But on the other hand people

just have to realise that they cant run around using up and destroying everything we got (like

using nuclearpower). If we do this were all gonna die in the end! I believe that if we want to

keep on living the way we now, we are going to have to find some other energy sources which

we can reuse. If we keep using up natural resources and polluting nature, we are digging our

own gravewe will all die and a fat lot of good your computer will be then eh?

Journalistic Style

(the same paragraph re-written in journalistic style)

Many would argue that mankind received the goose that lay the golden egg with the advent of

nuclear power. Gone were the fog shrouded slag heaps of our industrial landscapes. The

future looked clinically bright, illuminated with high-tech, space-age phosphorescence. But

every cloud has a silver lining, even the nuclear one. Enveloped in a shroud of digital comfort,

few make the effort to face reality: the party will soon be over and the cupboards of mother

earth empty. Will we keep partying until the final parting, or will we wake up and realise that

we have a choice: finding alternative energy sources which are both renewable and reliable?

The choice is ours.


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Appendix 3: References

To cite a book, you need the following information:

1.Authors name2.Year of publication3.Title of the book4.Place of publication5.Name of the publisher

Here is how the entry should be written:

Ondaatje, Michael. 1987.In the Skin of a Lion. London: Picador.

To cite an article in a newspaper, you need the following information:

1.Authors name2.Title of the article3.Title of the newspaper4.Date of publication5.Page numbers of the article


Shea, Christopher. The Limits of Free Speech. Chronicle of Higher Education1 Dec 1993:

37-38

To cite a text on a web-page, you need the following information:

1.Authors name2.Title of the document3.Name of the institution or organization sponsoring or associated with the site4.Date when you accessed the source5.Network address, or URL


Oakley, John. The Achilles Painter. The Perseus Project. 14 may 1998


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Appendix 4: An Example Process Portfolio

Name of student: Evelyn EnglishDiary:

9-11 November: Work with plan11-14 November: Peer review 1: Group 2 (Evelyn English, Linda Svensson, and Johan

Hurt)15 November: Re-edited plan15-16 November: First draft17-23 November: Peer review 2: Group 4 (Evelyn English, Peter Mrtensson, Kristina

Lund)23-30 November: Reworking draft 1 and production of draft 22-10December: Peer Review 3: Group 2 (Evelyn English, Kristina Lund, and Johan

Hurt)10-20 December: final editing21 December: Final Essay handed in.

SummaryPeer Review 1:

Received comments

The main comments I received on my plan concerned the lack of balance in the proposedessay. My peer reviewers thought the subject was interesting (The youth of today spend toomuch time in front of their computers), but pointed out that the title and the proposed contentonly dealt with problems and not the potential benefits of the Internet. In other words, it wasnot discursive. Linda suggested that I rephrase the entire title (Teenagers and the Internet -Problems and Possibilities). They also gave me some examples of the types of arguments Icould use in favour of Internet usage (for school work and that it is interactive and better than

just watching television, for example).

Comments made

When I commented my peersplans I noticed that it was very difficult to really get an idea ofwhat it was that they were trying to do. The plans were too vague and did not really presentconcrete points that they were going to take up. My suggestion was that they (especially

Johan) spent some more time doing research in order to come up with concrete facts toinclude in their plans. I dont really know if they agreed with me.

Changes made and reflections

I think that the critique I got for my plan was relevant. I had not really understood what adiscursive text was all about but after my peers pointed it out it became clearer. As a result, Iscrapped the original plan and worked on Lindas title instead. I actually managed to find

some really good arguments and evidence on the Internet that computer usage in fact helps todevelop and keep the mind in trim! Having looked at the other plans, I also realised that minetoo was a bit vague. I followed my own advice and actually spent a whole day doing researchand gathering evidence from various interesting sites on the Internet. After that process I think

I had a much clearer picture of what my final product was going to look like.


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The overall reflection here was how important planning is. In a sense I think that planningshaped my essay in my mind and made me feel much less worried. It was also interesting tosee how giving critique to others actually made me realise that I was making the samemistakes!

Peer Review 2:

Received comments

The main comments I received on my first draft concerned the lack cohesion in my text. Mypeer reviewers thought that all the main points were there but they could not see how theywere connected in a clear way. Peter, in particular, gave me some very good advice on how Icould use simple adverbial linking devices to make everything clearer. Kristina also pointedout that my introduction did not really contain anything that caught the readers attention. She

pointed me to an article about a support centre that helped young men to change their Internethabits, which contained some interesting statistics. I used some ideas from this article tospice my introduction a bit.

Comments made

When I commented my peersfirst drafts I noticed that, in one case in particular, thesuggested structure given in the lectures and compendium was not evident at all. The ideaswere all jumbled and the rule 1 idea = 1 paragraph was not being followed. It made the essayvery hard to read and although there were some good points made, I could not really work outhow they were connected. It was also difficult to work out what the paragraphs were all about

because the writer had not used any topic sentences. I pointed all this out and my suggestionwas that the person in question should really take a good look at the compendium and thelectures and then re-write the draft. I think he appreciated the advice.

Changes made and reflections

After having included some really interesting statistics on Internet usage in my introductionthe essay became more interesting. I think it worked as a way of arousing interest in thesubject. The most striking change I made to the essay was to include adverbials indicating thefunctions of the different sentences in the paragraphs: words like, however, consequently,for exampleand in summary. This really improved the text, I think. It also made methink more carefully about what was there and why. This also made me add and change quitea bit of the content. I was really happy with the result!

The overall reflection here was how there are good tools for improving structure in a text. I

never really thought of it that way before, that writing is a thing that you can learn byfollowing certain principles. I rather thought that it was a matter of talent, something whichyou either have or dont have. Now I believe that just about anyone can learn this skill. Evenme!

Peer Review 3:

Received comments

Several small problems were pointed out, but most of them were basically a result of my ownsloppiness (I know what mistakes I had made). One thing that I did learn from Kristina,however, was how I should use commas when sentences do not have straight SVOCA word

order. In the past, I have never really understood where to put commas, but thanks to


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Kristinas explanations I now know why Yesterday, I met I friend should have a comma

after yesterday.

Comments made

When I commented my peers second drafts I noticed that both of them had real problems

with subject verb concord. In Kristinas essay I think I found at least 8 examples of this typeof mistake. Another very common mistake seemed to be spelling. Johan in particular seemedto rely entirely on the spell check with some quite strange results (quite being spelt quiet,for example). On the whole, I found this part of the peer reviewing quite difficult as I wasmyself unsure of the correct answers at times. We did actually consult our teacher on quite afew occasions by putting in queries in the general query discussion board. Here it was alsoevident that others had the same problems as we did.

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