referat compusi biologic activi
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Summary
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites widely found in fruits, mostly represented by flavonoids and
phenolic acids. The growing interest in these substances is mainly because of their antioxidant potential and the
association between their consumption and the prevention of some diseases. The health benefits of these
phytochemicals are directly linked to a regular intake and their bioavailability. Studies have shown the importance
of the regular consumption of fruits, especially for preventing diseases associated with oxidative stress. In the
present review, the most recent articles dealing with polyphenols in fruits are reviewed, focusing on their
occurrence, main methods of extraction, quantification and antioxidant assays. In addition, the health benefits and
bioaccessibilitybioavailability of phenolic compounds in fruits are addressed.
Introduction
Phenolic compounds comprise a diverse group of molecules classified as secondary metabolites in plants that
have a large range of structures and functions. They can be classified into water!soluble compounds "phenolic
acids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids and quinones# and water!insoluble compounds "condensed tannins, lignins
and cell!wall bound hydroxycinammic acids# "$ispail et al., %&&'#. Phenolic compounds have been considered the
most important, numerous and ubiquitous groups of compounds in the plant kingdom "(ac)k * Shahidi, %&&+#.
These substances are synthesised during the normal development of the plant, as well as in response to different
situations, such as stress and - radiation, among others "(ac)k * Shahidi, %&&+#. Phenolic compounds have an
aromatic ring bearing one or more hydroxyl groups and their structure may vary from that of a simple phenolic
molecule to that of a complex high!molecular mass polymer "alasundram et al., %&&/#. These antioxidant
compounds donate an electron to the freeradical and convert it into an innocuous molecule.
0xidative stress can cause a series of degenerative illnesses in humans, such as cancer, multiple sclerosis,
autoimmune disease and Parkinson1s disease, to name a few "Theriault et al., %&&/#. Studies have suggested
that a diet rich in phenolic compounds could avoid the oxidative damage that leads to ageing and age!related
diseases by scavenging the freeradicals from cell metabolism "2urosumiet al., %&&3#. $egarding their biological
effects "antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, anti!tumour and antibacterial activities#, polyphenols are known to
participate in protection against the harmful actions of reactive oxygen species " 4uo et al., %&55#.
The antioxidants present in fruits, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins and tannins, among
others, have been frequently associated with health benefits "6u et al., %&55#. 7istorically, 8fruits have been
considered a rich source of some essential dietary micronutrients and fibres, and more recently they were
recognised as being an important source of a wide array of phytochemicals that individually, or in combination
may benefit health1 "9ahia, %&&:#.
This review focuses on presenting recent studies about phenolic compounds in fruits. ; brief overview of the
research on polyphenols in fruits is presented. Their occurrence, their main methods of analyses and an
evaluation of their antioxidant properties using different in vitroand in vivotechniques are addressed. 6inally, the
health benefits and the bioavailabilitybioaccessibility of the phenolic compounds in the human body are
discussed.
Research on phenolic compounds in fruits
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The research on phenolic compounds in fruits has evolved considerably over the last %& years " 6ig. 5#. The role of
phenolic compounds in foods, especially in fruits, has drawn the attention of researchers all over the world, and a
large number of reviews and books have been published about this topic " $obards et al., 5:::4SA, etc.#, and "iv# study of bioaccessibility and bioavailability of polyphenols.
Figure 2. Share of publications about phenolic compounds in fruits among the top ten countries to publish such
studies "database searched %& 6ebruary %&5%#. Aata SourceB certain data included herein are derive d from the
Ceb of ScienceDprepared by Thomson $eutersD, Inc. "ThomsonD#, Philadelphia, P;, S;B EFopyright Thomson
$eutersD%&5%. ;ll rights reserved.
Classification and chemical structure of phenolic compounds
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Phenolic compounds make up a large and fascinating family of substances " -ermerris * (icholson, %&&/#. 6ruits
contain considerable levels of bioactive compounds that impart health benefits beyond basic nutrition " 2aur *
2apoor, %&&5#. The amount of phenolic compounds in fruits is strongly dependent on the degree of ripeness,
variety, climate, soil composition, geographic location and storage conditions, among other factors " elit) et al.,
%&&:#. They are mainly classified according to the number of phenol rings they contain "phenolic acids, stilbenes,
flavonoids, lignans and tannins#. ;ll these substances have one or more hydroxyl groups directly linked to an
aromatic ring characterising thus the phenolic structure "-ermerris * (icholson, %&&/#.
In the case of the flavonoids group, when they are linked to one or more sugar molecules they are known as
flavonoid glycosides, and when they are not connected to a sugar molecule they are called aglycones
"Cilliamson, %&&+#. The degree of glycosylation directly affects the antioxidant capacity of flavonoids. sually, the
aglycone forms of myricetin and quercetin are more active than the glycoside form " 7opia * 7einonen,
5:::< 2aur * 2apoor, %&&5#. The flavonoids are the main bioactive compounds found in fruits and are distributed
into six subclassesB flavonols, flavanones, isoflavones, flavan!@!ols, flavones and anthocyanins. 6lavonoids
account for approximately two!thirds of the dietary phenols "$obbins, %&&@# and they are mostly present as
glycosides, and partly as esters, rather than as free compounds "-ermerris * (icholson, %&&/
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precipitate proteins. The two main types of tannins are condensed and hydrolysable. ?allotannin or tannic acid is
a type of hydrolysable tannin found in fruits. Fondensed tannins "proanthocyanidins# are the maOor phenolic
compounds found in grapes. Proanthocyanidins, when in contact with salivary proteins, are responsible for the
astringency of fruits ">l ?harras, %&&:#.
Stilbenes are a group of phenylpropanoid!derived compounds characterised by a 5,%!diphenylethylene backbone
"F/!F%!F/# "?oyal et al., %&5%#. 4ow quantities of stilbenes are present in the human diet, and their main
representative is resveratrol, mostly in the glycosylated form "Aelmas et al., %&&/< Ignat et al., %&55#. $esveratrol
is a phytoalexin. This substance is mainly produced in grapevines in response to inOury and fungal infection
";tanackoviet al., %&5%#, and the main dietary source of resveratrol in fruits is found in red grape skins. Several
studies have indicated that resveratrol has the ability to prevent cancer and coronary, neurological and
degenerative diseases ";nekonda, %&&/< Saiko et al., %&&Lnvironment and $ural and Karine
;ffairs, the average intake of lignans from fruits and vegetables is estimated to be %@@./ g dayM5"Koreno!
6ranco et al., %&55#.
The composition of phenolic compounds in fruits varies considerably. 6ruits are a particularly rich source of
flavonoids "especially flavonols, flavan!@!ols and anthocyanins# and hydroxycinnamic and hydroxyben)oic acids.
;s previously stated, a large amount of scientific evidence shows that the regular consumption of fruit is directly
linked to the prevention of various diseases, and the maOority of polyphenols that might account for this are shown
inTable 5 .
Table 1. Main dietary source of polyphenols in fruits
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Etraction of polyphenols
The extraction of phenolic compounds is influenced by several parameters, and the initial step of a preliminary
experiment is to select the most appropriate extraction conditions. Sample preparation plays an important role in
the quantification of phytochemicals from plant material, and it is the first and usually the most important process,
which greatly influences the repeatability and accuracy of the analysis "hao et al., %&55#. To achieve maximum
extraction, it is recommended that several different parameters are tested, such as the solvent, agitation,
extraction time, solutesolvent ratio, temperature, efficiency of mass transfer and particle si)e, for example
"4uthria, %&&L
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ltrasound!assisted extraction is a quick and efficient method for extracting phenolic compounds from fruits " 2im
* 4ee, %&&5#, being an effective way of extracting analytes from different matrices in a shorter time than other
extraction techniques "7errera * de Fastro, %&&'#. The increase in polyphenol extraction by this technique is
because of the disruption of cell walls, a reduction in particle si)e and enhancement of the mass transfer of cell
contents to the solvent, caused by the collapse of the bubbles produced by cavitation " Paniwnyket al.,
%&&5< $odrigues * Pinto, %&&3#. 0ne of the disadvantages of the solid!extraction process is the co!extraction of
substances such as proteins, sugars and organic acids " Ignat et al., %&55#that might interfere in the quantification
of polyphenols, especially with the 6olin!Fiocalteu method. To remove these interferences, the use of F 5LSep!Pak
cartridges is highly recommended. This purification technique separates the non!polyphenolic substances from
the polyphenolic extract of the fruit, producing more accurate results.
In the last decade, the use of supercritical fluid extraction "S6># of bioactive compounds in fruits has been
investigated and is gaining popularity. Farbon dioxide is the most commonly used fluid in S6> " Uuitain et al.,
%&&/#. This type of extraction is considered an emerging technology "Fasas et al., %&&:#and it presents some
advantages over classic solvent extraction methods, because it is a more selective and less toxic technique
";lpendurada, %&&@#. 0ther advantages of S6> include free!solvent products and the prevention of oxidation
during processing "-atai et al., %&&:< 7errero et al., %&5. 0ne disadvantage of this technique is the need for
expensive equipment and high pressures, which increase the costs compared with conventional liquid extraction.
Therefore, S6> will only be used when significant advantages overcome these disadvantages.
-atai et al. "%&&:# showed that the pre!treatment of fruit samples with carbon dioxide "F0 %# removed the non!
polar substances, making the polar polyphenols more accessible in grapes and elderberries. 7owever, the
amount of extracted anthocyanins in these fruits was not significantly influenced by S6>. In another study, S6>with F0%>t07 showed similar results for the total phenolic compounds "TPF# in guava seeds compared with the
Soxhlet S4> method "Fastro!-argas et al., %&5. Supercritical carbon dioxide was successfully used to extract
resveratrol from grape pomace byFasas et al. "%&5.In this study, S6> with F0%>t07 "+&& bar and @' VF#
presented the highest resveratrol recovery "+:.5& mg per 5&& g of dry sample# when compared with conventional
extraction Wmethanol7Fl "&.5R# for @& min in an ultrasonic bathX, where @.5& mg of resveratrol per 5&& g of dry
sample was obtained.
!uantification of phenolic compounds by spectrophotometrictechni"ues
6ruits are an important source of polyphenols in the human diet and the proper quantification of these substances
is of fundamental importance. The main methodologies used to quantify the bioactive compounds in fruits, which
are widely described in the literature, are the colorimetric method of 6olin!Fiocalteu that estimates the total
polyphenols "TPF#, the aluminium chloride colorimetric assay that quantifies the total flavonoids "T6# and total
anthocyanins "T;# estimated by the p7 differential method, which is based on the structural change of the
anthocyanin chromophore between p7 values of 5.& and +.' "?ranato et al., %&5&< 7aminiuk et al.,
%&55#. Table % shows a brief summary of the total polyphenols, total flavonoids and T; in different fruits.
Table 2. Summary of total phenolic compounds# fla$onoids and anthocyanins of different fruits as "uantified byspectrophotometric measurements
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8/13/2019 Referat Compusi Biologic Activi
8/56
The quantification of phenolic compounds is mainly carried out by spectrophotometric analysis. ?enerally, the
visible region of the spectrum is used to quantify total phenolics, flavonoids and tannins, among other substances.
The most common and widespread methodology used to quantify the total phenolic compounds in foodstuffs
originated from the methodology developed in 5:%3 by 0tto 6olin and -intila Fiocalteu for the measurement of
tyrosine "6olin * Fiocalteu, 5:%3< >veretteet al., %&5, and it was adapted in 5:/' by -ernon Singleton and
Noseph $ossi for the evaluation of total phenolics in wine "Singleton * $ossi, 5:/'#. This methodology is based
on chemical reduction by a mixture of tungsten and molybdenum oxides "Caterhouse, %&&5#. pon reaction with
Fruit
materialSample Sol$ent Total phenolics Total fla$onoids Total anthocyanins References
5. amg ?;> 5&& gM5of fresh weight.
%. bmg 5&& gM5of fresh weight "expressed as cyanidin @!glucoside or malvidin!@!glucoside#.
@.cmg F;> 5&& gM5of fresh weight.
+. dmg of U> 5&& gM5of fresh weight.
'. emg ?;> lM5of fresh weigh.
6. fmg F> 5&& gM5of fresh weight.
3. ?;>, gallic acid equivalent< F;>, chlorogenic acid equivalent< U>, quercetin equivalent< F>, catechin equivalent.
;YaZ 6resh Kethanolacetone +'+.&&a 555.&&b $ufino et al. "%&5
;cerola 6resh Kethanolacetone 5&/@.&&a G 5L.:&b $ufino et al. "%&5
anana 6resh ;cetonewateracetic acid +3'.&&c &.3&d &.&&b 2evers et al. "%&&3#
lackberry 6resh Phosphate buffer %%/.&&a G 5'@.@&b Cang * 4in "%&&
Fambuci 6resh >thanol @+5+.&&e @&.5/d 5:.++b 7aminiuk et al."%&55#
6ig 6resh Kethanol7Fl +/@.&&a +'./&f %3.@&b Solomon et al."%&&/#
?rape 6resh Kethanol7Fl %@+L.&&e G ::.&Lb 0rak "%&&3#
2iwifruit 6resh ;cetonewateracetic acid 55%.&&c &.+&d &.&&b 2evers et al. "%&&3#
Kulberry4yophilised
powderCater 5'5'.:&a %'&.5&d G 4in * Tang "%&&3#
0range 6resh ;cetonewateracetic acid %+@.&&c /.5&d &.&&b 2evers et al. "%&&3#
Plum 6resh ;cetonewateracetic acid @55.&&c @.&&d 5&%.&&b 2evers et al. "%&&3#
$aspberry 6resh Phosphate buffer %/3.&&a G 5:3.%&b Cang * 4in "%&&
Strawberry4yophilised
powderCater @/@.3&a 5+./&d G 4in * Tang "%&&3#
vaia 6resh >thanol @3@.+&e 'L.3%d +.33b 7aminiuk et al."%&55#
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b62http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b54http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b54http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b54http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b54http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b54http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b54http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b54http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b190http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b190http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b226http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b226http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b226http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b220http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b192http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b192http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b192http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b192http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b192http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b192http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b192http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b152http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b118http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b220http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b118http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b178http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b220http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b192http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b152http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b118http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b107http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b220http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b118http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b84http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b62http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b54http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b190http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b226 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phenols, a blue colour is produced, which absorbs light at 3/' nm ">verette et al., %&5. The intensity of light
absorption at this wavelength is proportional to the concentration of phenols "Caterhouse, %&&5#. It is noteworthy
that this reagent does not only measure total phenols but it will react with any reducing substance. 6or this
reason, the total reducing capacity of a sample will be quantified and not only the level of phenolic compounds
"Ikawa et al., %&&@#. The average time for this test is % h< however, this time can be reduced by heating the
sample. The main disadvantage of heating is that it affects the reproducibility of the assay because heating
causes instability of the blue colour over time "colour loss#.
Several articles reporting the total phenolic composition of fruits estimated using the 6olin!Fiocalteu method
"Singleton * $ossi, 5:/' per 5&& g of 6C in cambuci "7aminiuk et al., %&55#, 53:3 mg ?;>
per 5&& g of 6C in camu!camu "?enovese et al., %&&L# and %5/3 mg ?;> per 5&& g of 6C in ;ndean blackberry
"-asco et al., %&&L#.
6lavonoids are mainly accumulated in the outer tissue of fruits because their synthesis is stimulated by sunlight"Kanach et al., %&&+
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group of pigments in nature and they contribute to the attractive colours of fruits. ;nthocyanins are pigments
dissolved in the vacuolar sap of the epidermal tissues of fruits, to which they impart a pink, red, blue or purple
colour, and they exist in different chemical forms, both coloured and non!coloured, according to the p7
"Kouly et al., 5::+< Kanach et al., %&&+#. 0ver /@' anthocyanins have been identified in plants to date " Callace,
%&&L< 7e * ?iusti, %&5, although only six are commonly foundB delphinidin, cyanidin, pelargonidin, malvidin,
petunidin and peonidin.
The p7 differential method is the most commonly and widely used assay for quantifying monomeric anthocyanins.
This methodology measures the absorbance at two different p7 values, and it is based on the structural
transformation of the anthocyanin chromophore as a function of p7 "?iusti * Crolstad, %&&5#. It was initially
developed to evaluate pigments in strawberry Oam "Sondheimer * 2ertes), 5:+L#. The methodology has
undergone some modifications over time "6uleki * 6rancis, 5:/L< Crolstad et al., 5:L%
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Polyphenols have a maximum absorbance "]max# in either the ultraviolet or visible regions and, thus, determination
of the optimum absorbance for each substance plays an important role in the identification, quantification and
accuracy of the analysis. The ultraviolet spectrum in the region of maximum absorbance of gallic acid, resveratrol
and quercetin is shown in 6ig. @.
Figure (. Kaximum absorbance of "a# gallic acid G %35.3 nm, "b# resveratrol G @&/.% nm and "c# quercetin G
@3&./ nm.7igh!performance liquid chromatography systems can be equipped with a wide range of detectors "refractive
index, fluorescence, electrochemical, light!scattering, mass spectrometric and --is# "Thompson * 4orutto,%&&/#, which can be used to detect and quantify polyphenols with and without chromophore groups, depending
on the methodology used.
;mong the different detectors available, --is with a photodiode array is one of the most widely used to
elucidate polyphenols in plant!based materials. The main advantage of diode array detectors "A;A# is that
several results can be obtained from a single run, mainly because of its collection of --is spectra " 2im * 4ee,
%&&5#, thereby increasing the throughput of the 7P4F. In addition, it is possible to determine the correct
wavelength in one run, to detect multiple wavelengths and to evaluate peak purity, among others " Aionex, %&&@#.
Sophisticated systems of liquid chromatography coupled with modern detectors such as P4F!A;A!KSKS"ultra!performance liquid chromatography!A;A!tandem mass spectrometry#, P4F!A;A>SI!KS "ultra!
performance liquid chromatography!A;A and electrospray ionisation!mass spectrometry#, 7P4F!PA;!KS>4SA
"7P4F!photodiode array!mass spectrometry and evaporative light!scattering detector#, 7P4F!KSKS "ultra!
7P4FGtandem mass spectrometry# and 7P4F!>SI!T06KS "7P4FGelectrospray ionisation!time of flight!mass
spectrometry# are currently available, which are able to determine the chemical structure of a wide range of
compounds. 7owever, these systems are still expensive, which generally limits access to these types of
equipment by most researchers. In this context, the system of liquid chromatography coupled with A;A!--is is
the most utilised, especially in the identification of phenolic compounds, because of its low cost, sensitivity,
separation efficiency, flexibility and identification potential. ; compilation of recent papers published about the
separation and identification of phenolic compounds in fruits using $P!7P4F!A;A-!-is is summarised
inTable @ .
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#f3http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#f3http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#f3http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b205http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b205http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b205http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b108http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b108http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b48http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#t3http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#t3http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#t3http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/asset/image_n/IJFS_3067_f3.gif?v=1&t=hmp4xo78&s=f1df8449e146a3ecbafcb66fb2619d10ea0d10c4http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#f3http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b205http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b205http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b108http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b108http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b48http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#t3 -
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Fruit
material
Mobile phase (gradient)/flow
rate (ml min1)
Column type and temperature
( C)
Wavelength ()
nm
Ma!or "ompounds
identified#eferen"es
Raspberry
A (0.1% phosphoric acid in
water), B (methanol), 0.8
Varian
mnisphere!"18(#$0 &.6 mm
len'th, $ m)#0
#80, *60 and
$#0
+lla'ic acid and ()-
catechin, ()-epicatechin,
/ercetin and cyanidin
a2obe2et al. (#003)
4weet
cherry
A ($% 5ormic acid in water), B
(acetonitrilesolent A 607&0),
1.0
Bec2man ltrasphere!94
"18(#$0 &.6 mm len'th, $ m)#$
#80, *16, *6$
and $#0
:eochloro'enic acid, ()-
epicatechin, rtin and
cyanidin'
;elebe2 < 4elli (#011b)
=rape
pomace
A (#% acetic acid in water), B
(methanol), 0.8
A'ilent +clipse
>9B!"18(#$0 &.6 mm len'th,
$ m)*0
#?8"hloro'enic acid, 'allic
acid and ()-catechin4a'dic et al.(#011)
@an'oA (0.$% acetic acid in water), B
(methanol), 0.8
@erc2
ichrospher!"18(#$0 &.0 mm
len'th, $ m)&0
#$&, #80, *#0
and *6$
=allic acid,p-comaric
acid, ella'ic, man'i5erin
and rtin
assanet al. (#011)
;iwi5rit
waste
A (0.1% 5ormic acid in
acetonitrile), (B)
acetonitrilewater5ormic acid
($73#7*), 1,$
ChenomeneD!"18(#$0 &.6 mm
len'th, & m)&$
#80, *#0 and
*?0
"a55eic acid,p-
hydroDybenEoic acid and
syrin'ic acid
4n-Faterhoseet al. (#00
3)
4trawberryA (&.$% 5ormic acid in water),
B (acetonitrile), 1.0
ChenomeD!"18(#$0 &.6 mm len'th,
& m)*0
#80,*#0, *60
and $#0
Croanthocyanidins, ()-
catechin,p-comaric acid
and pelar'onidin
sEmians2iet al. (#003)
Apple
Gice
A (acetic acid in # m@sodim
acetate, 5inal p #.$$), B
(acetonitrile), 1.0
A'ilent HorbaD!4B
"18"18(1$0 &.6 mm len'th,
$ m)*?
#80, *#0 and
*60
"hloro'enic acid, ca55eic
acid, cinnamic acidIorres et al.(#011)
Bayberry
Gice
A (0.1% 5ormic acid in water),
B (80% acetonitrile in water),
1.0
9iamonsil!"18(#$0 &.6 mm len'th,
$ m)*0*60 and $#0
Jercetin, 2aemp5erol
and cyanidinKan' et al.(#003)
=aaA (acetic acid in water p
#.?&), B (acetonitrile), 0.8
ChenomeD na!"18(#$0 &.6 mm
len'th, $ m)*8
#80, *#0 and
*?0
Rtin, lteolin, api'enin
and 2aemp5erol;bolaet al. (#011)
=rape s2in
A (#% acetic acid in water), B
(wateracetonitrileacetic acid,
?87#07#), 1.0
Faters :oa Cac2!"18(#$0 &.6 mm
len'th, $ m)#0#10L*60
Jercetin, 2aemp5erol
and myricetinbre/e-4lier et al.(#010)
$able %& 'ummary of the methodologies used for the separation and identifi"ation of phenoli" "ompounds in fruits by #*+C,-,/.
is
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b98http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b98http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b98http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b98http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b98http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b98http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b98http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b106http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b181http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b181http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b181http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b181http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b181http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b181http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b181http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b85http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b85http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b85http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b85http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b85http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b85http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b85http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b197http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b197http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b197http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b197http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b197http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b197http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b197http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b197http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b153http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b153http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b153http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b153http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b153http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b153http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b153http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b153http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b206http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b206http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b206http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b206http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b206http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b206http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b206http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b56http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b56http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b56http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b56http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b56http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b56http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b56http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b113http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b113http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b113http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b113http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b113http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b113http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b113http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b151http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b151http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b151http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b151http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b151http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x/full#b151http://onlinelib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The methods of extraction, separation and the analysis of phenolic compounds in plant!food material were
recently reviewed "Ignat et al., %&55#. The applications and advances in the liquid chromatography analysis of
polyphenols have evolved considerably over the years "2alili * de -illiers, %&55#< however, these advances are
not considered in the present review.
)ntioidant acti$ity of fruits
Kany methods have been used to evaluate and compare the antioxidant activity of fruits owing to the complexity
of the substrate analysed "2aur * 2apoor, %&&5< S)abo et al., %&&3#. The antioxidant capacity is mainly evaluated
through chemical tests and more recently through a cell antioxidant test. The antioxidant activity using chemical
methods is primarily evaluated throughB "I# hydrogen atom transfer methods "7;T# or "II# electron transfer
methods ">T# "Prior et al., %&&'< adarinath et al., %&5. 0$;F, lipid peroxidation inhibition capacity, total
radical!trapping antioxidant parameter "T$;P# and ;TS radical scavenging are the most commonly used
hydrogen atom transfer methodologies, and T>;F, 6$;P and APP7Hfree radical scavenging are the main >T
tests "adarinath et al., %&5. These in vitromethodologies have been frequently used to estimate antioxidant
activity in fruits. ;s these antioxidant assays are based on different mechanisms using different radical or oxidant
sources "SA;, %&5, the results obtained are expressed in different units and, therefore, cannot be directly
compared "SA;, %&5.
;ntioxidants are molecules that are able to inactivate free radicals and their action "7alliwell,
5::/< Aevasagayam et al., %&&+#, providing an important role in the body defence system against reactive oxygen
species "(oipa et al., %&55#. Phenolic compounds are considered natural antioxidants, and fruits are very rich in
these phytochemicals.
The APP7H
"5,5!diphenyl!%!picrylhydra)yl# assay is the one of the most popular methods used to evaluateantioxidant activity in fruits< it was originally introduced by Karsden lois in 5:'L "lois, 5:'L#. The principle
behind this assay is based on scavenging of the stable APP7 Hby an antioxidant "reduction of APP7 Hto APP7%#
"Kishra et al., %&5%#. The absorbance is monitored in the range of '5'!'%& nm "(oipa et al., %&55#, where the
purple colour of the solution changes to yellow and a reduction in the absorbance is observed " Kishraet al.,
%&5%#. This antioxidant assay has been modified over the years "rand!Cilliams et al., 5::'< Kensor et al.,
%&&5< Fhen et al., %&&'
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6urthermore, owing to its biological relevance to the in vivoantioxidant efficacy, the 0$;F is the preferred
technique of some researchers "SA;, %&5. This methodology was originally introduced by ?la)er "5::and it
was modified by Fao et al. "5::@#. In the original methodology, J!phycoerythrin is used as an indicator protein,
%,%!a)obis"%!amidinopropane# dihydrochloride ";;P7# as a peroxyl radical generator, and trolox as a control
standard, where the results are expressed as micromolar of trolox equivalent per litre or per gram of sample
"Fao et al., 5::@
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%&5%#. In vitrotests have shown that phenolic compounds inhibit cancer cell proliferation, protect neurons,
improve insulin secretion, reduce vascularisation and stimulate vasodilation "6erguson et al., %&&+
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; considerable number of studies describing the presence of many different types of bioactive compounds with
antioxidant properties in fruits have been published over the last few years. 7owever, food scientists have only
recently begun to evaluate the actual contribution of these bioactive compounds, such as active antioxidants, after
their consumption.
The ingestion of fruits containing a large amount of polyphenols is not usually correlated with highest
concentrations of active metabolites of these polyphenols "capable of antioxidant effects# in the human body
"Kanach et al., %&&+< Palafox!Farlos et al., %&55#. This can generally be explained by differences in
bioaccessibility and bioavailability of polyphenols from fruits and other foods, which directly influence antioxidant
effects in vivo"Kanach et al., %&&+< Palafox!Farlos et al., %&55#.
The bioaccessibility and bioavailability of polyphenols from fruits and other foods can be defined asB "i# the
amount of the antioxidant compound that is released from its food matrix after digestion, becoming available for
intestinal absorption "7edren et al., %&&%< Kanachet al., %&&'# and, "ii# the proportion of the antioxidant compoundthat is absorbed "i.e. reaches the bloodstream# and becomes available for metabolic utilisation and exerts its
effects at the site of action "Shi * 4e Kaguer, %&&&< Parada * ;guilera, %&&3
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in the colonic lumen, where they could contribute to a healthy antioxidant environment " Saura!Falixto et al.,
%&5&< Palafox!Farloset al., %&55#. In general, polyphenols associated with dietary fibre can be partially
bioavailable, although the bioavailability of polyphenols is usually delayed by a high content of dietary fibre
"Pere)!Nimene) et al., %&&:#. Fonversely, pectin might enhance the bioavailability of quercetin from rutin by
altering the metabolic activity of the intestinal microflora or intestinal physiological functioning " Tamura et al.,
%&&3#. The role of dietary fibre in the absorption of antioxidants has been recently reviewed " Palafox!Farlos et al.,
%&55#.
%
6ruit processing affects polyphenol contents and alters fruit microstructure, resulting in the loss or enrichment of
some polyphenols and influencing their access and availability "Scalbert * Cilliamson, %&&&
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are potential substrates for human J!glucosidases, but those attached to rhamnose are not cleaved by J!
glucosidases and depend upon the action of rhamnosidases produced by colonic microflora " Scalbert *
Cilliamson, %&&. Polyphenols in the free form "aglycones# can be conOugated in the small intestine and later in
the liver by glucuronidation, methylation, sulphation or a combination of these. FonOugationdeconOugation
reactions of polyphenols are mainly carried out by en)ymes such as cytosolic J!glucosidase "F?# and lactase
phloridi)in hydrolase "4P7#, which are mainly located in the epithelial cells of the small intestine, and catechol! O!
methyltransferase "F0KT#, AP glucuronosyl transferase "AP?T# and phenol sulphotransferases "P!PST#,
which are located in many different tissues "Scalbert * Cilliamson, %&&. The conOugation reactions significantly
interfere with the metabolic fate of polyphenols "Kanach et al., 5::L
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investigations. The absorption mechanisms of phenolic compounds are still not well established. 6urther
investigations are necessary to better understand the bioaccessibilitybioavailability of polyphenols, focusing on
the action of colonic microflora on the metabolism and bioavailability of several polyphenols, the biological
properties of conOugated polyphenols and active metabolites besides aglycones and parent compounds, the effect
of dietary fibre on polyphenol absorption.
)c+no,ledgments
The authors thank the (ational Founcil for Scientific and Technological Aevelopment "F(Pq< Process (umber
'&5'@'%&&:!L# for financial support.
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