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GunillaSommer,OxfordBrookesUniversity

WEHAVETOPLEASETHEGUESTS

ENVIRONMENTALCONSEQUENCES

OF

THE

LIMINALITYOFTOURISM

ABSTRACT

This paper places the often failing attempts towards environmentally friendly actions within theJamaican

tourismindustryinabroaderpoliticaleconomiccontext,anddemonstratesthattheliminalityoftourismscapes

is ifnot instituted, thenat leastenforcedbymarket forcesand thepowerofaglobalisationwhereWestern

countries set the agenda. An agenda that often goes against environmental friendliness, as tourists lacking

environmentalconcernsforceJamaicanstoplaydownenvironmentalfriendlinessinmarketingandmanagement

ofthe

tourism

product.

The

paper

includes

apresentation

of

the

marketed

image

of

Jamaica

as

carefree

paradise

andempiricalexamplesoftouristsactionsherein.

AnthropologicalresearchintwoJamaicancoastaltouristresortareasshowedthatthehotelstaffsinmanagement

functionswerehighlyknowledgeableaboutspecificenvironmentalproblemsintheirgeographicalarea.Aswell,

manytouristswerewellinformedaboutglobalenvironmentalproblems.Bothgroupscouldalsolistactionsthey

took in their everyday life to be environmentally friendly. Several initiatives were taken on government,

organisational,andprivateleveltolimittheJamaicantourismindustrysnegativeenvironmentalimpact,suchas

the introduction of Environmental Management Systems (EMS), eventually leading to the labelling of

environmentallyfriendlybeachesandhotels.Inall,thepotentialforenvironmentallyfriendlytourisminJamaica

seemed to exist,but, anyway, fishermen, conservationists,andwater sportoperators in interviews repeatedly

statedthatthecoastalenvironmenthaddeterioratedsignificantlywiththegrowthoftourism.Thesestatements

arebacked upby severalJamaican and international scientists (e.g. Kozyr 2000). Why does environmental

knowledgenotleadtoeffectiveenvironmentalprotection?

Research results point to the liminoid character of tourism as a cause for hosts and guests lacking actions

towards carrying out what they know are best practices environmentally speaking. The marketing and

organisationofJamaicaasatouristdestinationputthetouristsinaphysicalandmentalstatethatdoesnotleave

space for concerns about and actions towards environmental friendliness. At the same time the hosts, the

Jamaicansworking in the tourism industry, encouragedby economicbenefitsareeager to create the tourism

scapethatcomfortstheguests.Thishelpfulnessoftenleadsthemtoeitherdoorletothersdowhattheyknowis

notenvironmentallyfriendly.

This paperwill place the often failing attempts towards environmentally friendly actionswithin the tourism

industryinJamaicainabroaderpoliticaleconomiccontext.Thiswilldemonstratethattheliminalityoftourism

scapes is ifnot instituted, thenat leastenforcedbymarket forcesand thepowerof aglobalisationwhere

Westerncountriessettheagenda.Anagendathatmoreoftenthannotgoesagainstenvironmentalfriendliness,as

tourists lacking environmental concerns force Jamaicans to play down environmental friendliness in their

marketingandmanagementofthetourismproduct.

THERESEARCHANDITSCONTEXT

Page 1 of 10Paper abstract

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The empiricalmaterialmaking up the foundation for this paper hasbeen gathered during anthropological

fieldworkon twosites inJamaica fromNovember2004 toFebruary2005. Theresearchwaspartof theproject

Conflictinenvironmentalconservation:aJamaicanstudy(ESRCRES000230396)fundedbytheEconomicand

Social Research Council and run through Oxford Brookes University in the United Kingdom. The over all

researchproject looked at theways that fishers, conservationists andpeople in the tourism industryuse and

perceive their immediateenvironment,especially thecoastalwatersaround twoJamaican touristdestinations:

TheveryvisitedandfastexpandingbeachresortNegrilonthewestcoast,andthepresentlysleepingbutformer

majorupperclasstouristdestination,PortAntonioonthenortheastcoast.

Dataforthispaperwasmainlycollectedthroughsemistructuredinterviewswithtouristsand67personsinall

levelsoftheJamaicantourismindustry:frombeachboytoemployeeintheMinistryofTourism,thoughthebulk

of the intervieweeswere hotelmanagers, owners and environmental officers.Also informal observationwas

carriedout inpublicandsemipublicplacesattracting tourists,and inboard,council,andcommitteemeetings.

Finallyadvertisingandawarenessraisingmaterialwascollectedandscrutinized.

Thecontextforthestudywasadeterioratingenvironmentfindingexpressioninbeacherosion,dyingcoralreefs,

waterpollution,adisappearingfishstock,etc.Allofthiswasamongmanyothernegativeimpactsthreatening

the attractivenessofJamaicaasaholidaydestination, as thebeachwas loosing its spaciousness for sunbeds,

beachvolley,strollsetc;thereefswereloosingtheirbeautyandfishlifefordiversandsnorkellerstolookat;andtheoceanwasloosingitsvisibilityandcleannessfortheswimmerstoswimin.ForJamaica,wheretourismsince

1965hasbeen themain (formal) income (www.thewebnewsroom.com,Taylor1993:161),such threatsaredevastating,not leastbecause the islandsprimaryattraction is itsnaturalbeauty,especiallysun,sandandsea

(MacDavid2002:77,CommonwealthSecretariat2002,Sheller2004,Kozyr2000).Concernsfortheenvironmentin

and around Jamaica are therefore not only concerns for nature itself, but for the national economy, the

employmentofthepopulationandoffshootsofthis.Comingoutoftheseconcernstwomarineparkshavebeen

established inJamaica and several are on thedrawing table (www.jsdnp.org.jam).At the same time, actions

towardsagreeningofthetourismindustryhastakenplace,ashotelsandbeacheshavequalifiedforinternational

environmentalsealsofapproval:theGreenGlobeCertificateandtheBlueFlag.Thoughtheseactionshavebeen

takenwiththeapprovaloftheJamaicangovernmentitshouldbeunderscoredthattheinstitutionsdealingwith

thecountrys

protected

areas

and

the

environmental

labels

are

at

least

formally

non

political,

and

supposed

to

beeconomicallyselfsupportingthroughtherevenuesfromtourism(abouttheJamaicanmarineparksseeWest

andCarrier2004).

THELIMINALITYCONCEPT

Thefollowingwillpresenttheliminalityconceptasanexplanationforenvironmentaldeterioration.Itshouldbe

madeclearthattheliminalityconceptisbynomeanstheonlyexplanation,buttoJamaicanplannersandpeople

inmanagementpositionswithinthetourismindustryitisonethathas,sofar,beenignored.

Comingoutofananalysislookingattourismasakindofritualinvolvingfirstseparationthenliminalityand

finallyreintegration

(Turner

&

Turner

1978),

tourism

is

regarded

as

a(temporary)

escape

from

the

alienation,

monotony,etc.ofamoreandmore stressfulworking life (CohenandTaylor1992,Krippendorf1987 inWang

2000:10,West&Carrier2004).Inthesocialsciences,apredominantthemeinthisanalysisisthewidenedspaceof

morality in the liminoidperiod i.e. the time spentbya touristona touristdestination (Graburn1983,1989,

MacCannell1989).SociologistJohnUrrydescribesitlikethis:*inmuchtourismeverydayobligationsaresuspended

orinverted.Thereislicenseforpermissiveandplayfulnonseriousbehaviour (Urry1990:10).Whatapersonwould

regard as undoable ormaybe even reprehensible conduct at home canwithin the liminal tourismscape (cf.

Appadurai1996)becomeperfectlyacceptable (Urry1990:2).Especially island tourismhasbeenassociatedwith

indulgence,rulebreakingandextravaganza(Sharpley2004:23),whereJamaicaisoftenpointedoutasanexample

(Ibid.,Sheller2004,WedenojaandFinley2004).



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Social scientists have focused on the negative impacts of tourists conduct on the morality of the hosting

population, such as crime, prostitution, drug use, and gambling, especiallywhen the tourists arewesterners

visiting3rdworldcountries(MacCannell1989:162f,Turner&Ash1975,Crick1989),butrecentstudiesconclude

that also notions of environmental consciousness maybe altered when otherwise environmentally friendly

peoplebecome tourists (Duffy2004).Andwhenconservationistsorjustenvironmentally consciouspeople

start catering for tourists (West&Carrier 2004).How thishappenswillbe further explored in thepreceding

paragraphs,but for adeeperunderstandingof the connectionbetween the liminality of tourism and the low

priorityoftheenvironmentonthetouristsandhencethetourismindustrysagendas,areviewofthemarketed

imageofJamaicaisappropriate.

THEMARKETEDIMAGEOFJAMAICA

Thereasonswhy touristschooseaspecificdestination, theirexpectations to itandactionswhile there,are toa

largedegreeconstructedbythespecificconditionsonthedestinationandthewayitismarketed(Duffy2004:36).

ThefollowingwillanalysetheimageoftheCaribbeanasanalluringparadise,asimpleplacewithhappycarefree,fun

lovingpeople (Gmelch2003:6, seealso:Sheller2004,MacCannell1989:183f) inorder toexplorehow this image

incentives tourists inJamaica to enter and upkeep a liminoid condition that does not leavemuch space for

environmentalconcerns.

IntouristbrochuresmarketinghotelsandresortsinandaroundNegrilandPortAntonio,thewholeislandora

specificdestinationisveryoftendescribedasYourpersonalparadise andalittlepieceofheaven. Orasadream

come true. The pictures accompanying these words are predominantly white beaches and the iridescent,

turquoiseblueCaribbean withbeautiful, smiling, suntannedwhitecouplesdoingwater sports, relaxingon sun

bedsorhavingcolourfuldrinks.Inthebackgroundiseitherlush,greenforestormountainscenery,orluxurious

privatevillas,hotelsorresorts.Whenevernatureisdescribedordepictedithasaspecialauratoit:natureseems

tobeundestroyableandonlyexistingforthesakeofthetouristscomingtoenjoyit.Intheadvertisingmaterial

consulted for this analysis, the negative environmental implications of tourism are nevermentioned.Rather,

Jamaicaisdescribedasnatureloversparadise!withanunspoiltnaturallandscape.

Theadvertisingbrochuresalsodefinesuchanearthlyparadiseandwhatarerightfulactionsinit.Accordingtomanyofthesebrochures,life intheJamaicanparadiseincludescarefreerelaxationandplayfulness.Theoverall

ustificationforextraordinaryandselfindulgingactionswhichwouldtomosttouristsbeunacceptableoutside

theJamaican tourismscape is themotto: You deserve the best andother similar, such as: You deserve to be

pampered. Hardwork,morallycorrectbehaviour,andevenenvironmentalfriendlyactionsathomearesacrifices,

rewardedwithavacationwherethetouristisallowedtoforgetsuchhardshipsandconcerns.Instead,touristsare

encouragedtoyieldtotemptationandindulge orexperienceparadiseandberevived. Jamaica,especiallyNegril,is

casualandcarefree,thisisaplacewhereyoucanletyourhairdown,shedyourclothesanddefinitelyyourcares.Loseeven

yoursenseoftime. AholidayinPortland,wherePortAntonioissituated,is*arejuvenatingbreak.Morethanwhat

youllfindhereisthesimplepleasureofforgettingallthatyouleftbehind.

Accordingto

Ning

Wang,

tourist

advertising

is

neither

false

nor

true,

but

highly

persuasive.

Though

tourists

are

generallyperfectly aware that they shouldnotbelieve everythingwritten ordepicted in advertisingmaterial

touristsapparentlyliketobecheatedandseduced (Wang2000:166).Jamaicadoeshaveeverythingthatisdescribed

intheadvertisingmaterialandthedreamandparadiseimagearehighlysubjectiveandqualitativeandtherefore

hard to contradict. Still, it probablywillbe no surprise to the visitor that the superlativesmaybe abit too

generously added to thedescriptions of thedelights ofJamaica.Nor that thewhole country cantbe equally

delightful.But,logicallyknowingitisnotthesameaswantingtothinkaboutitespeciallynotwhileonholiday,

happilyembeddedintheliminoidtourismscapewhereworriesandconstraintsarepushedaway.Touristimages

tend toreflect thevalues,viewpointsandprocesses in the touristshomesocietyandculture toamuch larger

degreethanthoseinthevisitedcountry.Forexampleistheseductivepowerofparadisiacalimagesderivedfrom



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itsqualitativecontrastto industrialandmetropolitanculturesandattract thosewhohaveadesiretochangethe

order of everydayness. (Wang 2000:169ff). Therefore, tourists that chooseJamaica in the light of information

transmittedby themarketed image are to a large degree searching for a place and a liminoid spacewhere

concernsfromeverydaylifeaboutmorality,economy,eatinghabits,and,notleast,environmentalfriendlinessare

laidaside.

Globally,ecotourismisabuzzwordattractingmillionsoftouristsfromWesterncountrieswhereenvironmental

concerns inrecentyearshave increased (Duffy2004:33,West&Carrier2004).None the less, this trendhasnot

worked through inJamaica.Most touristspickingJamaicaormanyotherplacesastheirdestinationdonot

havetheenvironmenthighestontheiragendaatleastnotwhileholidaying.ThemarketedimageofJamaicais

toa largedegreedefiningwhocomes toholidayon the island ifnotdirectlycreating thevisitorgroup.But

takingintoaccountthattheJamaicantourismindustryisbasedonfulfillingthetouristsdesires,itmaybemore

correct tosay that the imageofJamaica iscreatedby the touristspotentiallyoractuallyholidaying inJamaica.

Such a conclusion leavesvery little active agency to theJamaican tourism industry apart from, obviously, to

followthetrendsetbytheWesternworldanditspopulationsdesiresforadreamholidayinparadise.

THEENVIRONMENTONTHETOURISTSAGENDA

ThissectiongivesexamplesofJamaicasvisitingtouristsperceptionsoftheenvironmentandactionspassiveas

wellasactivewhileholidayingandtheirenvironmentalimpacts.

Inanicerestaurant inPortAntonio Igot talkingwithaCanadiancouple in their50s.Athome they lived ina

placevisitedbymanytouristsattractedbyactivitiessuchasdivingandfishing.Thecoupletoldproudlyofthe

environmental protection that took place in their hometown and in Canada as a whole. Especially they

underscoredthatendangeredspeciessuchasthemarlinwereneverlandedwhencaught,rathertheywereifat

allchasednothingbut taggedandreleased. InJamaica, though, theyhad rightfully learnt that it isperfectly

legal to catch,kill and eatmarlin.The coupledivertedmy attention to themenu at the restaurant,where an

optionwas smokedmarlin. They toldme that itwas sad that this endangered specieswas not protected in

Jamaica,butunderstoodverywellthatinathirdworldcountrytheycouldnotexpectthesamestandardsasin

Canada.Surprisingly,thecouplecouldalsoinformmethatthoughmarlinwasonthemenuitwasnotpossibletohave it.Theyknewbecause theyhad triedordering it!Aware thatathome they couldnothavemarlin, they

wanted to try itnow that they had the chance. In the tourismscape,where theCanadian couple had found

themselves, wishes to have a onceinalifetime experience got higher priority than being environmentally

friendly.Smokedmarlinon themenuwas toobiga temptationandaperfectly legalone inacountrywhere

youdeservethebest.

Thepatternrecurwhenitcomestosouvenirsmadebyendangeredspeciesorlimitedresourcessuchasconchs,

corals and sea stars.Jamaica has a law prohibiting theseobjects tobe taken out of the country,but it isnot

enforced.Aswell,touristsareinformednottobuyortakethem,butaccordingtomanypeopleworkingdirectly

withtouristsonadailybasis,everynowandthen,touriststakecoralsorshellswhendiving,snorkellingorjust

walkingon

the

water

sedge.

A

favourite

story

to

several

water

sport

operators

in

Negril

was

about

atourist

that

didnotlistentotheinstructionsgivenbythedivemasterandbrokeoffandtookacoral.Knowingthatwhathe

wasdoingwasnot legal,hehid thecoralinhis trunks.Itdidnot take longuntilheregrettedverymuchthe

coralhadbeenafirecoralthatburnedhimlikefire.Thestorywasoftenconcludedbylaughterandoncewiththis

dryremark: Hegotgoodpunishment!Hisbamboowasoutofusefordays. Touriststhattookshellsfromthebeach

excusedtheirconsciouslyenvironmentallyunfriendlyactionsbysayingthattheshellsweresomanyandifthey

didnottakethem,somebodyelsewould.

Severaltouriststoldmehowenvironmentallyawaretheywereathome:recycling,savingenergyetc.,butatthe

same time theyadmitted thatwhileonholidays theyhadnotthoughtabout theenvironmentalimpactof their



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actions, forexamplebynot following thehotelsrequeststoreuse towelsandsheets.Stayingonlyoneweekin

theirprivateparadisetheywantedtoenjoytheluxuryofhavingcleansheetsandtowelseveryday.Besides,the

hotandhumidclimatemadeitnecessary,theyoftensaid.

Theheregivenexamplesshowthetouristsambivalence,astheiractionsonholidayinJamaicagoagainstwhat

theyoftenperfectlywellknowistheenvironmentallybestthingtodo.Byadvertisingsloganslikeyoudeservethe

best orYieldto temptationand indulge touristsareeasilylulledintoatemporarysuspensionofeverydayrules

andrestrictions.InthismarketeddestinationJamaicarulesofenvironmentalfriendlinessarenotjustsuspended

environmentalunfriendlinessismadelegal.

Whilethetouristsareobviouslyplayingamajorpartintheenvironmentaldisregard,theJamaicansworkingin

the tourism industry are notmere extras. As the followingwill show, theJamaicanwater sport operators,

souvenirsellers,hotelmanagersandownersthroughactionsorconsciouspassivityalsoworkagainstwhatis

bestfortheenvironment.

THEENVIRONMENTONTHETOURISMINDUSTRYSAGENDA

Theexamplewiththeburningfirecoralandthetemporarilyreproductionrestricteddiverisnotjustincludedin

thispapertomakethereaderlaughitisincludedbecausetheJamaicanwatersportoperatorsinclinationtotell

theanecdoteandunderscoretheirsatisfactionwiththefactthatthetouristgothisdeservedpunishmentreflects

the very restricted liberty of action left to theJamaican tourism industry. Thewater sport operators often,

despondently,lamentedthelackingattentionamongthetouristswhentoldnottotouchthecorals:Itrytosoften

theirhearts [and] try to see if theyhaveany compassion. Wordswere thewatersportoperatorsonlymeans to

preventthetouristsfromdamagingtheenvironment.Buttheneedformoneyfromtourismencouragedthewater

sport operators to prioritise that the tourists were happy and had things their way, over environmental

friendliness.

In the following, Iwill further explore the impact of the fact that theJamaican tourism industry ismainly

organisedonthetouriststerms,andundertheheadingsoftheliminoidtourismscapeandparadiseimages.

When internationalmass tourismwas still in its earliest stages (app. 1960s)great expectationswereput in it:

Tourismwouldcreateeconomicdevelopmentinthehostcountries(Crick1989:316)andhostsandguestswould

beknittightertogether,thusbreakingdownculturalandsocialbarriers(Hiller1976:98in:Gmelch2003:7).While

tourismdid create economicgrowth at leastonanational level inJamaica, the expectations to the socialand

culturalbenefitsfromtourismwerenotmet(Taylor1993).Theeconomicunevennessbetweenthehostingandthe

touristsoriginalcountriesoftenleadstoasimilarlyunevenpowerrelationshipwheretourismisdefinedbythe

westerncountries. Inorder toattract tourists,Jamaica is forced toprovide thegoodsandservices the tourists

requestatpricesandqualitylevelssetbythetourists.Ifadestinationfailstomeetthetouristsneedswhatever

theymaybetourismwillquicklymovetootherdestinations,whichsucceedinbeingcheaper,better,niceretc.

(Gmelch2003:36).

Jamaicansinthetouristindustrytendtoputtheprotectionoftouristssafety,needs,andinterestsfirst,thoughit

maycontradictenvironmentalconcerns.Forexample,astaffmemberinadiveshoptoldmethatjetskisarenot

environmentallyfriendly because they leak oil andgas into thewater. Askedwhy they rent outjet skis if they

damagetheenvironment,sherepliedthatjetskisareacommodityalotofpeoplecometodo, sothereforeweoffer

etski[...].Wehavetopleasetheguests. ManyJamaicansworkinginthetourismindustryexpressedclearwishesto

preventtouristsfromdoingenvironmentaldamage,butagainandagain,theirgoodintentionswereoutruledby

theneed toplease theguests.Theneedforjobs is at the expense of thenaturalprotection onehotelowner said,

frustratedaboutthewaytheindustryismoving.Acolleaguecontinued:Tourismdestroyswhattheycometoadmire

in thefirstplace. Another frustratedpersonwasawatersportmanager inanallinclusiveresortnext toavery



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fragile reef,whereguestsarenotallowed touse flippers,asevena light touchbya swim fincankillacoral.

Anyway,sometimesthewatersportmanagerwasforcedbythegeneralmanagertogivetheguestsfinsbecause

theycomplainbitterly about the restrictionsunjustlyputon them in spiteof theirhighpayment for the stay.

Commentingonarelatedtheme,adiveshopemployeeconcluded:Peoplecometogetaway.Theyjustwantfunin

thesunandthewater. Touristsdontwanttoknowindept abouttheenvironment.

Likewise,ayoungexpatowningasmallhotelhadinhishomecountrybeenveryactiveinagreenpoliticalparty,

butrunninghishotelinJamaicasomeof

my

politics

got

fucked

up

you

can

quote

me

for

that

Igot

so

frustrated! The

examplehegavewas theuseofplasticbottles.He found itmuchmoreenvironmentally friendly touseglass

bottles,asnofunctioningrecyclingprogramforplasticbottlesexistsinJamaica.Butmanysoftdrinkshecould

onlyobtaininplasticbottles,andnotofferingtheseflavourstohisguestsexperienceprovedhimwouldcause

the closure of hisbusiness. He had given up trying to influence the guests to take into consideration the

environmentwhenonvacation.

Employeesinthetourismindustryconsciouslyornotkeptthetouristsignorantofenvironmentalproblems:For

example,inthebriefingoftouristsbeforeusingmotorisedwatersports,negativeenvironmentalimpactoftheuse

wasrarelymentioned.Aswell,onefishermanworkingwithtouriststaggedandreleasedthemarlinscaughtfrom

hisboat.Though hewas convinced themarlinswould die anyway, he said nothing to the tourists about it.

Finally, a tour agency owner said that he tells the tourists not to swim close to the houses along a specificcoastline,buthedoesnottellthemwhynot,ashewantsthemtomaintainanimpressionoftheplaceascleanand

virgin.Theguidanceisnonethelessgivenbecausehebelievesthehousessewagesystemsarenotmadeproperly

and lead thewastewater straight to the sea.Others in the tourismbusiness kept similarmatters of truth to

themselves. Im lying one hotel owner admittedwhen telling about the emphasis on the ecologicalpristine

characterofPortlandParishonhishotelshomepage.

THELIMITEDMARKETINGVALUEOFGREENGLOBEANDBLUEFLAG

FacingthewidelyacceptedstatementthateverylittlethingthatisdonetoaccommodatetouristssetsJamaicaonestep

back on the environmental scale (Kozyr 2000:2), theJamaican government haswelcomed foreign aid aimed at

decreasingnegativeenvironmentalimpactsoftourism.Related toagreeningoftheJamaican tourism industry,themajor initiativesare theGreenGlobeCertificate forenvironmentally friendlyhotelsand theBlueFlag for

cleanandsafebeaches.People in the tourism industryongovernmentalandorganisational level in interviews

often presentedboth labels as potential greatmarketing tools.At the time of the research, only 3Jamaican

beachesandonemarinahadobtainedtheBlueFlagandallonlyrecently,whereforethelabelsactualvalueasa

marketingtoolisnotclearyet.TheGreenGlobeCertificateiswelloninyears,asthefirstwasgiventoaJamaican

hotelin1998,buttheonlybenefitseenbymostofthe29JamaicanGreenGlobecertifiedhotelswasafterquite

steepinvestmentsalongtermcutdowninoperationalcostsduetoreduceduseofelectricity,water,chemicals

etc.Hotelstaffsanalysedandtouristsconfirmedthatonlyfewtouristsknowabouttheconceptbeforearrivaland

hardlyanychoosetheirhotelbecauseoftheGreenGlobe.Consequently,onlyoneJamaicanGreenGlobecertified

hotel chain has placed the logo on theirbrochures andweb page,while some fewjustmention the seal of

approvalunder

the

heading

Awards

given

in

not

very

obvious

parts

of

their

web

pages.

AnenvironmentallypassionateownerofasmallGreenGlobecertifiedhotellamentedthatherhoteldidnotget

much credit for thegreeningeffort in termsofmoreguests.Sheblamed iton the tourists that in surveysand

statisticssaythattheyarewillingtopaymoreforenvironmentalfriendlinessontheirholidaydestinations,but,

anyway,mostoftenjustbookthecheapestoffer.Duetothehotelslittlesizeandthefewtouristsinthearea,the

initial investmentsnecessary for environmental friendliness expensive lowflush toilets,nonchemicalwater

treatmentsystems,energysavingbulbsetc.werenoteasilyrecovered through thehotelsordinaryoperation

turnover.And a profiling of the hotel as extraordinarily environmentally friendly had not given anymarket

advantages,asthegreenimageincludedfurthercostsmakingthehotelabitmoreexpensivethanothersimilar



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butlessgreenoptions.

Here again, environmental friendliness is up to the tourists consciousness and interests.Notbeing a good

marketingtool,environmentalfriendlinessisonlyimplementedinhotelmanagementifitisprofitable.Whereas

most tourists in interviews assured me about their general environmental friendliness, the free choices in

environmentalmatters that they facewhen planning and actually holidaying inJamaica inmany cases give

environmentalfriendlinesslowpriorityforthetouristsandfortheJamaicanhoststhataretryingtomeettheir

guestsholidayneedstoassureacrucialincomefromtourism.

In spite of thewelcoming attitude to EnvironmentalManagement Systems,GreenGlobe, and Blue Flag, the

Jamaicangovernmentisblamedforallowinghotelierstoconstruct,operateandinvestwithouttakingthefragile

environmentintoconsiderationinordertoencourageincomefromtourism(Kozyr2000:2)andnotcareaboutthe

environment. Facedby the hard choicebetween long term environmental protection and immediate and

necessary economic gain, the Jamaican government has so far prioritised economic considerations. The

presentedexampleshaveshownsomeofthepracticalobstaclesforprioritisingboth.Inthefollowingparagraphs,

theargumentwillbecarriedoutthattheglobalcontextispreventingtheJamaicangovernmentfromprioritising

differentlybystrengtheningthedecisionpowerofthetouristsandweakeningthedecisionpoweroftheJamaican

tourismindustry.

CONCLUSION

Recentstudiesshowhowglobalmechanismsputpressureonpeopletoreplacelocalvaluesandprocesseswith

capitalistcommercialvalues (e.g.West&Carrier:2004).Many3rdworldcountriescantafford toconstruct the

infrastructurefortourismandthereforemoreorlessvoluntarilyhandtheopportunitiesovertoforeigninvestors.

This capital integrates these countries into theglobal system of the capitalistproduction of tourism (Wang 2000:17).

Wangpointstopositiveandnegativeaspectsofthis,astourismisbothapotentialincomeearnerandapotential

manifestationoftheasymmetricalworldsysteminwhichthecore[touristsendingcountries]dominatestheperiphery(the

lessdevelopedtouristreceivingareas) (Ibid.:21).

Freemarket forceshavebeen coinedas an excellentway to free 3rd world countries fromunfavourable trade

barrierslettingthefreecompetitiongivepoorcountriesaccesstotheworldmarket(Shore&Wright1997,Schech

&Haggis2000).Tourismwasseenasoneexcellentwaytocarryoutthisproject,but,rather,manysocialscientists

have pointed to the difficulties faced by developing countries as they try to stay afloat in this competitive

world (Kozyr2000:1),while thepopulationsofothersarenotatall fondofhosting tourists (MacCannell1989:

165f) oftenbecause the income from tourism is unevenly distributed (Ibid.:163). Many observers of Caribbean

tourismhaveraisedconcernsthattourismisaformofneocolonialismor leisureimperialism (Gmelch2003:35,seealso

Taylor1993:102), explainedby the fact that theworlds rich countriesholdeconomic andpoliticalpower that

defines tourism inwaysnotbeneficial to thehostingpopulations (Ibid.Forapresentationof these issues ina

Jamaicancontextsee:Taylor1993).

AdaptingMimi Shellers statement that nature is always viewed from an ideological standpoint (2004:17) totourisminJamaica,itcouldbefruitfultohaveacloserlookatthepredominantideologythatframestheglobal

networktowhichtheJamaicantourismindustryistiedup.

Core concepts in todays global political and economic climate are privatisation, deregulation, individual

freedom,andliberalization(Peet2002,Shore&Wright1997).Thisdoesnotonlymeanasabovementioned

thattheJamaicangovernmenthashandedovertheopportunitiesforinvestmenttoforeigners,butalsothatitis

uptoeachandeveryoneofustoberesponsibleforourownactionsalsoouractionsthathaveenvironmental

impactandalsowhenweareonholiday.Itiscomplicatedandtimeconsumingtobeanenvironmentallyfriendly



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citizeninaworldruledbyfreemarketforcesandfreechoices.Assuchstressandworriesareexactlywhatpeople

wanttogetawayfromwhenholidaying(Wang2000:111ff),manytouristslayasideenvironmentalconcernsand

letthemselvesbeabsorbedbytheimageoftheundestroyabletropicalparadisetheyhavechosenastheirholiday

destination.Theresultsofthisareworryingandtangible,asinJamaicatouristsusetentimesasmuchwaterand

producethreetimesasmuchsolidwasteastheaverageresident(Kozyr2000).

Aprerequisiteforamarketbasedworldorderisconsciousandsensiblecitizensthatmakeconsciousandsensible

choices(Shore&Wright1997).Tebeanddothatyouneedacertainamountofknowledgeandanincentivetouse

it.Whenoutofyour familiarsetting,knowledgeabout correctactionscanbeeither lackingoroverwhelming

andsoconfusing.Mosttouristsonbeachdestinationsarenotjustonunfamiliargroundtheyareinaphysicaland

mentalstatewhere theydonotwanttomake informeddecisions,becauseonholidaymosttouristswant tobe

pampered,entertained,and taken careof.Andevenwhen touristsdo take the timeandhave the insight, the

rangeofchoices isalways limitedandreallyenvironmental friendlyoptionsmaynotatallexist (seee.g.West

andCarrier2004).

AstudyfromBelizestatesthatevenselfproclaimedecotouristspossessanonlyverylimitedknowledgeabout

theenvironmentalconditionsof thedestination theyhavechosen for theirholidayandevenexpresswishes to

forgetaboutenvironmentalproblemsinordertoenjoythemselves(Duffy2004:37).Andthereforetheecotourists

selfimposedrestrictionsinordertobeenvironmentallyfriendlyarenotsufficientontheirown,astheyrequirethe government and private sector to add more regulations (Ibid.) The study shows that environmental

friendlinessisnoteasilyobtainedinanunregulatedglobalworldoffreechoicesnotevenwhensupportedby

thetouristsgoodwill.

TalkingtotouristsholidayinginJamaica,notasinglewantedtoactinwaysthatjeopardisedtheenvironmental

state of the destination,but clearly the vastmajority had not or only vaguely thought about the negative

environmental impact of their holiday. When confronted with knowledge about the state of the Jamaican

wetlands, coral reefs,water quality, sewage systems, fish stock etc. allwithout exceptionblamed it on the

Jamaicangovernment lamenting that itdidnothave thewill,powerandmeans toprotect the islandsnatural

resources. The tourists did not see it as their task to avoid doing environmental harm,but as theJamaican

governmentsresponsibility

to

build

up

the

foundation

and

frames

for

an

environmental

sustainable

tourism

industryontheisland.Thetouristswouldconformtorulesandregulationstheyconfirmedbut,obviously,they

didnothavethewillorinsighttorestricttheiractionsthemselves.Whenpeoplewanttogetawayfromitall by

entering the liminality of the tourismscape they alsowant to get away from the self regulation that creates

numerousdailychoiceswhereeconomy,environment,socialimpacts,etc.aretobetakenintoconsideration.On

holiday,touristsstilllikefreechoicesinthebuffet,fromthebarlist,betweenjetskirentals,andamongthesun

bedsplacedaroundthepoolbuttheonlycriteriafortheirchoicesthattheywanttouseisimmediatecomfort

anddesire.Ifaspeciesisendangereditshouldnotbeonthemenuoronsaleinthesouvenirshop.

IfJamaicaistopreserveitsimageasparadiseonearthandstillbeaplacewheretouristscangetawayfromit

allandforgettheworriesofeverydaylife,theenvironmentalsideoftourismneedstoberegulated.Butdueto

the lacking political climate for global environmental regulations and the rough competitionbetween tourist

destinationsworldwide thiswillnotbeeasy toobtain.Raising touristsandhostsenvironmentalawareness is

important,butarepositiveresultstobeobtained,themeansneedtobepoliticalandprobablynotbasedona

freemarketeconomy.

NOTE

Theresearchreportedinthispaperispartof ConflictinEnvironmentalConservation:AJamaicanStudy,funded

bytheEconomicandSocialResearchCouncil(RES000230396;principalinvestigator:JamesG.Carrier).



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