ridhk úohdj - chemistry · ridhk úohd úih ks¾foayh b. sc. engineering (hon's) 2 tallh 1...

� B. Sc. Engineering (Hon's)ridhk úoHd úIh ks¾foaYh1

wOHhk fmdÿ iy;sl m;%

^Wiia fm<&

ridhk úoHdj

úIh ks¾foaYh

tall iy ld,Éfþo

ud;Dldj ld,Éfþo .Kk

01 tallh- mrudKql jHqyh 33

02 tallh- jHqyh iy nkaOk 35

03 tallh- ridhksl .Kkh 37

04 tallh- mod¾:fha jdhq wjia:dj 32

05 tallh- Yla;s úoHdj 37

06 tallh- s,p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,øjHhkaf.a ridhkh 65

07 tallh- ldnksl ridhk úoHdfõ uQ,sl ixl,am 18

08 tallh- yhsfv%dldnk yd ye,ckSlD; yhsfv%dldnk 46

09 tallh- Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda. 45

10 tallh- khsg%cka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda. 13

11 tallh- pd,l ridhkh 44

12 tallh- iu;=,s;;dj 88

13 tallh- úoHq;a ridhkh 40

14 tallh- l¾udka; ridhkh yd mßir ¥IKh 67

tl;=j 600


tallh 1 mrudKql jHqyh

ksmqK;dj 1.0 mod¾:fha iajNdjh ks¾Kh lsÍfuys,d i|yd bf,lafg%dak ieleiau yd Yla;s

yqjudre Ndú;hg .kS'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 1.1 mrudKql jHqyh ms,sn| wdlD;s úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 04

bf.kqï M, ² lef;dav lsrKj, yd Ok lsrKj, .=K ixËsma; j ii|hs'

² fmr oekqu Wmfhda.s lr .ksñka mrudKqj yd WmmrudKql wxY= úia;r

lrhs'

² f;dïika yd ro¾*¾â wdlD;s lrhs ^rkam;a mÍËdj& úia;r lrhs'

² mrudKql l%udxlh yd ialkaO l%udxlh w¾: olajhs'

² ksoiqka weiqßka iuia:dksl meyeos,s lrhs'

² kshqla,hsv j¾. kï lrhs'

² iajNdj O¾uh wjfndaO lr .ekSu i|yd úoHd{hka úiska orK ,o

m%h;ak w.h lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² Wm mrudKql wxY= wkdjrKh i|yd fhdod.;a mÍlaIK ms<sn|j idlÉPd

lrkak' ^lef;dav lsrK iy ro¾*âf.a rkam;a mÍlaIK&

² lef;dav lsrK iy Ok lsrK j, ,laIK ikaikaokh lrkak'

² f;dïika wdlD;sh iy ro¾*â wdlD;sh úia;r lrkak'

² mrudKql l%udxlh iy ialkaO l%udxlh tajdfha ixfla; iu. yÿkajd

fokak'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka bÈßm;a lrñka iuia:dksl y÷kajd fokak'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka bÈßm;a lrñka kshqla,hsv tajdfha iajNdjh wkqj j¾.lr

olajkak'

wod, mÍlaIK ² lef;dav lsrKj, .=K wdo¾Ykh lsÍu

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o iuia:dksl j, we;s bf,lafg%dak" fm%dafgdak yd kshfg%dak .Kk

,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksoiqka H31 " �Cl35

17 " �H21

ksmqK;d uÜgu 1.2 úúO j¾.fha úoHq;a pqïNl úlsrK úYaf,aIKh lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² ksoiqka weiqßka mod¾:j, wxY=-;rx. oaùo;ajh iajNdjh úia;r lsÍug

ãfn%d.a,s iólrKh fhdod.kS' ^ �hcE � iy

2mcE � u.skamvhE � &

,nd.ekSu&

² ;rx.j, .=K úia;r lrk fN!;sl rdYs kï lr tajd w;r iïnkaO;d

m%ldY lrhs'

² úoHq;a-pqïnl ;rx. hkq l=ulaoehs úia;r lrhs'

² ��C yd �hE � Ndú; lrñka ir, .eg¨ úiohs'

² Yla;sfhys lafjdkagkSlrKh meyeos,s lrhs'

² úoHq;a - pqïnl j¾Kdj,sfha úúO mrdi y÷kd.ksñka tu mrdij,g

wh;a úlsrKj, m%fhdack i|yd ksoiqka imhhs'


mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ²mvh�� jHq;amkak lsÍu u.ska mod¾:j, oaú;aj iajNdjh fmkajd fokak'

² bf,lafg%dak j, oaú;aj iajNdjh yd .=K ms<sn|j wjOdrKh lsÍu i|yd

lef;dav lsrK j, új¾;kh yd ksfrdaOkhg wod, ksÍlaIK Ndú;d

lrkak'

² úoHq;a pqïNl ;rx.hla hkq l=ula±hs y÷kajd fokak'

² úoHq;a pqïNl ;rx.hl we;s úoHq;a yd pqïnl ixrpl y÷kajd §ug rEm

igyka" wdlD;s fyda wod, úäfhda má Ndú;d lrkak'

² E = h� yd hk iólrK Ndú;d lr .eg¨ úiokak'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka olajñka Yla;sh lajkagkSlrKh iy f*dafgdakh hk ixl,am

y÷kajd fokak'

² úoHq;a pqïnl j¾Kdj,sh úia;r lrkak'

² úúO lsrK j¾. Ôú;hg n,mdk whqre idlÉPd lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² iajNdjfha we;s úúO j¾.fha úlsrK yd tajdhska tÈfkod Ôú;hg ,efnk

m%fhdack fidhd ne,Sug mejreula §u u.ska we.hSï isÿlrkak'

² .eg¨ lsysmhla úi§u u.ska E = h� yd C =�� hk iólrK Ndú;d

lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 1.3 mrudKqj, bf,lafg%dksl Yla;s uÜgï i|yd idlaIS olajhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 09

bf.kqï M, ² fnda¾ wdlD;sh úia;r lrhs'

² wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;dr Wmfhda.s lr .ksñka" mrudKqj,

bf,lafg%dak" m%Odk Yla;s uÜgïj, yd WmYla;s uÜgïj, msysgk njg

idlaIs bosßm;a lrhs'

² fnda¾ wdlD;sh fhdod .ksñka yhsv%cka mrudKql j¾Kdj,sfhys f¾Ld

fY%aKsh .=Kd;aulj meyeos,s lrhs'

² mrudKql jHqyh ms<sn| úúO wdlD;s ikaikaokd;aulj iudf,dapkh

lrhs'

² lafjdkagï wxl Ndú;d lrf.k Yla;s uÜgï j, bf,lafg%dak mej;Su

meyeos,s lrhs'

² mrudKql jQ bf,lafg%dakhla úia;r lsÍug lafjdkagï wxl l=,lhla

fhdod .kS'

² lafjdkagï wxl i;frka iemfhk f;dr;=re úia;r lrhs'

² s yd p mrudKql ldËslj, yev rEm igyka uÕska olajhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² fnda¾ wdlD;sh iy Yla;s uÜgï j, meje;su úia;r lrkak'

² m<uq whkSlrK Yla;sh yd fojk whkSlrK Yla;sh hk mo w¾: olajkak'

² fok ,o whkSlrK Yla;shla ksremkh lsÍug fmdÿ iólrKhla ,sùug

u. fmkajkak'

² bj;a lrk bf,lafg%dak .Kkg bÈßfhka wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;dr

f.dvke.Su ioyd uq,øjH lsmhl whkSlrK Yla;s o;a; ,nd fokak'


² Yla;s uÜgï mej;Sug tla idlaIshla f,i whkSlrK Yla;s o;a; fhdod

.; yels nj isiqka úiska wÈk ,o m%ia:dr u.ska meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² úúO bf,lafg%dksl ixl%uK yd tajdg wod, j¾Kdj,S f¾Ld rEm igyka

u.ska úia;r lrñka yhsv%cka ys mrudKql j¾Kdj,sh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² f¾Ld fY%aKsj, kï ,hsuka" ndu¾ yd mdIka f,i yÿkajd fokak'

² mrudKql j¾Kdj,sfha m%Odk ,laIK meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² mrudKqjl Yla;s uÜgï mej;Sug tla idlaIshla f,i j¾Kdj,s o;a;

fhdod .; yels nj f;areï .ekSug bv i,iajkak'

² f;dïika" ro¾*¾â yd fnda¾ wdlD;s ikaiakaokh lrñka mrudKql wdlD;s

ms<sn|j iudf,dapkh lrkak'

² Yla;s uÜgula ;=< bf,lafg%dakhl mej;Su úia;r lsÍug we;s lajkagï

wxl y;r yÿkajd fokak'

² m%Odk lafjdkagï wxlh (n)

² Woaos.xY lafjdkagï wxlh (l)

² pqïNl lafjdkagï wxlh (ml)

² nejqï lafjdkagï wxlh (ms)

² iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdod .ksñka lajkagï wxl y;r u.ska ,ndfok f;dr;=re

meyeÈ,s lrkak

² "s" yd "p" ldlaIsl j, yev rEm igyka wdOdrfhka

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o ldlaIslhla ;=< we;s fok ,o bf,lafg%dakhla ioyd mej;sh

yels lajkagï wxlh l=,lh ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o úfYaIs; lajkagï wxl$wxlhlg wod, ldlaIslh yÿkd .ekSug

we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 1(4 tal,s; jdhquh mrudKqj, yd whkj, N+ñ wjia:dfõ bf,lafg%dak úkHdi

,shd olajh’'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² bf,lafg%dak msÍug wod< uQ,O¾u yd kS;s m%ldY lrh’'

² mrudKql l%udxlh 1 isg 38 olajd uQ,øjHj, N+ñ wjia:dfõ we;s tal,s;

jdhquh mrudKqj, yd tajdfha whkj, bf,lafg%dak úkHdi iïu; wdldrhg

,shhs'

² ia:dhs bf,lafg%dak úkHdi i|yd WodyrK olajhs'

² wjq*andjq uQ,O¾ufha wm.uk iuyr 4d bf,lafg%dak úkHdih weiqfrka

meyeÈ,s lrhs' ^WodyrKhla f,i Pd&

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² Yla;s uÜgï j,g bf,lafg%dak msÍfï rgdjg wod, yqkaâ kS;sh" mjq,S

nysIaldr uq, O¾uh yd wjq*andjq uq,O¾uh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² mrudKql l%udxlh 38g wvq uq,øjHj, bf,lafg%dak úkHdi ,sùug isiqka

fhduq lrkak'

² wekdhk yd legdhkj, bf,lafg%dak úkHdih ,shkak'


² iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdod .ksñka uq, øjHj, ia:dhs bf,lafg%dak úkHdi ms<sn|j

idlÉPd lrkak' (s0 , s2 , p0 , p3 , p6 , p0 , d5 , d10)

² iuyr 4d uQ,øjHj, (Pd jeks) bf,lafg%dak úkHdih weiqfrka wjq*andjq

uQ,O¾ufha wm.uk fmkajd fohs'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o mrudKqj, ksjerÈ bf,lafg%dak úkHdi ,sùug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

² fok ,o legdhk yd wekdhk j, bf,lafg%dak úkHdi ,sùug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 1(5 uq,øjH wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ ork ia:dkh ;yjqre lsÍug yd tajdfha mrudKql

.=K bf,lafg%dak úkHdihg iïnkaO lsÍu ioyd uq,øjHj, bf,lafg%dak

úkHdih úYaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 08

bf.kqï M, ² wdj¾;s;d j.=j f.dvke.Su'

² wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ oS¾> wdldrh y÷kajd oSu'

• s,p,d,f f.dkq

² 1 - 18 ldKavj, uQ,øjH

² s yd p f.dkqj, uQ,øjH wdj¾;hla yryd iy ldKavhla osf.a my<g

fmkakqï lrk keUqre;d

• mrudKql wrh" ksjdrl wdprKh ^.=Kd;aul j muKhs&

� iyixhqc wrh

� jekavjd,aia wrh

� f,dayl wrh

� whksl wrh

² whkSlrK Yla;sh$ wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s

² bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj

² úoHq;a - iDK;dj ^fmda,sx mßudKh&

² legdhk yd wekdhk iEoSu

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² uq,øjH tajdfha bf,lafg%dak úkHdih wkqj j¾.SlrKh lsÍu i|yd isiqka

iu. iïnkaO fjñka wdj¾;s;d j.=j f.dvk.kak'

² wjidk bf,lafg%dak msfrk ldlaIsl j¾.h i,lñka uq,øjH s, p yd d

f.dkqj,g j¾. lsÍug isiqkag u. fmkajkak'

² mrudKqj, ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj wkqj th whk ldKavh yÿkd

.ekSug u. fmkajkak'

² úoHq;a RK;dj" mrudKql wrh" m<uq whkSlrK Yla;sh yd bf,lafg%dak

nkaOq;dj iy bf,lafg%dak ,nd.ekSfï Yla;s fjki hk moj, w¾:

±laùï bÈßm;a lrkak'

² wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ ldkavhla Èf.a my,g iy wdj¾;hla Èf.a bÈßhg

by; .=K úp,kh jk wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'


² wdj¾;h Èf.a bÈßhg iy ldKavhla Èf.a my<g hk úg wekdhk yd

legdhk iE§fï yelshdj úia;r lrkak'

² bf,lafg%dak úkHdih i,lñka wdj¾;hla Èf.a uQ,øjHj, m<uq whkSlrK

Yla;skaf.a wlajla úp,khg fya;= idlÉPd lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o uQ,øjHj, mrudKql wrhhka ikaikaokh lsÍug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

² uq,øjH lsmhl m<uq whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;dr ÿkaúg uq,øjH yÿkd.ekSug


² fok ,o uq,øjHj, bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;d keUqrej ms<sn| .fõIKh lsÍug


tallh 02 jHqyh yd nkaOk

ksmqK;dj 2'0 nkaOk yd jHqy mod¾:j, .=K iu. iïnkaO lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 2'1 mod¾:fha jHqyh yd .=K ;SrKh lsÍfï ms,sfj;la f,i nyq mrudKql

moaO;sj, m%d:ñl wka;¾ l%shd ú.%y lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² ridhksl nkaOk iEoSu i|yd ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak iyNd.s jk

nj m%ldY lrhs'

² iyixhqc nkaOk iEoSu meyeos,s lrhs'

² ;ks nkaOk yd nyq nkaOk y÷kajd fohs'

² wKq yd whk ldKav i|yd ¨úia jHQy w|shs'

² nkaOkhg iyNd.s jk mrudKqj, úoHq;a RK;d fjki wkqj nkaOk

ks¾O%eùh iyixhqc nkaOk" O%eùh iyixhqc nkaOk yd whksl nkaOk

f,i ikaikaokh lrhs'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka foñka O%eùlrKh yd oaúO%ej >Q¾Kh hk ixl,am úia;r

lrhs'

² ix.; $ odhl nkaOk iE§u meyeos,s lrhs'

² whksl nkaOk iE§u meyeos,s lrhs'

² legdhkfha O%eùlrK n,h yd wekdhkfha O%ejKYS,;dj mokï lr

.ksñka whksl nkaOkhl iyixhqc ,laIKh iqÿiq WodyrK .ksñka

meyeos,s lrhs'

² f,dayl nkaOkhl jHqyh meyeos,s lrhs'

² iyixhqc" whksl yd f,dayl nkaOk m%d:ñl wka;¾l%shd f,i y÷kd

.kshs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² ridhksl nkaOk iE§ ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dak iyNd.s jk nj fmr ±kqu

úuiñka wjOdrKh lrh’'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdod .ksñka iyixhqc nkaOk iEfok wdldrh úia;r

lrkak (H2, Cl

2, HCl, HF)

² iqÿiq WodyrK imhñka ;ksnkaOk yd nyq nkaOk y‘ÿkajd fokak (O2,

N2)


² iïu; kS;sß;s fhdod .ksñka ir, wKq ioyd ¨úia jHqy wÈk wdldrh

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² nkaOkhg iïnkaO ù we;s mrudKqj, úoHq;a RK;d i,lñka tajd O%eùh

iy iyixhqc ks¾O%eùh iyixhqc yd whksl f,i fnod fjka lrk

whqre úia;r lrkak'

² úoHq;a RK;d w.hka Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka yd iqÿiq ksoiqka imhñka

O%eùlrKh yd nkaOk >q¾Kh hk ixl,am úia;r lrkak'

² iqÿiq úoHq;a Wmfhda.s lr .ksñka ødhl iy ixhqc nkaOk iEfok whqre

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

ksoiqka- NH4

+, H3O+, NH

3 , BH

3

² whksl nkaOk iy tu.ska whksl ±,sfia iEfok wdldrh iqÿiq ksoiqka

foñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² legdhk O%eùldrl n,h yd wekdhkhl O%ejKYS,s;dj mokï lr .ksñka

whksl nkaOkhla iyixhqc ,laIK fmkajk whqre idlÉPd lrkak'

² f,dayl nkaOk iEfok wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² iyixhqc nkaOk" whksl nkaOk yd f,dayl nkaOk m%d:ñl wka;rl%shd

f,i yÿkajk nj yÿkajd fokak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o ixfhda.hla whksl" O%eùh iy ixhqc ks¾O%eúh iyixhqc"

odhl iyixhqc yd f,dayl f,i j¾.lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o ir, wKq yd whkj, úia jHqy we§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 2(2 iyixhqc yd O%eùh iyixhqc wKqj, yd ir, whkj, yev ú.%y lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 16

bf.kqï M, ² iïu; kS;s Ndú;hg .ksñka" iq,Nj yuq jk Wmßu jYfhka mrudKq 10

lg iSud jk iyixhqc wKqj, yd whkj, ¨úia jHQy w|shs'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka Ndú;fhka sp , sp2 yd sp3 uqyqïlrKh isÿ jk wdldrh

úia;r lrhs'

² mrudKql ldËsl j, f¾Çh yd md¾Yaúl w;sÉPdokfhka � yd nkaOk

iEoSu úia;r lrhs'

² iïm%hqla;;dj Ndú; lr ´fidaka wKqfõ yd ldnfkaÜ whkfha nkaOk

osf.ys iudk;ajhg fya;= meyeos,s lrhs'

² uqyqï ldlaIsl w;r w;sÉPdokfhka � nkaOk iEfok nj;a mrudKql

ldlaIslj, md¾Yaúl w;sÉPdokfhka nkaOk iEfok nj;a úia;r lrhs'

^flfiajqj o w.%ia: mrudKq i|yd mrudKql ldlaIsl muKla fhdod

.efka&

² (VSEPR) jdoh Ndú;d lr wKqj, yd whkj, flaJøSh mrudKqj jgd

^bf,lafg%d ak hq., cHdñ;sh& yd tajdfha yevh ^wKql cHdñ;sh&

mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

² úúO wKqj, wdikak nkaOk fldaK ii|hs' ^nkaOk fldaKj, ienE

w.hk mÍËd fkdflf¾&


² yev úoyd oelaùu i|yd wKqj, wdlD;s ;khs'

² uqyqïlrKh TlaislrKh wxlh yd wdfrdamkh mokï lrf.k úoHq;a

RK;dj úp,kh jk whqre meyeÈ,s lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² fojk wdj¾;fha uq, øjH fhdod .ksñka iïm%hqla; jHqy hk ixl,amh

yÿkajd fokak'

² iyixhqc wKqj, iy nyqmrudKql whkj, wvx.= uOH mrudKqfõ

bf,lafg%dak ieleiau i,lñka sp, sp2 yd sp3 uqyqïlrKh wjia:d meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² mrudKql$ uqyqï ldlaIsl w;sÉPdokfhka ^f¾Çh$ md¾Yaúl& is.aud ^�&

yd mhs & nkaOk iEfok wdldrh rEmigyk wdOdrfhka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² O3yd CO

32- jeks m%fNao j, iïm%hqla; uqyqï j, nkaOk È. iudk jk

nj tajdfha iïm%hqla; jHqy i,lñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak hq., úl¾Ykh jdoh (VSEPR) fhdod .ksñka

wkqj, yev úia;r lrkak' ^Wmßu jYfhka bf,lafg%dak hq.,a 06l

úl¾Yk i,lkak&

² úúO wkqj, wdikak nkaOk fldaK ks¾Kh lrk whqre idlÉPd lrkak'

² úúO wKq$whkj, uOH mrudKqfõ úoH;a RK;dj tys uqyqïlrKh

TlaislrK wxlh yd wdfrdamkh u; fjkia jk wkaou myokak'

wod< mÍlaIK ( ² mrudKql wdlD;s lÜg,h u.ska wKqj, yevh fmkakï lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o wKq iy whkj, yev ks¾Kh lsÍfï yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o m%fNaoj, wdikak nkaOk fldaK mqfrdal:kh lsÍug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak’ ksoiqka - PCl3, CH

4, H

2O, NH

4+, NO

2

-, SO

2

ksmqK;d uÜgu 2(3 mod¾:fha jHqyh yd .=K ks¾Kh lsÍfï l%uhla f,i úúO moaO;sj, oaú;shsl

wka;¾ l%shd úYaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 09

bf.kqï M, ² iqÿiq ksoiqka Ndú; lr oaú;Shsl wka;¾lshd wdldr úia;r lrhs'

² øjHhl mj;akd oaú;Shsl wka;¾l%shdj, iajNdjh yd tys fN!;sl .=K

w;r iïnkaO;dj biau;= lrhs'

² oaú;Shsl wka;¾l%shd j, jeo.;alu iy mod¾:fha fN!;sl wjia:d i|yd

tys n,mEu yÿkd.kshs'

² iqÿiq WodyrK uÕska wKql oe,sil ms<sfh, ùu meyeos,s lrhs'

² wKql ±,sil ,laIK mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² iqÿiq WodyrK foñka oaú O%ej- oaú O%ej wka;¾ l%shd" yhsv%cka nkaOk"

whk - oaúO%ej wka;¾ l%shd whk - fm%aß; oajO%ej wka;¾ l%shd" oajO%ej -

fm%aß; oajO%ej wka;¾ l%shd iy ,kavka wmlsrk n, hkd§ oaú;shsl

wka;¾ l%shd we;sjk whqre meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² oaú;shl wka;¾ l%shd j, jeo.;alu iy mod¾:fha úúO fN!;sl wjia:d

flfrys tajdfha n,mEu iqÿiq wlD;s fyda úäfhda o¾Yk Wmfhda.S lr.ksñka

idlÉPd lrkak'


² oaú;shsl wka;¾ l%shd fya;=fldg f.k úúO j¾.fha ±,sia ks¾udKh jk

wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² ±,sia jHqyj, fN!;sl ,laIK idlÉPd lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o øjHj, ;dmdxl yd øjdxl ikaikaokh lsÍug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

tallh 03 ridhksl .Kkh

ksmqK;dj 3'0 ridhksl .Kkh lsÍï ksjerÈj isÿlrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 3'1 mrudKqfõ yd wKq iïnkaO fN!;sl rdYs Wmfhda.S lr ridhksl iQ;% ks¾Kh

lsÍug" wod< ksh; Ndú; lr .Kkhka isÿ lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 13

bf.kqï M, ² fok ,o úfYaIhl we;=<;a mrudKqj, TlaislrK wxlh fidhhs'

² IUPAC kS;s Ndú; lr ridhksl iQ;% yd kdu ,shhs'

² ksrka;rfhka Ndú; jk ridhksl ixfhda.j, idudkH kdu m%ldY lrhs'

² wej.dâfrda ksh;fha (NA) w.h tall iys;j ,shd olajhs'

² ujq, iy wej.dâfrda ksh;hg iïnkaO .Kkh lsÍï isÿ lrhs'

² m%;sY; ixhq;sh okakd úg wdkqNúl iQ;%h o" wdkqNúl iQ;%h yd wKql

ialkaOh okakd úg wKql iQ;%h o ks¾Kh lrhs'

² ixhq;sfhys mrdñ;s ^ialkaO Nd.h" mßud Nd.h" ujq, Nd.h" idJøKh&

iudf,dapkh lrhs'

² ialkaO Nd.h" mßud Nd.h yd ujq, Nd.h iïnkaO .eg¨ úiohs'

² tall" mßudjl we;=<;a ødjH ujq, m%udKh idkaøKh f,i w¾:olajhs'

² ixhq;sh ialkaOh $ mßudj f,i" m%udKh $ mßudj ^idJøKh& f,i yd

m%udKh $ ialkaOh f,i .Kkh lr m%ldY lrhs'

² úoHd .drfha we;s msfmÜgq" ìhfrÜgq" îlr" ñkqïird jeks ùÿre WmlrK

yd isõo`vq ;=,dj ksjerosj mßyrKh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² úúO ridhksl ixfhda. j, wvx.= ix>gl mrudKqj, TlaislrK wxlh

,nd .kakd whqre meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² IUPAC kS;s Ndú;fhka ridhksl iq;% ,sùug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

² isiqka lKavdhï lr wm ks;r Ndú;d lrk iq,N ridhksl ixfhda.j,

idudkH kï fiùug fhduq lrkak'

² ridhksl .Kkfha§ wej.dâfrda wxlfha (NA) jeo.;alu iqÿiq WodyrK

u.ska meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² ujq, iy wej.dâfrda ksh;h u; mokï jq .Kkh lsÍï isÿ lsÍug

isiqkag u. fmkajkak'

² ixfhda.hl wdkqNúl iq;%h yd wKql iq;%h yÿkajd § tu iq;% fol w;r

fjki yÿkd.ekSug iqÿiq ksoiqka bÈßm;a lrñka iydh jkak'

² ixfhda.j, ixhq;s fhdod .ksñka wdkqNdúl iq;%h yd wKql iq;%h ks¾Kh

lsÍug u. fmkajkak'


² ksoiqka fhdod .ksñka ixhq;sh m%ldY l< yels mrdñ;Ska y‘ÿkd .ekSug

Woõ lrkak' ^i alk aO Nd.h" mßud Nd.h" uj q, Nd.h yd

m%udKh$ialkaOh&

² idkaøKh yÿkajd § th ujq, m%udKh$ mßudj hk mo u.ska m%ldY l,

yels nj fmkajd fokak'

² isiqka lKavdhï lr iqÿiq WodyrK u.ska ixhq;sh iy idkaøKh iïnkaO

.Kkh lsÍï isÿlsÍug u. fmkajkak'

² úoHd.drfha we;s ùÿre Wmlrk j, jeo.;alu yd m%fhdack ioyka lr

tajd wdo¾Ykh lrñka isiqkago tajd Ndú; lsÍï yqreùug wjia:dj i,id

fokak'

² isõ |vq ksjerÈj Ndú;d lsÍug u. fmkajkak'

wod< mÍlaIK ( ² úoHd.drfha we;s ùÿre WmlrK yd isõ ovq ;=,dj Ndú;d lsÍu

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² ixhq;sh yd idkaøKh u; mokï ù we;s úúO j¾.fha .Kkhka isÿ


ksmqK;d uÜgu 3(2 úúO l%u Ndú;d lr ;=,s; iólrK ,shd olajhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² ialkaO yd wdfrdamK ixiaÓ;sh ie,ls,a,g .ksñka ridhksl iólrKhl

;=,s; nj msßlaihs'

² fidaosis l%uh yd frfvdlaia l%uh Ndú;hg .ksñka iólrK ;=,kh

lrhs'

² kHIaál m%;sl%shd ;=,s; lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² ialkaO ixiaÓ;sh yd wdfrdamK ixiaÓ;sh i,lñka iólrKh ;=,s;

lsÍug isiqkaj fhduq lrkak'

² fidaÈis l%uh u.ska iólrK ;=,s; lrk wdldrh fmkajd foñka ta ioyd

u. fmkajkak'

² TlaislrK wxl muKla Ndú;fhka iy whk-bf,lafg%dak w¾O m%;sl%shd

,sùu u.ska frfvdlaia m%;sl%shd ;=,s; lsÍug u. fmkajkak'

² ir, kHIaál m%;sl%shd ;=,s; lsÍug u. fmkajkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² úúO u¾.fha m%;sl%shd ,nd § tajd ;=,s; lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 3'3 iafgdhlsfhdañ;sh yd wkqudmk wdY%s; .Kkh lsÍï isÿ lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 14

bf.kqï M, ² ;=,s; ridhksl iólrKfha iafgdhslsfhdañ;shg wod< .eg¨ úiohs'

² ødjK ms<sfh, lrk wdldrh yd ;kqllrKh lrk wdldrh meyeos,s

lrhs'

² fidaähï ldnfkaÜ ødjkhla ms<sfh, lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² ødjK ;kql lr fjk;a ødjK ms<sfh, lsÍug wod, .Kkhka isÿ lrk


² wï,NIau m%;sl%shdj,g wod, .Kkhka isÿ lsÍug u. fmkajkak'


² ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK Ndú;fhka úúO j¾.fha .eg¨ úi§ug fhduq

lrkak'

ksoiqka

i. fok ,o ødjKhla ;kql lsÍfuka kj idkaøKh fidhkak'

ii. tlsfkl m%;sl%shd fkdlrk ødjK folla ñY% l, úg iEfok ødjKfha

we;s whk idkaøK fidhkak'

iii. tlsfkl m%;sl%shd lrk ødjK folla ñY% l< úg iEfok ødjKfha

we;s whk idkaøK fidhkak'

iv. wï, ødjKhl >k;ajh yd ialkaOh wkqj m%;sY; ixY=oaO;djh §

we;s úg tu ødjKfha idkaøKh fiùu'

v. fok ,o ødjK folla u.ska fjk;a ødjK ms<sfh, lsÍu iïnkaO

.Kkhka

vi. ks¾c,Sh yd c,Sh >k øjH Ndú;d lr ksYaÑ; idkaøKhla we;s ødjK

ms<sfh, lsÍug wod< .Kkh lsÍï'

vii. ødjK folla ñY% l, úg iEfok wjlafIamhla ialkaOh fiùu'

viii. m%;sl%shd folla iu.dój isÿjk úg hï ñY%Khl ixhq;sh ks¾Kh

lsÍu'

ix. m%;sldrl folla w;r m%;sl%shdjla isÿ jq úg b;sßjk m%;sldrlh

fidhd .ekSug wod, .eg¨ úi§u ksoiqka( yqKq.,a idïm,hl we;s

le,aishï ldnfkaÜ m%udKh ks¾Kh lsÍug jeämqr yhsfv%dlaf,daßla

wï,h Ndú;d lsÍu'

x. by; ioyka lr we;s ud;Dld j,g wod, fjk;a .eg¨ úi§u'

wod, mÍlaIK( Na2CO

3ødjKhla ms<sfh, lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² iafgd;sfhdñ;sh iïnkaO úúO j¾.fha .eg¨ úi§ug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

tallh 04 mod¾:fha wjia:d - jdhquh wjia:dj

ksmqK;dj 4'0 mod¾:fha jdhq wjia:dfõ yeisÍu úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 4(1 mod¾:fha m%Odk ;%súO wjia:dj, o¾Ysh ,laIK meyeÈ,s lrkq msKsi tajdfha

wxY=uh ixúOdkh fhdod .kS'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 02

bf.kqï M, ² >k" øj" jdhq hk m%Odk wjia:dj, wxY=j, ixúOdkh úu¾Ykh lrhs'

² wxY=j, ieleiau Wmfhda.s lr .ksñka >k" øj yd jdhqj, mßudj"

>k;ajh" yevh ^yevh flfrys .=re;aj n,fha n,mEu& yd iïmSvH;dj

jeks ufyalaI .=K ixikaokh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² mod¾:fha wxY= ieliS we;s wdldrh wkqj >k" øj yd jdhqj, .=K

fjkiaùug fya;= idlÉPd lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o øjHj, mßudj" >k;ajh" yevh yd iïmSvH;dj wd§ .=K

ikaikaokh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'


ksmqK;d uÜgu 4(2 i;H jdhqj, yeisÍï rgd úia;r lsÍu ioyd wdlD;shla f,i mßmq¾K jdhqj

fhdod .kshs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² mßmQ¾K jdhqj w¾: olajhs'

² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKh iy tys jHQ;amkak y÷kajd oS tys mo meyeos,s

lrhs'

² fndhs,a" pd,aia yd wej.dfv%da kshu m%ldY lr" tu kshu mßmQ¾K jdhq

iólrKh iuÕ olajk iïnkaO;djh fmkajd fohs'

² jdhqjl ujq,sl mßudj w¾: olajhs'

² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKhg yd tys jHq;amkakj,g iïnkaO .eg¨ úi|hs'

² Tlaisckaj, ujq,sl mßudj mÍËKd;aul j ks¾Kh lrhs'

² ue.aksishïj, idfmaË mrudKql ialkaOh mÍËKd;aul j ks¾Kh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² mßmq¾K jdhqjl yd ;d;aúl jdhqjl ,dlaIKsl .=Kdx. yÿkajd § ta u;

mokï jq mßmq¾K jdhq iólrKh yÿkajd fokak'

² mßmq¾K jdhq iólrKfhka wdrïN lrñka idkaøKh (C) >k;ajh (d)

iy ujq,sl ialkaOh (M) iïnkaO iólrK jHq;amkak lsÍug u.

fmkajkak'

² mßmq¾K jdhq iólrKh yd tys jHq;amkak j,g wod, .eg¨ úi§ug

isiqkag mjrkak'

² mßmq¾K jdhq iólrKh u.ska fndhs,a kshuh" pd,aia kshuh yd wej.dâfrda

kshuh jHq;amkak lrk wdldrh fmkajd fokak'

² fndhs,a kshuh" pd,aia kshuh yd wej.dâfrda kshuh jpkfhka ,shd

±laùug u. fmkajkak'

wod, mÍlaIK( 4'1 jdhqjl ujq,sl mßudj mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu

4'2 ue.akSishï j, idfmalaI mrudKql ialkaOh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh

lsÍu

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² PV = nRT u.ska fndhs,a" pd,aia yd wej.dâfrda kshu jHq;amkak lsÍug


² PV = nRT yd tls jHq;amkak j,g wod, >k;ajh ujq,sl ialkaOh yd

idkaøKh iïnkaO úúO j¾.fha .eg¨ úi‘§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 4'3 ;d;aúl ^i;H& jdhqj, yeisßu meyeÈ,s lsÍu ioyd wKql pd,l jdoh

fhdod .kS'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 08

bf.kqï M, ² jdhqj, wKql pd,l jdofha tk Wml,amk m%ldY lrhs'

² jdhqjl mSvkh flfrys n,mdk idOl úia;r lrhs'

² uOHkh fõ.h ( C ), j¾. uOHkh fõ.h ( 2C ) yd j¾. uOHkH uQ,

fõ.h 2C i|yd m%ldYk ,shd olajhs'

² jdhq ms<sno pd,l wKql iólrKh m%ldY lr tys mo úia;r lrhs'


²MRTC 32 � iïnkaO;dj jHq;amkak lrhs'

² jdhq ms<sn| uelaiafj,a - fnda,aÜiaudka jl%j,ska bosßm;a flfrk f;dr;=re

úia;r lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² jdhq ioyd jk pd,l wKql jdofha Wml,amk yÿkajd fokak'

² j¾. uOHkh uQ, fõ.h iy uOHkh fõ.h w;r fjki meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² wKql pd,l iólrKh 231 CmNPV � yÿkajd fokak'

² mßmq¾K jdhq iólrKh yd wKql pd,l iólrKh u.ska MRTC 32 �

jHq;amkak lrkak'

² hï lsis jdhqjla WIaK;ajh foll § uelaiafj,a fnda,aÜiaudka jl% weo

tajd úp,kh jk wkaou meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² tlu WIaK;ajhl we;s fjkia jdhq j, fnda,aÜiaudka jl% weo tajdfha

úp,kh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o WIaK;ajh j,§ úúO jdhqj, j¾. uOHkh fõ. ksrerÈ iïu;

tall fhdod .ksñka .Kkh lsÍfï yelshdj w.hkak'

² tlsfklg fjkia ;;a;aj hgf;a§ 231 CmNPV � iólrKhg iïnkaO

ir, .Kkhka isÿ lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² uelaiafj,a - fnda,aÜiaudka jl% u.ska f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSfï iy tajd

ikaikaokh lsÍfï yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 4(4 jdhq ñY%Khl yeisÍu meyeÈ,s lsÍu ioyd fvda,agka f.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh

fhdod .kS'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² wdxYsl mSvkh hk moh meyeos,s lr fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh

m%ldY lrhs'

² mßmQ¾K jdhq iólrKfhka fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh jHq;amkak

lrhs'

² fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh wdY%s; .eg¨ úi|hs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² jdhq ñY%Khl we;s hï lsis jdhqjl wdxYsl mSvkh hkq l=ula±hs yÿkajd

fokak'

² fvd,agkaf.a wdxYsl msvk kshuh jpkfhka ,sùug u. fmkajkak'

² mßmq¾K jdhq kshuh u.ska fvd,agkaf.a wdxYsl msvk kshuh jHq;amkak

lrk wdldrh fmkajd fokak'

² fvd,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuhg iïnkaO .eg¨ úi§ug bv ,nd

fokak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² PV = nRT u.ska fvd,agka kshuh jHq;amkak lsÍug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

² fvd,agkaf.a wdxYsl msvk kshuh Ndú;fhka fok ,o jdhq ñY%K ioyd

úúO j¾.fha .Kkhka isÿ lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'


ksmqK;d uÜgu 4(5 i;H ;d;aúl& jdhq ioyd mßmq¾K jdhq iólrKh fh§fï§ l< hq;= ixfYdaOk

úYaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² iïmSvH;d idOlh w¾:olajd" ;d;aúl iy mßmQ¾K jdhqj, tys

² w.h mSvkh iuÕ fjkia jk wdldrh m%ia;dßl j bosßm;a lrhs'

² wKql pd,l jdofha tk Wml,amk i,lñka ;d;aúl jdhq mßmQ¾K jdhqj,

yeisÍfuka wm.ukh ùug fya;= úia;r lrhs'

² ;d;aúl jdhq" mßmQ¾K yeisÍfuka wm.ukh ùu meyeos,s lsrSug f.k

f.dvkÕk ,o iólrKhla f,i jekavjd,a pd,aia iólrKh bosßm;a

lrhs'

² wjê WIaK;ajh úia;r lrhs'

² úoHd;aul ixl,am iaÓ;sl tajd fkdj lreKq u; mokï fjñka ksrka;r

jeä oshqKq ùï j,g ,la fj;ehs hk woyi w.h lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² mßmq¾k jdhqjla iy ;d;aúl jdhq ioyd iïmSvH;d idOlh" mSvkh

iu. úp,kh jk whqre bÈßm;a lr pd,l wKql jdofha Wml,amk

fhdod .ksñka tu úp,khkag fya;= úia;r lrkak'

² mßmq¾K jdhqjg fhdok ,o ixfYdaOk iys; jekavdpd,aia iólrK yÿkajd

fokak'

² ;d;aúl jdhq mßmq¾k yeisÍfuka wm.ukh jk whqre meyeÈ,s lsÍug

isiqkag u. fmkajkak'

² wjê WIaK;ajh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² ;d;aúl jdhq mßmq¾K yeisÍfuka wm.ukh ùug fya;= bÈßm;a lsÍug


tallh 05 Yla;s úoHdj

ksmqK;dj 5'0 wod< tka;e,amSh yd tkafg%dms fjkia ùu úu¾Ykh lrñka ridhksl moaO;sj,

ia:dhS;dj yd mßj¾;kj, idOH;dj mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 5(1 tka;e,amSh yd iïnkaO ixl,am .fõIKh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 05

bf.kqï M, ² ú;a;s .=K yd >gkd .=K meyeos,s lrhs'

² moaO;sh" jgmsgdj ^mßirh&" iSudj ixjD; moaO;sh" újD; moaO;sh yd

tal,s; moaO;sh hk mo w¾:olajhs'

² ixY=oaO øjHj, iïu; wjia:d ^>k " øj " jdhq& m%ldY lrhs'

² moaO;shl wjia:dj yd wjia:d Y%s; w¾:olajhs'

² tka;e,amsh" wjia:d Y%s;hla fyj;a ;dm.;sl .=Khla f,i úia;r l,

yels nj;a fmkajd fohs'

² H ys tall jd¾;d lrkafka m%;sls%hdj isÿjk tall m%udKh wkqj nj

m%ldY lrhs' (kJ mol-1 or kJ)

² m%;sl%shdj, tka;e,ams úm¾hdi my; iólrKh Ndú;fhka .Kkh lrhs'

H = H ^wjidk& - H^wdrïNl&


mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² iqÿiq WodyrK fhdod .ksñka ú;a;s .=K yd RK .=K meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² moaO;sh" udhsu" mßirh" ixjD; moaO;s" újD; moaO;s iy tl,s; moaO;s

w¾: olajkak'

² úúO j¾.fha moaO;s iy tajdfha .=K meyeÈ,s lsÍug iqÿiq ksoiqka bÈßm;a

lrkak'

² ixY=oaO øjH ioyd iïu; wjia:d m%ldY lrkak'

² tka;e,amSh ;dm.;sl .=Khla fyj;a wjia:d Y%S;hka jk nj ksoiqka

iys;j úia;r lrkak'

² IUPAC iïuq;sh wkqj tka;e,ams úm¾hdi jd¾;d lrkafka m%;sl%shdj isÿ

ú we;s tall m%udKh wkqj jk neúka iïu; tallh KJmol-1 nj meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² moaO;shl wjia:d yd wjia:d Y%S; meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² wjia:d Y%S; i,lñka m%;sl%shd iy l%shdj,ska wdY%S; tka;e,ams úm¾hdi

.Kkh lsÍug iqÿiq .eg¿ ,nd fokak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o moaO;s újD;" ixjD; fyda tal,sl jk nj fjkalr yÿkd .ekSug


² wjia:d Y%S;hl we;s jeo.;alu yd tka;e,amsfha iïu; tall .ek

wjOdrKh lsÍug we;s yelshdj uekSug m%Yak wikak'

² wjia:d Y%S; fhdod .ksñka H .Kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'2 hï úm¾hdihlg wod< tka;e,ams fjkia ùï w¾: olajd § we;s úm¾hdi

ioyd tka;e,ams úm¾hdi .Kkh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 20

bf.kqï M, ² mÍËKd;aul o;a; Ndú;d lr Q = mcT uÕska tka;e,ams úm¾hdi

.Kkh lrhs'

² ;dmodhl yd ;dmdjfYdaIl m%;sl%shd Yla;s igykla wdYs%;j meyeos,s

lrhs'

² ks¾foaYfha we;=<;a tka;e,ams úm¾hdih yd iïu; tk;e,ams úm¾hdih

w¾:olajhs'

² fyiaf.a kshuh m%ldY lrhs'

² tka;e,ams úm¾hdi .Kkh lsrSu i|yd"

• tka;e,ams rEmigyka Ndú; lrhs

• ;dmridhksl pl% ;dm .;s úoHd;aul jl% Ndú; lr

• ix>glj, W;amdok tka;e,ams muKla Ndú; nj

• nkaOk tka;e,ams muKla Ndú;d lr isÿ lrhs

² wï, - NIau WodiSkslrK tka;e,amsh mÍËKd;aul j ks¾Kh lrhs'

² iqÿiq mÍËKhlska fyia kshufha j,x.=;dj mÍËd lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² Q = mcT fhdod .ksñka tka;e,ams úm¾hdi .Kkh lrk wdldrh

meyeÈ,s lrkak'


² Yla;s igyka yd iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdod.ksñka ;dmodhl iy ;dm wjfYdaIl

m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² úIh ks¾foaYfha § we;s tka;e,ams úm¾hdi i|yd ksjerÈ iólrK ,sùug

u. fmkajkak'

² fyia kshuh w¾: olajkak

² tka;e,ams igyka" ;dm ridhksl pl% fyda iólrK Nú;d lrñka fyia

kshuh fhdod f.k úúO tka;e,ams úm¾hdi .Kkh lsÍug isiqkag

mjrkak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² wï, - NIau WodiSkslrK tka;e,amsh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu

^NaOH iy HCl, KOH iy HNO3, NaOH iy CH

3OOH, NH

4OH iy

HCl&

² fyia kshufha i;H;dj mÍlaIKd;aulj ;yjqre lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² Q = mcT Ndú; lr .Kkhka isÿ lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fyia kshuh fhdod f.k úúO l%u u.ska fok ,o m%;sl%shd j, tka;e,ams

úm¾hdi .Kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'3 fndka fyan¾ jl% Ndú;fhka whksl ixfhda.hl ±,sia tka;e,amsh fyda

W;amdok tka;e,amsh .Kkh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 07

bf.kqï M, ² fndaka - fyan¾ pl%h f.dv keÕSu i|yd wod, jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdi

w¾:olajhs'

² whksl ixfhda.j, W;amdok tka;e,amsh ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd fndaka-

fyan¾ pl%h f.dv kÕshs'

² fndaka - fyan¾ pl%h Ndú;hg .ksñka iïu; oe,sia tka;e,amsh .Kkh

lrhs'

² fojeks yd ;=ka jeks wdj¾;j, uQ,øjHj, bf,lafg%dak ,nd.ekSfï

tka;e,amsj, úp,kh meyeos,s lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² W!¾èjmd;kh" jdIamSlrKh" ú,hkh" mrudKqlrKh" whkSlrKh"

bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj iy ±,sia iE§u hk tajdfha iïu; tka;e,amSka

w¾; olajkak'

² fojk iy ;=kajk wdj¾; uq, øjHhkaf.a bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;d úp,kh

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² whksl ixfYdaokhl W;amdok tka;e,amsh yd ±,sia tka;e,amsh .Kkh

lsÍu i|yd fndaka fyan¾ pl%hka we§ug u. fmkajkak'

² fndaka fyan¾ pl%hla fhdod .ksñka .eg¨ úiok wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² m<uq yd fojk wdj¾;j, uQ,øjHj, bf,lafg%d ak ,nd .ekSfï

tka;e,amsj, úp,kh myod fokak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fndaka fyan¾ pl%hla we§ug wod< iïu; tka;e,ams úm¾hdi w¾: ±laùug



² fndaka fyan¾ pl%hka Ndú;fhka iïu; W;amdok tka;e,amsh yd iïu;

±,sia tka;e,amsh .kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 5'4 ridhksl m%;sl%shdj, iajhx isoaO;dj mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 05

bf.kqï M, ² tkafg%dmsh (S) yd tkafg%dms fjki (S) hk mo meyeos,s lrhs'

² .síia ksoyia Yla;sh (G) yd .síia ksoyia Yla;s fjki (G) hk mo

meyeos,s lrh’'

² S yd G wjia:d Y%s; nj m%ldY lrhs'

² S yd G .Kkh lsrSug"

• S = S ^M,& - S ^m%;sl%shd&

• G = G ^M,& - G ^m%;sl%shd&

• Yla;s pl%h

hk iïnkaO;d fhdod.kS'

² G0 iy S0 hk mo w¾:olajhs'

² G, H yd S w;r iïnkaO;dj m%ldY lrhs'

² G0 ��H yd S0 w;r iïnkaO;dj m%ldY lrhs'

² GNdú;d lrñka ksh; WIaK;ajhla yd ksh; mSvkhla hgf;a m%;sl%shdjl

iajhx isoaO;dj mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

² G yd S ys tall" m%;sl%shdj isÿjk tall m%udKh wkqj m%ldY lrhs'

G (kJmol-1) yd S(Jmol-1K-1) or G(kJ) S (Jk-1)

² G0 , H0 , S0 ys iïu; w.hka u; mokï jk .Kkhka isÿ lrhs'

² G ys w.h weiqßka m%;sl%shdjla isÿùfï m%jK;dj mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² wjia:d Y%S; jYfhka tkafg%dmsh (S) iy .síia fhdacH Yla;sh (G) yÿkajd

fokak'

² G , H , S yd G0 , H , S0 w;r we;s iïnkaO;dj ,nd fokak'

² G ys w.h Ndú; lr fok ,o WIaK;ajhl§ iy ksh; msvkhl§ hï

m%;sl%shdjl fyda m%;sl%shdj,shl iajhxisoaO;dj m%frdal:kh lrk whqre

fmkajd fokak'

² G , H , S iy G0 , H , S0 u; mokï jq .Kkhka isÿ lsÍug iy

m%;sl%shdjl iajhxisoaO;djh m%frdal:kh lsÍug isiqka yg mjrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² G = H - TS iy G0 =�H0 - TS hk iólrKh fhdod .ksñka

tka;e,ams úm¾hdi iy tkafg%dms úm¾hdi j,g iïnkaO .eg¨ úi§ug


² G ys w.h Ndú;d lrñka hï l%shdj,shl iajhxisoaO;dj m%frdal:kh


² hï m%;sl%shdjla iajhxisoaOùug wjYH wju WIaK;ajh .Kkh lsÍug



tallh 06 s, p yd d f.dkqj, uq, øjHj, ridhkh

ksmqK;dj 6'0 s, p yd d f.dkqj, uQ,øjH yd tajdfha ixfhda.j, .=K úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'1 s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, .=K úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, yd ixfhda.j, meje;au úia;r lrhs'

² m<uqjeks yd fojeks ldKavj, uQ,øjH jd;h $ Tlaiscka " c,h " wï, "

khsg%cka yd yhsv%cka iuÕ isÿlrk m%;sl%shdj, iajNdjh ;=,s; ridhksl

iólrK weiqßka úia;r lrhs'

² fidaähï yd ue.akSishï ksfhdacs; uQ,øjH f,i .ksñka tajd jd;h" Tlaiscka"

c,h yd wï, iuÕ isÿlrk m%;sl%shd ksÍËKh lrhs'

² f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj,g" kHIaáhg ,sys,aj ne|S we;s wjidk ljpfha

bf,lafg%dak neyer lr ^TlaislrKh& WÉp jdhq úkHdih iys; ia:dhS

legdhk iEoSu u.ska Tlaisydrl f,i tajdg l%shd l< yels nj meyeos,s

lrhs'

² myka is¿ mÍËdfjka f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj y÷kd .kS'

² bf,lafg%dak ixl%uK úfudapk j¾Kdj,sh& wdY%fhka myka is¿ mÍËdfõ

m%;sM, meyeos,s lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² Na, K, Mg iy Ca iajdNdjfha mj;sk wdldrh .ek idlÉPd lrkak'

² m<uq yd fojk ldKavfha uq, øjH jd;h O2

, c,h " wï, " N2 iy H

2

iu. olajk m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² ksfhdað; uq,øjH f,i Na yd Mg fhdod .ksñka by; m%;sl%shd ioyd

;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,shkak'

² bf,lafg%dak úkHdi i,ldn,ñka “s” uq, øjHhkaf.a Tlaisydrl yelshdj

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² f,day" jd;h" c,h iy wï, iu. isÿlrk m%;sl%shd ikaikaokh lrkak'

² Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Ba2+ yd Sr2+ yÿkd.ekSu ioyd mykais¿ mßlaIdj

isÿ lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² iqÿiq m%Yak ,nd§u u.ska I yd II ldkavj, uq, øjHhkaf.a m%;sl%shdYs,s;ajh


² fok ,o uq,øjH H2

, ;kql wï," O2 iy jd;h iu. olajk m%;sl%shd

ioyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'2 p f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH yd ixfhda.j, .=K úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 20

bf.kqï M, ² s f.dkqjg idfmaËj f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, yd ixfhda.j, meje;au úia;r

lrhs'

² wï, yd m%n, laIdr iuÕ we¨ñkshïj, m%;sl%shd úia;r lrhs'

² we¨ñkshï yd we¨ñkshï Tlaihsâj, m%;sl%shd uÕska tys WNh.=KS iajNdjh

úia;r lrhs'

² AlCl3ys bf,lafg%dak W!K;dj yd Al

2Cl

6 iEoSu úia;r lrhs'


² ñksrkaj, yd oshuka;sj, jHQyuh .=K meyeos,s lrhs'

² ldnka fudfkdlaihsâj, yd ldnka vfhdlaihsâj, jHQyh yd .=K bosßm;a

lrhs'

² H2CO

3 ys jHQyh ,nd oS tys wdï,sl .=K meyeos,s lrhs'

² khsg%ckays úúO TlaislrK wxl i|yd ksoiqka bosrsm;a lrhs'

² khsg%ckays Tlaihsv yd Tlafid wï,j, jHqy bÈßm;a lrhs'

² oS we;s f,day yd wf,day iuÕ khsá%la wï,fha m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s;

iólrK ,shhs'

² wefudakshd Tlaisldrlhla yd Tlaisydlrhla f,i l%shd lrk wjia:d

i|yd m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

² wefudakshï ,jKj, ;dmúfhdackh i|yd ;=,s; iólrK ,shhs'

² wefudakshd jdhqj yd wefudakshï whk mÍlaIKd;aulj y÷kd .kS'

² Tlaiscka yd i,a*¾j, nyqrEmS wdldrj, f;dr;=re bosßm;a lrhs'

² i,a*¾ j, Tlafid wï, i|yd jHQy bosßm;a lrhs'

² idJø i,a*shqßla wï,fha Tlaisldrl yelshdj meyeos,s lrkq msKsi th

f,day" ldnka yd i,a*¾ iuÕ isÿlrk m%;sls%hd ,shhs'

² Tlaisldrl yd Tlaisydrl f,i yd isÿ lrk m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

² ye,ckj, fN!;sl ;;a;aj iy j¾K ms<sn| úuid n,hs'

² Cu, Fe yd NH3iuÕ laf,darSkaj, m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s; iólrK ,shhs'

² ye,ckj, m%;sia:dmk m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s; iólrK ,shhs'

² ye,ckj, idfmaË Tlaisldrl yelshdj meyeos,s lrhs'

² ksoiqka weiqßka laf,daÍkaj, iy chlorate(I) whkfha oaúOdlrKh i|yd

;=,s; iólrK ,shhs'

² úúO TlaislrK wjia:dj, we;s Tlafid wï, j, jHQy w|shs'

² laf,darSka j, Tlafid wï,j, wdï,sl m%N,;djh yd Tlaisldrl yelshdj

ii|hs'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka foñka c,Sh udOHfha yhsv%cka fya,hsvj, wdï,sl;dj úia;r

lrhs'

² WÉp jdhqj, .=K m%ldY lrñka tajd idok ixfhda. iuyrlg ksoiqka

imhhs'

² wjlafIamK yd fjk;a l%u Ndú;fhka wekdhk y÷kd .kS'

² wekdhkfha iajNdjh mokï lr .ksñka wï,j,oS wjlafIamj, ødjH;dj

meyeos,s lrhs'

² jd;fha khsg%cka we;s nj mÍËKd;aulj fmkajd fohs'

² fya,hsv whk mÍËKd;aulj y÷kd .kS'

² KIO3 yd KI Ndú; lr ;fhdai,af*aÜ ødjKhla m%udKSlrKh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² C, N yd O wvx.= ixfhda. iajNdjfha mj;sk wdldrh idlÉPd lrkak'

² Al yd Al2O

3 j, WNh.=kS ,laIK tajdg wod, m%;sl%shd iu. meyeÈ,s

lrkak'


² bf,lafg%dak W!K;d ixl,amh fhdod .ksñka Al2Cl

6 iEfok whqre úia;r

lrkak'

² C, O yd S ksoiqka f,i .ksñka “P” f.dKqfõ uq,øjH j, nyqrEmS wdldr

y‘ÿkajd fokak'

² Al2O

3iy C, N yd S idok Tlaihsv j, .=K iy m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² C, N, S yd Cl u.ska wpl%Sh wï,j, ,laIK úia;r lrkak'

² HNO3wï,h f,day iy wf,day iu. olajk m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² “N” j, yhsv%hsvhla f,i NH3 yÿkajd fokak'

² wefudakshï ,jK j, yeisÍu meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² H2O iy H

2O

2 j, .=K iy m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² H2S, SO

2iy H

2SO

4 j, .=K iy m%;sl%shd idlÉPd lrkak'

² Tlaisldrlhla f,i" úrxck ldrlhla f,i iy oaúOdlrKhla f,i

laf,daßka ys m%;sl%shd idlÉPd lrkak'

² laf,daßka j, úia:dmk m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² nkaOk ú>gk tka;e,amSka fhdod .ksñka yhsv%cka fya,hsv j, wdï,slD;

ikaikaokh lrkak'

² 15jk ldKavfha uq,øjH idok laf,drhsv j, c,úÉfþok m%;sl%shd idlÉPd

lrkak'

² ksYal%Sh jdhqkaf.a bf,lafg%dak úkHdih u;lhg kxjñka tajdfha wl%Sh

iajNdjh iy fifkda;ag Tlaihsv yd ma fjdrhsv iE§ug we;s yelshdj

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² wefudakshd jdhqj yd wefudakshï ,jK y÷kd.ekSu' ^,sÜuia" HCl yd

fkia,¾ m%;sldrlh&

² wekdhk y÷kd.ekSu' (X-,SO4

2-,SO3

2-,S2O

32-,S2-,CO

32-,NO

3

-, NO

2-)

² jd;fha khsg%cka we;s nj mÍlaIKd;aulj fmkaùu'

² fya,hsv y‘ÿkd.ekSu'

² KIO3yd KI Ndú;fhka ;fhdai,af*aÜ whk ødjkhla m%dudKsl lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² Al yd Al2O

3 ys WNh.+ks iajNdjh úia;r lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² H2S, SO

2 , H

2O

2 , Cl

2 , HNO

3iy H

2SO

4hk tajdg wod, m%;sl%shd ,sùug


² fok ,o f,an,a rys; fya,hsv idïm, fjkalr y÷kd.ekSug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'3 s yd p f.dkq uQ,øjHj, yd tajdfha ixfhda.j, .=K iy tajdfha keUqre;d

úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, ,jKj, c, ødjH;dj ixikaokh lrhs'

² f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, khsfÜ%g" ldnfkag nhsldnfkagj, ;dm ia:dhs;dj

iiohs'


² ;=kajk wdj¾;h osf.a ol=Kg hdfïoS s yd p f.dkqj, Tlaihsv yd

yhsfv%dlaihsvj, wdï,sl $ NdIañl $ WNh.=KS iajNdjh myod fohs'

² yhsv%hsv yd fya,hsv j, c, úÉfþok keUqre;d oelaùu i|yd wod,

;=,s; iólrK ,shhs'

² s f.dkqfõ ,jKj, c, ødjH;dj mrSËKd;aulj ixikaokh lrhs’

² khsfÜ%g" yd ldnfkagj, ;dmia:dhs;dj mÍËKd;aulj ii|hs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² “S” uq,øjH NO3

- , CO

32-, SO

42-, Cl-, OH

-, C

2O

42-, PO

43-, HCO

3

-, NO

2

-

, S2- , SO32-, CrO

42- jeks wekdhk iu. idok ,jK j, c, ødjH;dj

úp,kh jk whqre mÍlaIKd;aul m%;sM, u.ska meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² “S” uq,øjH idok ldnfkaÜ nhsldnfkag yd khsfÜ%gj, ;dm ia:dhs;dj

úp,kh jk whqre tajdfha iyixhqc yd whksl ,laIK Ndú;fhka meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² by; ixfhda.j, ;dm úfhdack m%;sl%shdj,g wod, ;=,s; ridhksl

iólrK ,sùug u. fmkajkak'

² ;=kajk wdj¾;fha uq,øjH idok Tlaihsv iy yhsfv%dlaihsvj, wdï,sl$

NdIañl$ WNh.=ks iajNdjh fya;= olajñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² by; ixfhda. j, wdï,sl $ NdIañl $ WNh.=ks iajNdjh yÿkd.ekSug

fya;=jk whqßka wod, ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,sùug u. fmkajkak'

² ;=kajk wdj¾;h yryd ol=Kg hdfï § yhsv%hsv yd fya,hsv c,h iu.

olajk m%;sl%shd u.ska ,efnk M, úia;r lrkak'

² 15 ldKavfha my<g hk úg fya,hsv c,h olajk m%;sl%shd weiqßka c,

úÉfþok yelshdj iiokak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² “S” uq,øjH idok ,jK j, ødjH;djh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾kh lsÍu'

² “S” uq,øjH idok khsfÜ%g yd ldnfkaÜ j, ;dmia:dhs;dj m%fhda.slj

ks¾kh lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² ,jK j, ødjH;d m%fhdackhg .ksñka ixfhda. yÿkd.ekSug yd fjkalr

yÿkd.ekSug we;s yelshdj iqÿiq m%Yak ,nd§u u.ska w.hkak'

² fok ,o ixfhda. j, ;dm úfhdackhg wod, ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK


² fok ,o ixfhda. c,h iu. olajk m%;sl%shd ioyd ;=,s; ridhksl

iólrK ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'4 wdj¾;hla yryd ol=Kg hdfï§ d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, .=K úp,kh jk

wdldrh úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 05

bf.kqï M, ² d f.dkqfõ we;eï uQ,øjHj, yd ixfhda. j, meje;au iy m%fhdack

úia;r lrhs'

² bf,lafg%dak úkHdi mokï lrf.k isõ jeks wdj¾;fha d f.dkqjg wh;a

uQ,øjH fmkajk úp,H TlaislrK wjia:d m%ldY lrhs'


² d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, úp,H TlaislrK wjia:d oelaùfï yelshdj" s yd

p f.dkqj, uQ,øjHj, tu .=K iuÕ ixikaokh lrhs'

² d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, úoHq;a iDK;dj s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH iuÕ iiohs'

² d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, f,dayuh .=K s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH iuÕ iiohs'

² d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, W;afm%arl f,i l%shd lsÍfï yelshdj úia;r lrhs'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka foñka d f.dkqfõ uQ,øHj, j¾Kj;a ixfhda. ieoSfï yelshdj

úia;r lrhs'

² d f.dkqfõ j¾Kj;a ixlS¾K whk mrSËKd;aulj y÷kd .kS'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² m<uq “d” fY%aKsfha we;s uq, øjH tajdfha bf,lafg%dak úkHdi iu. y÷kajd

fokak'

² Cu, Fe yd Ti iy tajdfha ixfhda. iajdNdjfha mj;sk wdldrh yd tajdfha

m%fhdack idlÉPd lrkak'

² d f.dkqfõ uq, øjHhkaf.a .=K idlÉPd lrkak' úp,H TlaislrK wxl"

úoHq;a RK;dj" f,dayuh .=K" W;afm%arl l%shdj iy j¾Kj;a ixfhda.

iE§ug we;s yelshdj&

² by; ,laIK “S” yd “P” uq,øjHj, .=K iu. ikaikaokh lrkak'

² d ixls¾Kj, jHqy iq;% iy j¾K yÿkajd fokak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² c,Sh udOHfha§ ixls¾Kj, j¾K yÿkd.ekSu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² 3d uq,øjH iy tajdfha ixfhda.j, m%fhdack bÈßm;a lsÍug we;s yelshdj

tajd fiùug mejreula ,nd§u u.ska w.hkak'

² fok ,o uq,øjHj, fok ,o .=K meyeÈ,s lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² d f.dkqfõ uq,øjHj, iuyrla .=K tajdfha bf,lafg%dak úkHdi wkqidrfhka

meyeÈ,s lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'5 d f.dkqfõ ixfhda.j, .=K úu¾Ykh lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² fl%dañhïj, yd uex.kSiaj, Tlaihsvj, wdï,sl $ NdIañl $ WNh.=KS

iajNdjh m%ldY lrhs'

² fl%dañhïj, yd uex.kSiaj, Tlafid wekdhk Tlaisldrl f,i l%shdlrk

m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s; ridhksl m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

² fok ,o ksheoshl we;=,;a Fe2+ whk idJøKh mrSËKd;aulj ks¾Kh

lrhs'

² fok ,o Na2C

2O

4ødjkKl idkaøKh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾kh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² lafrdañhï yd uex.kSia idok Tlaihsvj, iq;% iy wdï,sl" Ndiañl"

WNh .=KS iajNdjh bÈßm;a lrkak'

² Cr2O

72- , CrO

42- yd MnO

4-j, Tlaisldrl yelshdj meyeÈ,s lsÍï ioyd

tajdfha m%;sl%shd j,g wod, ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,sùug Wmfoia ,nd

fokak'

² iqÿiq m%;sldrl fhdod .ksñka Cr yd Mn idok Tlafid wekdhk j,

Tlaisldrl yelshdj wdo¾Ykh lrkak' Wod( C2O

42-, H

2O

2 , H

2S , SO

2


² H+/ KMnO4 < MnO

4Ndú;d lrñka fok ,o idïm,hl we;s Fe2+

idkaøKh ks¾kh lrk whqre meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² H+/KMnO4u.ska fok ,o K

2C

2O

4ødjKhl idkaøKh mÍlaIKd;aul

ks¾Kh lrk whqre myod fokak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² H+/KMnO4 Ndú;d lrñka fok ,o Fe2+ ødjkhl idkaøKh ks¾Kh

lsÍu'

² H+/KMnO4Ndú;d lrñka fok ,o C

2O

4

2- ødjKhl idkaøKh fiùu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² Cr yd Mn idok fok ,o Tlaihsv j, wdï,sl$Ndiañl$WNh .=Ks

iajNdjh ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² MnO4

- , CrO

42- yd Cr

2O

72-

j, Tlaisldrl yelshdj fmkaùu i|yd tajd

fok ,o m%;sldrl iu. olajk m%;sl%shd ioyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK


ksmqK;d uÜgu 6'6 d f.dkqfõ ixlS¾K ixfhda.j, .=K úu¾Ykh lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² Cr , Mn , Fe , Co , Ni yd Cu hk uQ,øjHj, legdhk H2O , NH

3 yd Cl-

hk nkaO ldKav iu. idok ixlS¾K ixfhda.j, j¾K m%ldY lrhs'

² d f.dkqfõ whk NaOH iy NH3(aq)

iu. olajk m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka bosßm;a lrñka ixlS¾K whkhl flaJøSh mrudKqj " tys

TlaislrK wjia:dj yd nkaO ldKav moaO;sh ixlS¾K ixfhda.hl j¾Kh

flfrys n,mdk nj fmkajd fohs'

² fldm¾ (II), fldfnda,aÜ (II) yd ksl,a (II) ,jK yhsfv%dlaf,dßla wï,h yd

wefudakshd iuÕ idok ixfhda.j, j¾K ksÍËKh lrhs'

² uex.kSiaj, +2 , +4 , +6 yd +7 TlaislrK wjia:dj,g wkqrEm

úfYaIj, j¾K TlaislrK - TlaisyrK m%;sl%shd weiqfrka ksÍËKh

lrhs'

² c,Sh udOHfha we;s Ni2+ , Fe2+ , Fe3+ , Cu2+ yd Cr3+ whk y÷kd

.ekSug iqÿiq mÍËd isÿlrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² d f.dkqfõ uq,øjH idok j¾Kj;a ixlS¾K ms<sn|j idlÉPd lrkak'

² Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni iy Cu hk uq,øjHj, legdhk H2O , NH

3yd Cl

-

jeks tal odhl ,s.k iu. idok ixlS¾k ixfhda.j, j¾K wdo¾Ykh

lrkak'

² uOH f,day legdhkh" TlaisldrK ;;a;ajh iy ,s.k j, iajNdjh

ixlS¾K ixfhda. j, j¾Kh flfrys n,mdk wkaou idlÉPd lrkak'

² +2, +4, +6, +7 hk Tlaisldrl wxl wkqj uex.kSia j, j¾Kh fjkia

ùu wod, ixfhda. fhdod .ksñka ksÍlaIKh lsÍug u. fmkajkak'

² c,Sh ødjkhl§ j¾Kj;a ixlS¾K iE§ug we;s yelshdj m%fhdackhg

.ksñka Ni2+, Co2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ iy Cr3+ hk whk yÿkd.kakd wdldrh

meyeÈ,s lrkak'


wod, mÍlaIK( ² Ni2+, Co2+ iy Cu2+ whk yÿkd.ekSug tajd HCl iy NH3(aq)

iu.

idok ixlS¾Kj, j¾K mÍlaId lsÍu'

² +2, +4, +6, +7 hk Tlaisldrl wxl wkqj uex.kSia ys j¾K fjkia

jk whqre ksÍlaIKh lsÍu'

² Ni2+, Co2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ iy Cr3+ hk whk yÿkd .ekSfï mÍlaId isÿ

lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² ixlS¾K j, j¾K fhdod .ksñka d f.dkqfõ legdhk yÿkd.ekSug we;s

yelshdj w.hkak'

tallh 07 ldnksl ridhk úoHdj uq,sl ixl,am

ksmqK;dj 7'0 ldnksl ixfhda.j, úúO;ajh úuid n,hs

ksmqK;d uÜgu 7'1 ridhk úoHdfõ úfYaI lafIa;%hla f,i ldnksl ridhkfha jeo.;alu úu¾Yk

lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 03

bf.kqï M, ² m%Odk ix>ál uQ,øjHh f,i ldnka wka;¾.; jk iajdNdúl yd lD;su

ixfhda. úYd, ixLHdjla mj;sk nj m%ldY lrhs'

² wod< lreKq bosßm;a lrñka ldnkaj,g úYd, ixfhda. ixLHdjla iEoSug

we;s yelshdj meyeos,s lrhs'

² úúO fËa;%j,ska ksoiqka foñka ffoksl Ôú;fha oS ldnksl ridhkfha

jeo.;alu fmkajd fohs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² ldnksl ixfhda. úYd, ixLHdjla mej;Sug fya;= iy ffoksl Ôú;hg

tajdfha we;s jeo.;alu idlÉPd lrkak'

² nyq,j we;s úúO j¾.fha ldnksl ixfhda. ms<snoj idlÉPd lrkak'

^ksoiqka(- bkaOk" frÈms<s" fiaÿïldrl" fT!IO" wdydr" nyqwjhúl wdÈh&

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² isiqka ldKavdhï follg fn§u u.ska wm ffoksl Ôú;fha Ndú;d lrk

ixfhda." ldnksl iy wldnksl f,i f.dkq lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 7'2 l%shdldß ldKav wdY%fhka ldnksl ixfhda.j, úúO;ajh úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 03

bf.kqï M, ² úIh ks¾foaYfha we;=<;a l%shdldÍ ldKavj, kdu yd ixfla; y÷kd

.kshs'

² wka;¾.; l%shdldÍ ldKav wdY%fhka ldnksl ixfhda.j, úúO;ajh y÷kd

.kshs'

² tla tla l%shdldÍ ldKavfhys we;=<;a ioDY ^ium%Nj& fY%aKs kï lrñka

ksoiqka olajhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² úúO ldnksl ixfhda. tajdfha wvx.= l%shdldÍ ldKav wkqj j¾.SlrKh

lr ,ehsia;=.; lrñka mdvu fufyhjkak'

² tÈfkod ðù;fha§ Ndú;d lrk ldnksl ixfhda.j, we;s l%shdldÍ ldKav

yÿkd.ekSu mjrkak'

• wefrdueál yhsfv%dldnk


• we,als,a fya,hsv iy weß,a fya,hsv

• we,afldfyd, yd *sfkda,a

• B;r

• we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak

• ldfndlais,sla wï,

• tiagr

• we,ameál weók$weß,a weók

• weuhsv

• weuhsfkda wï,

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o ixfhda.j, we;s l%shdldÍ ldKav y‘ÿkd.ekSug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 7'3 ir, we,s*eál ldnksl ixfhda. kï lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ( ² idudkH ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHjydrsl kdu m%ldY lrñka iïu;

kdulrKhl wjYH;dj y÷kd.kS'

² IUPAC kS;s Ndú;hg .ksñka" úIh ks¾foaYfha iSudjkag hg;a j fok

,o ldnksl ixfhda. kï lrhs'

² ixfhda.hl IUPAC kduh ÿka l, tys jHQy iQ;%h w|shs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² l%shdldß ldKavj, m%uqL;d wkqms,sfj, yÿkajd fokak'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdod .ksñka IUPAC kdulrKfha kS;s ß;s idlÉPd lrkak'

² fok ,o IUPAC ku iys; ixfhda.hl jHqy iQ;%h ,shk wdldrh meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o ixfhda. IUPAC kdulrKhg wkqj kï lsßug yd IUPAC ku

§ we;s úg ixfhda.fha jHqy iq;%h ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 7'4 tlu wKql iQ;%fhka hq;a wKqj,g ;sìh yels tlsfklg fjkia mrudKql

ieleiau úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² fok ,o wKql iQ;%hlg ;sìh yels ish¨ jHQy iQ;% w|shs'

² fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd w|sk ,o jHQy iQ;%" odu" ia:dk iudjhúl

f,i j¾. lrhs'

² cHdñ;sl yd m%ldY iudjhúl;dj fmkaùu ioyd ;sìh hq;= wjYH;d

m%ldY lrhs'

² fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd ;sìh yels iudjhúl w;ßka" cHdñ;sl yd

m%ldY iudjhúl f;darhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² tlu wKql iq;%h we;s kuq;a úúO ridhksl yd fN!;sl .=K fmkaùug

yels ixfhda. mej;Su f,i iudjhúl;dj f,i w¾: olajkak'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka Ndú;d lrñka úúO iudjhúl j¾. ms<snoj meyeÈ,s

lrkak'


² jHqy iudjhúl ^odu" ia:dk" l%shdldß ldKav&

² ;%sudk iudjhúl ^mdr ;%sudk" m%;srEm wjhj&

² cHdñ;sl isia-g%dkaia& iudhúl;djh iy m%ldY iudjhúl;dj fmkaùug

;sìh hq;= wjYH;d idlÉPd lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o ixfhda.j, we;s iudjhúl j¾.h yÿkd.ekSug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

² fok ,o wKql iq;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels ish¨u iudjhúl j, jHqy

we£ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

tallh 08 yhsfv%dldnk yd fyaf,dayhsfv%dldnk

ksmqK;dj 8'0 we,smeál yhsfv%dldnk yd fyaf,dayhsfv%dldnkj, jHqyh iy .=K w;r

úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'1 we,smeál yhsfv%dldnk j, jHqyh fN!;sl ,laIK iy nkaOk iajNdjh

úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 05

bf.kqï M, ² iqÿiq ksoiqka Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk j,

nkaOkj, iajNdjh úia;r lrhs'

² we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk ioDY fY%aKsj, fN!;sl .=Kj, úp,kh

meyeos,s lrhs'

² ir, we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhskj, cHdñ;sl yev tajdfha ldnka

mrudKqj, uqyqïlrKhg iïnkaO lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² sp3, sp2 yd sp uqyqïlrK iy wod, cHdñ;sl yevhla Wmfhda.S lr

.ksñka we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk yÿkajd fokak'

² fmdÿ iq;% Ndú;d lr wod< ioDY fY%aKs ,shd olajñka we,aflak" we,alSk

yd we,alhsk úia;r lrkak'

² jHqyhka iy wod, wka;¾ wKql wdl¾Yk n, i<lñka tajdfha ;dmdxl"

øjdxl" ødjH;djh jeks fN!;sl .=K úp,kh jk wdldrh idlÉPd

lrkak'

² yhsfv%dldnk j, we;s zmhsZ yd zis.audZ nkaOk ksrEmkh lsÍug yelsjk

mßÈ iq,Nj ,nd .; yels øjH fhdodf.k wdlD;s iE§ug wjia:dj

i,id fokak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o ldnksl ixfhda. fYa%Kshla tajdfha øjdxlh jeä jk ms<sfj,g

ieliSug we;s yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'

² tlu wKql iq;%h we;s iudjhúl j, ;dmdxl úp,kh wjfndaO lr

.ekSug we;s yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'2 we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhskj, ridhksl m%;sl%shd tajdfha jHqyh mokï

lr .ksñka úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 14


bf.kqï M, ( ² we,aflak , we,alSk yd we,alhskj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd tajdfha jHQyhg

iïnkaO lrhs'

² fuf;akaj, laf,daßkSlrKfha yd t;Skaj,g fn%daóka yd yhsv%cka fya,hsv

wdl,kh ùfï hdka;%K meyeos,s lrhs'

² ridhksl mÍËd u.ska we,alSk yd we,alhsk mÍlaIKd;aulj yÿkd.ksh’'

² t;Ska yd t;hska ms<sfh, lr tajdfha m%;sl%shd ksÍËKh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² hdka;%Kh" iu úÉfþokh" úIu úÉfþokh iy uqla; Lkavl odu m%;sl%shd

hk mo yÿkajd fokak'

² uqla; Lkavl hdka;%Kh fhdod .ksñka fuf;aka laf,daßka iu. m%;sl%shd

lrk wdldrh idlÉPd lrkak'

² we,alSk yd we,alhsk j, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd j¾.h bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k

m%;sl%shd jk nj tjdg wod, hdka;%K ie,ls,a,g .ksñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² w.%ia: yhsv%cka mrudKq we;s we,alhsk j, wdï,sl iajNdjh Na, NaNH2,

wefudakShd CuCl yd wefudakSh AgNO3

jeks m%;sldrl Ndú; lrñka

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² we,aflak j, ix;Dma; iajNdjhka we,alSk yd we,alhskj, wix;Dma;

iajNdjh;a idlÉPd lrkak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² Br2(aq)

iy OH-

/ KMnO4

hk m%;sldrl iu. we,alSk yd we,alhsk

olajk m%;sl%shd ksÍlaIKh lrkak'

² wefudakSh CuCl yd wefudakSh AgNO3iu. w.%ia: yhsv%cka we;s we,alhsk

olajk m%;sl%shd ksÍlaIKh lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² Br2 Èhr yd OH-/KMnO

4 Ndú; lr we,alSk yd we,alhsk j,ska we,aflak

fjka lr yÿkd .ekSug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² by; fok ,o m%;sldrl Ndú; lr w.%ia: yhsv%cka iys; we,alhsk

yÿkd .ekSug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² iqÿiq m%;sldrl iy m%;sl%shd Ndú; lr uqla; Lkavl m%;sl%shdj iy

bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shd i|yd hdka;%K ,sùug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'3 fnkaiSkaj, nkaOk iajNdjh úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 03

bf.kqï M, ² fll=f,a úiska fnkaiSka i|yd m<uqj bosßm;a lrk ,o jHQyh u.ska tys

ish¨ .=K meyeos,s fkdlsÍug fya;= bosßm;a lrhs'

² fnkaiSkaj, jHQyh yd ia:dhs;dj meyeos,s lrhs'

² fnkaiSkaj, i;H jHQyh ikd: lsÍu i|yd idËs bosßm;a lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² C6H

6 wKql iq;%h i‘oyd ;sìh yels ish¨u újD; odu jHqy iq;% we§ug

mjikak'

² tu jHqyj, ;ksnkaOk fyda ;ks nkaOk yd oaú;aj nkaOk yd folu fyda

wvx.= jk neúka tajd wix;Dma;;djh i|yd mÍlaId j,g ms<s;=re Èh

hq;= nj wjOdrKh lrkak'


² uqyqïlrKh fhdod .ksñka fnkaiSka ys zfll=f,aZ jHqyh idlÉPd lrkak'

² bf,lafg%dak úia:dk.;ùu u; mokï jq iïm%hqla; ixl,amh Wmfhda.S

lr .ksñka fnkaiSka ys i;H jHqyh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² yhsv%ckSlrK tka;e,amSh jeks ffioaOdka;sl w.hka Ndú; lrñka

fnkaiSkaj, ia:dhs;dj ikaikaokh lrkak'

² m%;sl%shd hdka;%K ,sùfï§ fnkaiSka ksrEmKh lsÍug fll=f,a jHqyh

fhdod.ekSug jvd myiqjk nj meyeÈ,s lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o tka;e,ams w.hka Ndú;d lr tka;e,ams rEmigyka weo fnkaiSka

ys iïm%hqla;;d Yla;sh .Kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fnkaiSka i|yd iïm%hqla; jHqy we§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'4 fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd weiqfrka tys ia:dhs;djh úYaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 07

bf.kqï M, ² iqÿiq ksoiqka Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka" fnkaiSkaj,g wdl,k m%;sl%shdj,g

jvd wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj,g Ndck ùfï m%jK;dj fmkajd fohs'

² khsfg%dlrKh" we,als,alrKh" weis,alrKh yd ye,ckSlrKh hk

m%;sl%shdj, hka;%Kh Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka" fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKSl m%;sl%shd

f,i bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaYkh úia;r lrhs'

² fnkaiSkaj, m%;sl%shd" we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhskj, m%;sl%shd iuÕ

ixikaokh lrhs'

² fnkaiSkaj,g ldKav yd we,als,a ldKav ne§ we;súg§ TlaislrKh ùfï

yelshdj jeäjk nj úia;r lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² we,alhs,a lrKh" taihs,SlrKh" khsfg%dlrKh iy ye,ckSlrKh hk

m%;sl%shd i,lñka fnkaiSka wdl,k m%;sl%shd j,g jvd bf,lafg%d*s,sl

wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj,g jeä ,eÈhdjla olajk nj meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² khsfg%dlrKh" we,alhs,alrKh" taihs,SlrKh iy ye,ckSlrKh hk

m%;sl%shdj,g wod, m%;sl%shd hdka;%K idlÉPd lrkak'

² fnkaiSka TlaislrKhg yd yhsv%ckSlrKhg olajk m%;sfrdaOh ms<sn|j

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² iïm%hqla; ia:dhs;dj wkqj fnkaiSka TlaislrKh yd yhsv%ckSlrKhg

m%;sfrdaOh olajk nj idlÉPd lrkak'

² fnkaiSkaj, W;afm%aßl H2 wdl,kh ms<sn|j idlÉPd lrkak'

² H+ / KMnO4

/ OH- / KMnO4 yd H+ / K

2Cr

2O

7 jeks m%N, Tlaisldrl

iu. we,alhs,a fnkaiSka yd taihs,a fnkaiSka ldfndlais,sla wï, njg

TlaislrKh ùu meyeÈ,s lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fnkaiSka ys bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj, m%;sl%shd hdka;%K ,sùug


ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'5 tal wdfoaYsl fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYk ldkavj, fhduqldrl ^kshdul& yelshdj

úu¾Ykh lrhs'


ld,Éfþo .Kk 05

bf.kqï M, ² tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYl ldKav" f;d" fugd yd merd fhduqldrl

f,i y÷kd .kS'

² tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, m<uq j wdfoaY ù we;s ldKavfha fhduqldrl

.=Kh mokï lr .ksñka fojeks wdfoaYl ldKavhla j,hg iïnkaO jk

ia:dkh m%ldY lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² -OH, -NH2, -NHR, -R, -Cl, -Br iy –CH

3hk tajd z´f;daZ fyda zmerdZ

fhduqldrl ldKav f,i yÿkajd fokak'

² -NO2 , -COOH , -COR iy –CHO hk tajd zfugdZ fhduqldrl ldKav nj

fmkajd fokak'

² tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSka jHq;amkak j, fojk wdfoaYh isÿjk ia:dkh yd


we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fnkaiSka u; ´f;d" merd iy fugd fhduqldrl ldKav iïnkaO ù we;s

ixfhda.j,g wod, ir, mßj¾;k isÿ lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'6 we,alhs,a fya,hsâ j, jHqyh C - X nkaOkfha O%eùh;djh yd m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykh

lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 09

bf.kqï M, ² m%d:ñl oaú;Shsl iy ;D;Shsl f,i we,alhs,a fya,hsv j¾.SlrKh lrhs'

² we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj,g Ndckh ùfï

m%jK;dj C - X nkaOkfha O%eùh iajNdjh yd iïnkaO lrhs'

² .%skdâ m%;sldrlh ms<sfh, lsÍu yd tys .=K úia;r lrhs'

² kshqla,sfhd*hs, flfrys weß,a fya,hsâ iy jhskhs,a fya,hsv (sp2 ldnka

mrudKqj,g iïnkaO ye,ckj,) wl%sh;dj meyeos,s lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd ;D;sl f,i we,alhs,a fya,hsv j¾.SlrKh meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² we,alhs,a fya,hsv j, ;dmdxlh" øjdxlh iy ødjH;djh jeks fN!;sl

.=K meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² we,alhs,a fya,hsv j, we;s C - X nkaOkfha O%eùh iajNdjh fya;=fldg

f.k tajd kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj,g olajk keUqre;djh ms<sn|

idlÉPd lrkak'

² weß,a fya,hsv iy jhskhs,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd

isÿ fkdùu ms<sn|j idlÉPd lrkak'

² .%Skdâ m%;sldrlh ms<sfh, lr.kakd wdldrh iy th fm%dafgdakodhl

m%;sldrl iu. olajk m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² fok ,o wKql iq;% ioyd mej;sh yels ish¨u we,alhs,a fya,hsv j,

jHqy ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² by; i|yka we,alhs,a fya,hsv" m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd ;D;sl f,i j¾.

lsÍug we;s yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'


² fok ,o we,alhs,a fya,hsv OH-, CN-, RC�C-, RO- hk kshqla,sfhd*hs,a

we;s úg ,nd fok M, ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 8'7 nkaOk ì£fï yd ;ekSfï YS>%;djh mokï lr .ksñka we,alS,a fya,hsâj,

kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdfoaYh úYaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 03

bf.kqï M, ² we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhda-*s,sl wdfoaYh isÿ úh yels m%;sl%shd ud¾.

folla we;s nj jgyd .kshs'

² nkaOk ìoSu yd nkaOk ;ekSu iuld,Sk j isÿ jk úg we,als,a fya,hsvj,

kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj ;ks mshjr m%;sl%shdjla f,i úia;r

lrhs'

² kj nkaOkhla ;ekSu" nkaO ìoSfuka miqj isÿjk úg" we,als,a fya,hsv,

kshqla,shda*s,sl wdfoaYh fomshjr m%;sl%shdjla f,i úi;r lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² we,alhs,a fya,hsv j, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd isÿ úh yels l%u

fol yÿkajd fokak' ^;ks mshjr iy fomshjr&

² iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdo .ksñka ;ks mshjr m%;sl%shd iy fomshjr m%;sl%shd

isÿjk wkaou idlÉPd lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ( ² iqÿiq wdlD;s fhdod .ksñka we,alhs,a fya,hsv j, ;ks mshjr yd fomshjr

m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lsÍug we;syelshdj w.hkak'

tallh 09 Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.

ksmqK;dj 9'0 Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqyh iy .=K w;r iïnkaO;dj

úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 9'1 we,afldfyd,j, jHqyh" ldnka - Tlaiscka nkaOkfha iy Tlaiscka - yhsv%cka

nkaOkfha O%eùh iajNdjh yd m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² m%d:ñl" oaú;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl f,i we,afldfyd, j¾.SlrKh lrhs'

² O - H nkaOkfha yd C - O nkaOkfha O%eùh iajNdjh úia;r lrhs'

² we,afldfyd,j, fN!;sl .=K" tajdfha yhsv%cka nkaOk ;ekSfï yelshdj

iuÕ iïnkaO lrhs'

² we,afldfyd,j, O - H yd C - O nkaOkj, ì|Su iy bj;a ùfï yd

TlaislrK m%;sl%shd tajdfha jHQyh iuÕ .,mhs'

² ¨lia mÍËdfjka m%d:ñl" oaú;shSl yd ;D;Shsl we,afldfyd, fjka lr

y÷kd .kshs'

² we,afldfyd,j, .=K mÍËd lr jd¾;d lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² -OH ldKavh wvx.= ldnka mrudKqjl iïnkaO ù we;s we,alhs,a ldKav

ixLHdj wkqj we,afldfyd, m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd ;D;sl f,i j¾.SlrKh

lrkak'

² we,afldfyd,j, ;dmdxlh" øjdxlh" ødjH;djh hk fN!;sl .=K tajdfha

wkql ialkaOh yd wka;¾ wkql n, fhdod .ksñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'


² O - H nkaOkh ì§fuka isÿjk m%;sl%shd i,lñka we,afldfyd,j, ridhksl

,laIK úia;r lrkak' (Na iy we,afldfyd, w;r m%;sl%shdj&

² iqÿiq ksoiqka Ndú;fhka we,afldfyd, j, wdï,sl iajNdjh meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² C - O nkaOkfha O%eùh;djh ksid C - O nkaOkh ì§fuka isÿjk m%;sl%shd

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

(HBr, PCl3/PBr

3, PCl

5 iu. m%;sl%shd&

² m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl iy ;D;sl we,afldfyd, fjka lr yÿkd .ekSug ioyd

idkaø HCl yd ZnCl2 iu. m%;sl%shdj tys§ iEfok ldfndalegdhk j,

idfmalaI ia:dhs;dj i,lñka idlÉPd lrkak'

² we,alsk iE§ug idkaø H2SO

4fyda Al

2O

3 iu. isÿjk bj;a ùfï m%;sl%shdj

idlÉPd lrkak'

² we,afldfyd, yÿkd .ekSfï mÍlaId f,i ie,flk H+/K2Cr

2O

7yd

msßãkshï laf,dfrdlafrdafïÜ (PCC) iu. isÿjk TlaislrK m%;sl%shd

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² we,afldfyd, j, .=K mÍlaId lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o wKql iq;%hka i|yd ;sìh yels iudjhúl ,shd tajd m%d:ñl

oaú;shsl yd ;D;sl we,afldfyd, f,i f.dkq lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² úúO m%;sl%shl yd m%;sldrl ÿkaúg tajd we,afldfyd, iu. m%;sl%shdfjka

,efnk M, ,shd ±laùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 9'2 ldnka - Tlaiscka nkaOkh yd Tlaiscka - yhsv%cka nkaOk weiqfrka *Sfkda,aj,

m%;sl%shd úYaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² *sfkda," we,afldfyd,j,g jvd wdï,sl jkafka uka oehs meyeos,s lrhs'

² we,afldfyd, Ndckh jk kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj,g *Sfkda,

Ndckh fkdjkafka ukaoehs meyeos,s lrhs'

² fidaähï f,dayh yd fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ iu. *Sfkda,a olajk m%;sl%shd

m%ldY lrhs'

² ir, mÍËd u.ska *Sfkda,aj, .=K y÷kd f.k jd¾;d lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² *Sfkda,a ys wdï,sl;djh jHqyh mokï lrf.k meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda, fmkajk m%;sl%shd tajdfha idfmalaI ia:dhs;djh

i,lñka iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdod .ksñka ikaikaokh lrkak'

² yhsv%cka nkaOk iy ,kavkan, fhod .ksñka *Sfkda,a j, fN!;sl .=K

idlÉPd lrkak'

² *Sfkda,a ys wdï,sl;djh meyeÈ,s lsÍug we;s Na iy NaOH iu. fjk

fjku isÿjk m%;sl%shd Ndú;d lrñka ridhksl ,laIK idlÉPd lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o úúO we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda,a j, wdï,sl yd ikaikaokh



² we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda, fok ,o m%;sldrl iu. olajk m%;sl%shd u.ska

iEfok M, ,shd we;sùug we;s yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 9'3 *Sfkda,aj,-OH ldKavh u.ska fnkaiSka f,i u; we;s flfrk n,mEu

úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 03

bf.kqï M, ² *Sfkda,j, wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj, oS wdfoaYlh -OH ldKavhg idfmaËj f;d

^2 " 6& yd merd ^4& ia:dkj,g iïnkaO jk nj m%ldY lrhs'

² fnkaiSkaj,g jvd *Sfkda,aj, kHIaáh bf,lafg%d*hs, flfrys jvd

m%;sl%shdldÍ jkafka ukaoehs meyeos,s lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² ´f;d-merd n,mEu meyeÈ,s lrñka *Sfkda,a ys wdfoaY m%;sl%shd f,i

khsfg%dlrKh yd fn%dañkSlrKh ms<sn| idlÉPd lrkak'

² iïm%hqla; jHqy fhdod .ksñka *Sfkda,a ys m%;sl%shdYS,s;ajh fnkaiSka iu.

ikaikaokh lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o m%;sldrl iu. *Sfkda,a olajk m%;sl%shd ,sùug we;s yelshdj

;lafiare lrkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 9'4 m%;sl%shdj,ska úoyd olajk mßÈ we,aäyhsvj, yd lSfgdak, C = O nkaOkfha

O%eùh yd wix;Dma; iajNdjh úu¾Ykh lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 15

bf.kqï M, ² ldfndks,a ldKavfha wika;Dma; iajNdjh meyeos,s lrhs'

² we,aäyhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd ;=,ska kshqla,sfhda*,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shd

meyeos,s lrhs'

² .%skdâ m%;sldrlh iy HCN iuÕ isÿ jk kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdl,k

m%;sl%shdj, hka;%Kh bosßm;a lrhs'

² we,aäyhsv lSfgdakj,ska fjka lr y÷kd .ekSu i|yd we,aäyhsv myiqfjka

TlaislrKh ùfï .=Kh Ndú;d lrhs'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka wdY%fhka �- H iys; ldfndks,a ixfhda.j, il%sh;dj fmkakqï

lrhs'

² fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ yuqfõ we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdakj, iajhxix>kk

m%;sl%shd bÈßm;a lrhs'

² wod, mÍlaId isÿlsÍu u.ska ldfndks,a ldKav yÿkd .kshs'

² wod, mrSËK uÕska we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak fjka lr y÷kd .kshs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak olajk kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s

lsÍug tajdfha we;s lfndkhs,a ldkavhlg O%eùh;djh ms<sno idlÉPd

lrkak'

² ldfndkhs,a ldKavhla wdfoaY m%;sl%shd iy TlaisyrK m%;sl%shd hk

foj¾.hu fmkaúh yels nj meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak HCN yd RMgx iu. olajk kshqla,sfhd*s,sl

wdl,k m%;sl%shd iy tajfha hdka;%K meyeÈ,s lrkak'


² we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak LiAlH4

/ H3O+ yd NaBH

4/ H

3O+ iu. isÿ lrk

m%;sl%shd iqÿiq WodyrK Ndú;d lrñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² my; ioyka m%;sldrl iu. we,aäyhsv olajk m%;sl%shd Ndú;d lrñka

we,aäyhsv lSfgdak j,ska fjkalr yÿkd .ekSug u. fmkajkak'

• wefudakShd AgNO3

• fma,sx ødjKh

• H+/KMnO4

• H+/K2Cr

2O

7

² -H wvx.= ldfndkhs,a ixfhda. NaOH(aq)

we;s úg isÿlrk úfYaI

m%;sl%shdj ^we,afvd,a ix>Kkh& idlÉPd lrkak'

wod, mÍlaIK( ² we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak i‘oyd mÍlaIK'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fí%ä m%;sldrlh u.ska we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak yÿkd.ekSug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

² TlaisyrK m%;sl%shd u.ska we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak fjka lr yÿkd.ekSug

we;s yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'

² fok ,o ldfndkhs,a ixfhda. NaOH(aq)

iu. isÿ lrk ix>Kk m%;sl%shd

j,ska ,efnk M, ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 9'5 ldfndlais,sla wï,j, jHqyh yd .=K wfkl=;a Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.

iu. ikaikaokh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² ldfndlais,sla wï, j, fN!;sl .=K tajdfha jHqyh iu. iïnkao jk

whqre m%ldY lrhs'

² ldfndlais,ala wï,j, –COOH ldKavfha m%;sl%shdYs,s;ajh" ldfndlkhs,a

ixfhda. j, >C=O ldKavfha yd we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda,aj, –OH

ldKavh iu. ikaikaokh lrhs'

² lfndlais,sla wï," we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda,a j, wdï,sl;d tajd Na,

NaOH, Na2CO

3yd NaHCO

3 iu. olajk m%;sl%shd fhdod.ksñka

ikaikaokh lrhs'

² C–O nkaOkh î§u iïnkaO m%;sl%shd ioyd ksoiqka bÈßm;a lrhs'

² ldfndalis,sla wï, j, .=K iy m%;sl%shd mßlaId lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² ldfndlais,ala wï, j, ;dmdxlh" øjdxlh" ødjH;djh iy oaú wKql

iajNdjh hk fN!;sl .=K yhsv%cka nkaOk iy ,kavka n, fhdod .ksñka

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² ldfndlais,ala wï,j, wvx.= O-H nkaOkh ì§ug we;s yelshdj iqÿiq

ksoiqka u.ska meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² lfndlais,sla wï,j, wdï,sl iajNdjhg fya;= wod, nkaOkj, O%eùh;djh

i,lñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'


² Na, NaOH, NaHCO3

yd Na2CO

3 fhdo .ksñka ldfndkhs,a ixfhda."

*Sfkda, iy we,afldfyd,j, wdï,sl;dj –COOH ldKavfha wdï,sl;dj

iu. ikaikaokh lrkak'

² úoHq;a RK;d fjki wkqj C–O nkaOkh î§fuka ldfndlais,ala wï,

PCl3, PCl

5, ROH iy LiAH

4iu. olajk m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lrkak'

wod< m%;sl%shd ( ² ldfndlais,ala wï,j, iuyrla .=K ioyd mÍlaId' wdï,sl;dj" TlaisyrK

yelshdj" tiagr iE§u&

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² lfndlais,sla wï,j, wdï,sl;dj wfkl=;a ldnksl ixfhda.j, wdï,sl;dj

iu. ikaikaokh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o ldnksl ixfhda. j, ksjerÈ wdï,sl;d úp,kh ,sùug we;s

yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 9'6 wï, jHq;amkakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykh lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 05

bf.kqï M, ² wï, jHq;amkakj, - m%;sl%shd kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdfoaY m%lsl%shd nj m%ldY

lrhs'

² wï, laf,drhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka ,shhs'

² tiagrj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka ,shhs'

² weuhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka ,shhs'

² ish¿u wï, jHq;amkak fmkajk ish¨ m%;sl%shdj, wdrïNl mshjr"

ldfndks,a ldnka mrudKqj kshqla,sfhda*hs,hl m%ydrhg ,laùu nj y÷kd

.kShs'

² wï, laf,darhsv yd fidaähï yhsâfrdlaihsâ w;r m%;sl%shdfõ hdka;%Kh

,shd olajhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² ldfndlais,ala wï, jHq;amkak f,i wï, laf,drhsv” tiagr iy weuhsv

j, wod, jHqy iqÿiq WodyrK fhdod .ksñka yÿkajd fokak'

² wï, laf,drhsv c,h" m%d:ñl weók" we,afldfyd," *Sfkda, iy

wefudakShd iu. olajk kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² wï, laf,darhsv iy NaOH w;r isÿjk m%;sl%shd hdka;%Kfha mshjr

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² tiagr ;kql wï, NaOH, RMgX iy LiAlH4 iu. olajk m%;sl%shd iqÿiq

WodyrK fhdod .ksñka idlÉPd lrkak'

² weuhsv NaOH yd LiAlH4 iu. olajk m%;sl%shd ms<sno idlÉPd lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² wï, jHq;amkak fok ,o m%;sldrl$ m%;sl%shd iu. m%;sl%shd lr iEfok

wod, M, ,shd ±laùug we;s yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'

² by; m%;sl%shd Ndú;d lr fok ,o mßj¾;k isÿ lsÍug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'


tallh 10 khsg%cka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.

ksmqK;dj 10'0 khsg%cka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda. j, jHqy yd .=K w;r iïnkaO;d úu¾Ykh

lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'1 ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd yd .=K weiqßka weuhsk iy weks,Ska ms<sn| úYaf,aIKh

lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² we,als,a weuhsk j¾. y÷kd.kS'

² m%d:ñl weuhskj, m%;sl%shd wOHhkh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² NH3

ys ‘N’ mrudKqjg H fjkqjg iïnkaO ù we;s we,alhs,a fyda weß,a

ldKav .Kk i,ld n,ñka we,s*eál yd wefrdaueál weók j¾.SlrKh

lrkak'

² weks,ska wefrdaueál weókhla f,i yÿkajd fokak'

² yÿkd.ekSfï mÍlaIdjla f,i weks,Ska yd Br2 w;r m%;sl%shdj meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² m%d:ñl weókj, m%;sl%shd iqÿiq ksoiqka Ndú;d lrñka úia;r lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o weók m%d:ñl" oaú;shsl yd ;D;Sl f,i j¾. lsÍug we;s

yelshdj w.hkak'

² weókj, m%;sl%shdj,g iïnkaO ir, ldnksl mßj¾;k isÿ lsÍug we;s

yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'2 weuhskj, Ndiañl;dj fjk;a ldnksl ixfhda.j, Ndiañl;dj iu. ii|hs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 03

bf.kqï M, ² we,s*eál weuhskj, NdIañl;dj weks,Skaj, NdIañl;dj iuÕ iiohs'

² weuhskj, NdIañl;dj" we,aäyhsvj, NdIañl;dj iuÕ iiohs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² weók j, N mrudKqj u; we;s talir bf,lafg%dak hq.f,a odhl ,laIK

wkqj tajdfha NdIañl;dj meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² weókj, NdIañl;dj we,afldfyd, j, NdIañl;dj iu. ikaikaokh

lrkak'

² m%d:ñl we,a*eál weókj, NdIañl;dj we;s,Ska j, NdIañl;dj iu.

ikaikaokh lrkak'

² weók j, NdIañl;dj weuhsvj, NdIañl;dj iu. iiokak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² weók j, NdIañl;dj we,afldfyd," weks,Ska yd NH3 j, NdIañl;dj

iu. ikaikaokh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o khsg%cka wvx.= ifhda.j, NdIañl;dj meyeÈ,s lsÍug we;s

yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 10'3 vhefidakshï ,jKj, m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 04

bf.kqï M, ² vhefidakshï ,jKh ms<sfh, lsÍu úia;r lrhs'

² c,h" yd iuÕ vhfidakshï ,jKj, m%;sl%shd ,shhs'


² vhefidakshï whkh bf,lafg%d*hs,hla f,i l%shd lrk m%;sl%shd i|yd

ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'

² weks,Ska i|yd mÍËd lr ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² úfYaIs; WIaK;ajh yd wod, ;;a;aj fhdod .ksñka vhfidakshï ,jK

ms<sfh, lr .kakd wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² vhefidakshï ,jK H2O, H

3PO

2, CuCl, CuBr, CuCN yd KI iu. olajk

m%;sl%shd wod, iólrK Ndú;d lrñka úia;r lrkak'

² vhfidakshï ,jKhlg bf,lafg%d*s,hla f,i yeisÍug we;s yelshdj

iqÿiq ksoiqka u.ska meyeÈ,s lrkak' ^*Sfkda,a yd � kemaf;d,a iu.&

wod< mÍlaIK( ² ridhkd.drfha§ vhefidakshï ,jKh ms<sfh, lsÍu u.ska weks,Ska i|yd

mÍlaId isÿ lsÍug'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o vhefidakshï ,jK wdY%S; m%;sl%shd j,g wod, M, ,sùug we;s

yelshdj w.hkak'

² by; i|yka m%dfhda.sl mÍlaIKh iïnkaO yiqre l=i,;d ,nd .ekSug

wjia:dj § tys§ ,efnk ksÍlaIK ;lafire lrkak'

tallh 11 pd,l ridhkh

ksmqK;dj 11'0 ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;dj ks¾Kh lsÍug yd m%;sl%shd iS>%;dj iqÿiq mßÈ

md,kh lsÍug pd,l ridhk úoHd uq, O¾u fhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 11'1 m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;djh yÿkajd § ridhksl m%;sl%shd flfrys n,mdk idOl

ks¾Kh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 08

bf.kqï M, ² c,h" H3PO

2 , CuCl , CuCN , CuBr yd KI iuÕ vhfidakshï ,jKj,

m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

² ridhksl m%;sl%shdjla aA + bB � cC + dD f,i idudkHlrKh lrhs'

² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj uekSfïoS" øjH idkaøKh fjkia ùu uekSu uQ,sl

idOlh f,i olajhs'

² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj fiùfï§" A m%;sl%shlhg idfmaËj idJøKh

fjkiaùfï YS>%;djh � �t

C A

� f,i o"

D M,hg idfmaËj idJøKh fjkiaùfï YS>%;djh � �t

CD

f,io w¾:olajhs'

² fok ,o m%;sl%shdjl tla tla m%;sl%shlh bfj;aùfï YS>%;djh" tla tla

M,h iEoSfï YS>%;djhg iudk fkdjk nj m%ldYlrhs'

² m%;sl%shlhla bj;aùfï YS>%;dj fyda M,hla W;amdokh ùfï Y%S>%;dj fyda

wod, ix>glfha iafgdhslsfhdañ;sl ix.=Klh u; r|dmj;sk nj

m%ldYlrhs'

² fï wkqj m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj

� �t

C

dt

C

aDA

�� 11 m%ldY lrhs'

² YS>%;djh hkq tall ld,hloS isÿjk idJøKfha fjki nj WodyrK

Ndú;d lrñka m%ldY lrhs'


² fok ,o ksh; fjkila isÿùu i|yd .;jk ld,h" YS>%;djh uekSu

ioyd fhdod .;yels nj WodyrK u.ska fmkajd fohs' ^is>%;dj t1 &

² úúO YS>%;dj,ska isÿjk m%;sl%shd iei‘§u i|yd wjYH WodyrK bÈßm;a

lrhs'

² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;djh ks¾Kh lsÍug m%udK fyda idkaøK u; rod mj;sk

.=K ^j¾K;Sj%;djh" wdú,;djh jeks& fhdod .; yels nj m%ldY lrhs'

² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;djh flfrys n,mdk idOl f,i WIaK;ajh" idJøKh"

mSvkh" fN!;sl ,laIK ^m%;sl%shlj, mDIaÀl j¾.M,h& W;afm%arl

yÿkd.kshs'

² iS>%;djh ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd myiqfjka ld,h ueksh yels isÿjk m%;sl%shd

ioyd WodyrK imhhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² m%;sl%shl iy M, wkqidrfhka m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;djh w¾: olajkak'

aA + bB � cC + dD

m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;djh } � �t

C A

� fyda m%;sl%shdfõ iS>%;djh } � �

t

CD

^m%;sl%shl jehùfï is>%;djh& ^M, iE§fï iS>%;dj&

² hï m%;sl%shdjl§ tla tla m%;sl%shlh bj;a jk fyda tla tla M,h iEfok

fyda iS>%;d tlsfklg iudk fkdjk nj wjOdrKh lrkak'

² m%;sl%shlhla bj;a ùfï iS>%;dj fyda M,hla ie§fï iS>%;dj fyda wod,

ix>glhla iafgdhs;sfhdñ;sl ix.=Kslh u; rod mj;sk nj mjikak'

² m%;sl%shl jehùfï iS>%;dj iy M, iE§fï iS>%;d my; mßÈ ikaikaokh

l< yelsnj mjikak'

aA + bB � cC + dD hk m%;sl%shdj i|yd

� � � �t

C

dt

C

ct

C

bt

C

aDcBA

�� 1111

² ´kEu wdldrfha m%;sl%shdjla i|yd iS>%;dj hkq tall ld,hl§ hï

m%fNaohl isÿjk idkaøK fjki f,i ie,flk nj yÿkajd fokak'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka imhñka úúO m%;sl%shdj, iS>%;d ikaikaokh lrkak'

² m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;dj uekSug fhdod .; yels j¾Kh" wdï,l;djh jdhq

ksoyiaùu wd§ idOl ms<sn|j idlÉPd lrkak'

² m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl úia;r lrkak' ^WIaK;ajh"

idkaøKh$ mSvkh" fN!;sl iajNdjh" W;afma%rl&

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² hï m%;sl%shdjl tla ix>glhla jehùfï$ ie§fï iS>%;dj § we;s úg tla

tla ix>gl jehùfï$ iS>%;d ikaikaokh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² � �tC fhdod .ksñka idkaøKh yd ld,h§ we;s úg m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;djh

.Kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² m%;sl%shd iS>%;d uekSug Ndú;d l< yels l%u mejiSug we;s yelshdj

m%Yak weiSu u.ska ;lafiare lrkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 11'2 ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys úúO idOlj, n,mEu ú.%y lsÍug

wKql pd,l jdoh fhdod .kshs'


ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² ;ks mshjr m%;sl%shdjla i|yd Yla;s igyka w|shs'

² il%shk Yla;sh w¾: olajhs'

² m%;sl%shdjla isÿùu i|yd imqrd,sh hq;= wjYH;d ,ehsia;=.; lrhs'

² WIaK;ajh jeälsÍfï oS wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh jeä jk nj m%ldY lrhs'

² fjkia WIaK;aj folloS jdhq wKq i|yd fnd,aÜiaudka jHdma;s jl% we|"

tu WIaK;aj foflysoS jdhq wKqj, pd,l Yla;s ii|hs'

² WIaK;ajh jeä jk úg" wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh jeä ù ix>Ügk ixLHdjo

jeä jk neúka m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj jeäjk nj úia;r lrhs'

² idJøK ixl,amh Wmfhda.Slr tall mßudjloS yd tall ld,hloS isÿjk

ix>Ügk ixLHdfõ jeäùu úia;r lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² m%;sl%shdjl il%shk Yla;sh w¾: olajkak'

² ;ks mshjr m%;sl%shdjka i|yd Yla;s igykla wÈk wdldrh meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² ix>Ügk jdohg wkqj m%;sl%shdjla isÿùug wjYH uq,sl wjYH;d úia;r

lrkak'

² jdhquh wKq i|yd WIaK;aj foll§ fnda,aÜiaudka jHdma;s jl% wÈkak'

² by; jl% wkqidrfhka úúO WIaK;aj j,È wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh úp,kh

jk wdldrh ikaikaokh lrkak'

² WIaK;ajh jeä l, úg m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;djh jeäùug n,mdk fya;=

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o WIaK;ajlh§ fok ,o jdhq i|yd ksjerÈ fnda,aÜiaudka jHdma;

jl% we§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o ;ks mshjr ;dm wjfYdaIl yd ;dm odhl m%;sl%shd i|yd Yla;s

igyka we§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o m%;sj¾;H m%;sl%shdjl bÈß iy wdmiq m%;sl%shdj, il%sh;d Yla;s


ksmqK;d uÜgu 11'3 m%;sl%shl idkaøKh Wla; mßÈ yiqrejñka m%;sl%shd YS>%;djh md,kh lrk

whqre úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 13

bf.kqï M, ² iqÿiq m%ia:dr wkqidrfhka m%lsl%shdjl wdrïNl YS>%;dj" laIKsl YS>%;djh

iy uOHkH YS>%;dj ksrEmKh lrhs'

² fok ,o m%;sl%shdjla i|yd tys fm, yd idkaøKh tu m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;djh

flfrys n,mdk wdldrh úia;r lrhs'

² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;d kshuh

YS>%;dj = k[A]x[B]y f,i w¾: olajhs'

² iS>%;d kshufha we;s mo w¾: olajhs'

² Y=kH fm<" m<uq fm< yd fojk fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d kshufha

iólrK ,shd olajhs'


² Y=kH fm<" m<uqfm< yd fojk fm< m%;sl%shd i|yd YS>%;d ksh;fhys

tall ^mßfïh tall yd mßfïh fkdjk tall& jHq;amkak lrhs'

² m%;sl%shdjl iuia: fm< w¾: l:kh lrhs'

² Y=kH fm< m<uq fm< yd fojk fm< m%;sl%shdj, YS>%;djh flfrys

idkaøKfha n,mEu m%ia:dßlj fmkakqï lrhs'

² m%;sl%shdjl w¾O Ôj ld,h w¾: l:kh lrhs'

² m<uq fm< m%;sl%shdjl w¾O Ôj ld,h idJøKh u; r|d fkdmj;sk nj

meyeos,s lrhs'

² úúO fm< j,g wh;a m%;sl%shd i|yd WodyrK imhhs'

² Y=kH fm<" m<uq fm< yd fojk fm< m%;sl%shd úoyd ±laùu i|yd mÍËK

isÿ lrhs'

² mÍlaIKd;aulj ,nd.;a o;a; Ndú;d lrñka úúO m%;sl%shl i|yd Bg

wod< m%;sl%shd fm< ks¾Kh lrhs'

² YS>%;d kshuh yd m%;sl%shd fm< wdY%s; .eg¨ úiohs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² m%;sl%shd iS>%;dj m%ldY l, yels wdldr ioyka lrkak'

² iqÿiq WodyrK u.ska m%;sl%shdjl wdrïNl iS>%;dj" lsishï fudfyd;l

iS>%;dj yd uOHhkh iS>%;dj w¾: olajkak'

² iS>%;d kshuh yÿkajd foñka m%;sl%shd iS>%;djh flfrys idkaøKfha n,mEu

úia;r lrkak'

² iS>%;d ksh;h iy hï lsis m%;sl%shlhlg idfmalaAIj m%;sl%shdfõ fm< hk

mo meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² m%;sl%shdjl iuia; fm< hkafkka l=ula woyia lrkafka ±hs fmkajd

fokak'

² fok ,o úúO m%;sl%shd ioyd iS>%;d kshuhg wod, m%ldYk ,shd olajkak'

² Y=kH fm<" m<uq fm, yd fojk fm, m%;sl%shd i`oyd iS>%;d ksh;fhys

tall jHq;amkak lrkak'

² m<uq fm< m%;sl%shdjl w¾O Ôj ld,h tys m%;sl%shl idkaøKh u; r|d

fkdmj;sk nj iqÿiq WodyrK u.ska fmkajd fokak'

² Mg yd HCl w;r iy Na2S

2O

3yd HNO

3 w;r isÿjk m%;sl%shd j, fm,

ks¾Kh lsÍu ioyd mÍlaIK fufyhjk wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² úúO mÍlaIK ioyd fok ,o o;a; u.ska iS>%;d kshuh wOHhkh lsÍu

i‘oyd iqÿiq .eg¨ úiokak'

wod< mÍlaIK( ² Mg yd wï, w;r m%;sl%shdfõ iS>%;djh flfrys wï, idkaøKfha n,meu

mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu'

² Na2S

2O

3 yd HNO

3 wï,h w;r m%;sl%shdfõ iS>%;dj flfrys tla tla

m%;sl%slfha n,mEu mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o m%;sl%shd ioyd iS>%;d kshuhg wod, m%ldYK ,sùug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

² fok ,o mÍlaIKd;aul o;a; u.ska fok ,o ix>glhlg idfmalaIj

m%;sl%shdfõ fm< ks¾kh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'


² fok ,o o;a; fhdod .ksñka m%;sl%shdjl w¾O Ôj ld,h .Kkh lsÍug


ksmqK;d uÜgu 11'4 m%;sl%shd YS>%;djh flfrys fN!;sl iajNdjh yd W;afm%arlj, n,mEu

úu¾Ykh lrh'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² >k m%;sl%shlhl mDIaÀl j¾.M,h jeäl, úg ix>Ügk ixLHdj jeäjk

neúka m%;sl%shd YS>%;dj jeäjk nj m%ldY lrhs'

² m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;dj flfrys W;afm%arlhl n,mEu m%;sl%shdfõ il%shk

Yla;sh weiqßka úia;r lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² m%;sl%shdjla isÿùug imqrd,sh hq;= wjYH;d i,lñka m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;djh

flfrys m%;sl%shlhl fN!;sl iajNdjh n,mdk whqre meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² fnd,aÜiaudka jHdma;s iy il%shk Yla;s ixl,amh fhdod .ksñka m%;sl%shdjl

iS>%;djh flfrys W;afm%arl j, n,mEu úia;r lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² Yla;s igyka fhdod .ksñka W;afm%arl rys; m%;sl%shdjla yd W;afm%arl

iys; m%;sl%shdjla fjka lr yÿkd .ekSug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 11'5 ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl YS>%;djh ú.%y lsÍug m%;sl%shd hdka;%Kh fhdod .kshs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 11

bf.kqï M, ² uQ,sl m%;sl%shd" nyqmshjr m%;sl%shd j,ska fjka lr yÿkd .kshs'

² m%;sl%shdjl fm< yd idJøKh w;r iïnkaO;dj meyeos,s lrhs'

² Yla;s igyka w|shs'

² Yla;s igykl w;rueos wjia:d yd ixl%uK wjia:d y÷kd .kshs'

² uq,sl m%;sl%shd iy nyq mshjr m%;sl%shdj, fm< iy wKql;djh meyeÈ,s

lrhs'

² ix>Ügk fya;=fldgf.k isÿjk foa pd,l ridhkfha uQ,sl isoaOdka;

Wmfhda.S lrf.k meyeos,s lsÍug" m%;sl%shd i|yd Yla;s igyka f.dvkxjhs'

² Fe3+ whk idJøKh Fe3+ yd I- w;r m%;sl%shd YS>%;djh flfrys n,mEu

úia;r lrhs'

² m%;sl%shd hdka;%Kh yd iuia: fm< w;r we;s iïnkaO;dj meyeÈ,s lrhs'

² Yla;s igyka Ndú;d lrñka m%;sl%shdjl hdka;%kh iy fõ. ks¾K mshjr

ks¾Kh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdod .ksñka nyq mshjr m%;sl%shd yÿkajd fokak'

² uq,sl m%;sl%shdjla ^m<uq fm<& yd nyq mshjr m%;sl%shdjla ms<snoj tajdfha

m%;sl%shd hdka;%K ie,ls,a,g .ksñka fjkalr yÿkajd fokak'

² m%;sl%shdjl fm< iy tys hdka;%kh w;r we;s iïnkaOh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² nyqmshjr m%;sl%shd ioyd Yla;s igyka we| olajkak'

² iqÿiq WodyrK fhdo .ksñka m%;sl%shdjl w;r ueÈ M, yd ixl%uK

wjia:d ms<sn|j yÿkajd fokak'

² m%;sl%shdjl wKql;dj hkafkka woyia lrkafka l=ula±hs fmkajd fokak'


² nyq mshjr m%;sl%shdjl iS>%;d ks¾Kh lrk mshjr jkafka l=ula±hs meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² Fe3+ iy I- w;r m%;sl%shdfõ iS>%;djh flfrys Fe3+

(m) whk j, idkaøKh

n,mdk whqre tys idkaøKh fhdod .ksñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

wod< mÍlaIK( ² Fe3+ iy I- w;r m%;sl%shdfõ Fe3+ g idfmalaIj m%;sl%shdfõ fm,

mßlaIKd;aulj ks¾kh lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² m%;sl%shdjl mshjr § we;s úg tys fõ. ks¾K mshjr yÿkd .ekSug we;s

yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o nyq mshjr m%;sl%shdjla i|yd W;afm%arl we;s úg yd ke;s úg

tajdfha Yla;s igyka we§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

tallh 12 iu;=,s;;dj

ksmqK;dj 12'0 .;sl iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;sk ixjD; moaO;sj, ufyalaI .=K m%udKd;aulj

ks¾Kh lsÍu i|yd iu;=,s;;dj ms<sn| ixl,amh yd uq,O¾u Ndú;d lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'1 iu;=,s;;dj ms<sn| ixl,am weiqßka moaO;sj, ufyalaI .=K m%udKd;aulj

ks¾Kh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 19

bf.kqï M, ² ixjD; moaO;shl isÿjk m%;sj¾;H m%;sl%shd fhdod .ksñka .;sl

iu;=,s;;dj meyeÈ,s lrhs'

² moaO;shl ufyalaI .=K moaO;sh iu;=,s;;djg m;ajQ miq fjkia fkdjk

nj m%ldY lrhs'

² iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;akd moaO;s úia;r lsÍu i|yd wjia:d úm¾hdi"

ødjKj, iu;=,s;;d" ridhksl moaO;s" whksl moaO;s" w,am jYfhka

ødjH moaO;s yd bf,lafg%dav jeks fN!;sl yd ridhksl l%shdj,s ksoiqka

f,i Ndú; lrhs'

² iu;=,s;;d kshuhg m%ldY lrhs'

² fok ,o moaO;s i|yd iu;=,s;;d ksh; ^kp , kc& ,shd olajhs'

² kp yd kc yd w;r iïnkaO;djh jHq;amkak lrhs'

² iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh meyeos,s lrhs'

² f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh w¾: olajhs'

² ndysr n,mEulg hg;a lrk ,o iu;=,s; moaO;shla flfrys f,a peg,sh¾

uq,O¾ufha n,mEu m%frdal:kh lrhs'

² iu;=,s;;dj flfrys idJøKh" mSvkh" WIaK;ajh yd W;afm%arl n,mdk

wdldrh úia;r lrh’'

² kp yd kc u; mokï jQ .eg¨ úi|hs'

² Fe3+/ SCN- iu;=,s; moaO;sh flfrys idkaøKh n,mEu mÍlaId lrhs'

² NO2 / N

2O

4 iu;=,s; moaO;sh flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu mÍlaId lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² tÈfkod Ôú;fha yuqjk WodyrK Ndú;d lrñka iu;=,s; moaO;s ms<sn|j

idlÉPd lrkak'

² tu WodyrK i<lñka zz.;sl iu;=,s;;djZZ hk ixl,amh y÷kajd fokak'


² CrO4

2- / Cr2O

72- moaO;sh wdo¾Ykh lrñka iu;=,s; moaO;shl

m%;sj¾;H;dj ms<sn|j woyila ,nd fokak'

² iu;=,s; moaO;shl ,dlaIKsl .=Kdx. idlÉPd lrkak'

² .;sl iu;=,s; moaO;s j¾. ms<sn|j iqÿiq ksoiqka imhñka idlÉPd

lrkak' ^ridhksl" whksl" l,dm iy bf,lafg%dav iu;=,s; yd moaO;s&

² iu;=,s;;d kshuh i|yka lrh’'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka fhdod .ksñka ridhksl iu;=,s; moaO;s y÷kajd fokak'

² fok ,o ridhksl moaO;s ioyd iu;=,s;d ksh; (kp iy kc) ioyd m%ldYk

,sùug fhduq lrkak'

² kp iy kc w;r iïnkaO;dj jHq;amkak lrkak'

² fok ,o o;a; Ndú; lr ridhksl iu;=,s; moaO;s ioyd kp iy kc

.Kkh lsÍug wjYH Wmfoia ,nd fokak'

² iu;=,s; ,laIH yÿkajd fokak'

² iu;=,s; moaO;shka flfrys n,mdk idOl ^WIaK;ajh" idkaøKh yd

mSvkh& ms<snoj idlÉPd lrkak'

² f,apegh¾ uq, O¾uh fhdod .ksñka iu;=,s; moaO;shlg by; ioyka

idOl n,mdk wdldrh úia;r lrkak'

² kp iy kc u; mokï jq .eg¨ úi§ug isiqkag wjia:dj i,id fokak'

wod< mÍlaIK ² Fe3+/ SCN-moaO;sh i,lñka .;sl iu;=,s; moaO;shl ,dlaIKsl .=K

mÍlaIKd;aulj wOHhkh lsÍu'

² NO2 yd N

2O

4 hk iu;=,s; moaO;sh flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu

mÍlaIKd;aulj wOHhkh lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² iu;=,s; moaO;shlg n,mEula we;s l< úg tys iu;=,s; ,laIH fjkia

jk wdldrh meyeÈ,s lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² fok ,o o;a; Ndú;fhka kp iy kc g iïnkaO úúO .eg¨ úi§ug we;s

yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'2 ÿn, wï," m%n, wï," wdï,sl ,jK yd NdIañl ,jK yd iïnkaO

iu;=,s;;djh moaO;sj, .=K

ld,Éfþo .Kk 20

bf.kqï M, ² iqÿiq ksoiqka weiqßka wdySkshia jdoh" fn%dakaiagâ - f,daß jdoh yd

¨úiajdoh meyeos,s lrhs'

² ixhq.aul wï, yd NIau y÷kajd fohs'

² Kw

, Kayd K

b i|yd m%ldYk bosßm;a lrhs'

² Ka , K

b yd ;kqlrK kshuh i|yd iólrK jHq;amkak lrh’'

² ixhq.aul wï,-NIau hq.,j, Ka yd K

b w;r iïnkaO;dj jHq;amkak

lrhs'

² Kw

, Ka

yd Kb Ndú;d lrñka .eg¨ úi‘ohs'

² pHw¾:olajhs'

² wï, yd Niauj, c,Sh ødjKj, pH .Kkh lrhs'


² legdhk yd wekdhkj, c, úÉfþokh i,lñka wï," NIau yd ,jKj,

c,Sh ødjKj, pH .Kkh lrhs'

² wkqudmk Ndú; lrñka .eg¨ úiohs'

² wï, - NIau o¾Yl ^pH o¾Yl& m%n, wï, fyda ÿn, NIau fyda nj

m%ldY lrhs'

² o¾Ylj, whkSlrKh fkdjQ yd whkSlrKh jQ wdldr" fjkia j¾Kj,ska

hqla; nj m%ldY lrhs'

² o¾Ylhl pH mrdih tys ú>kh ksh;h (KIn

) u; /§ mj;sk nj m%ldY

lrhs'

² o¾Ylhla f;dard .ekSu" pH laIKsl fjkila isÿjk pH mrdih u; fyda

wkqudmkfha iul;d ,laIhfha pH w.hg wkqrEm jk" o¾Ylfha pKIn

w.h u; /§ mj;sk nj m%ldY lrhs'

² fok ,o wkqudmkhlg iqÿiq o¾Ylh f;dard .ekSu i|yd o¾Yl ms<sn|

jdoh Ndú;hg .kshs'

² wï, - NIau m%;sl%shdj, iul;d ,ËKfha oS pH w.h .Kkh lrhs'

² úúO j¾.fha wï, - NIau wkqudmkj, wkqudmk jl% lgqigyka lrhs'

² iul;d ,ËHh wdikakfha oS tl;= lrk ,nk l=vd ødjK mßudjla

ksid pH w.fha úYd, fjkila isÿjk nj yÿkd.kshs'

² fidaähï ldnfkaÜ - yhsâfrdlaf,daßla wï, wkqudmkfha m%Odk ,laIK

.=Kd;aulj idlÉPd lrhs'

² pH w.h uekSfuka ,jK j, c,Sh ødjKj, wdï,sl" NdIañl" WodiSk

iajNdjh ks¾Kh lrhs'

² msfkdama;e,ska yd fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ Ndú;d lr Na2CO

3 yd HCl w;r

wkqudmkh isÿ lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² wï, yd Niau ms<snoj fmr ±kqu úuikak'

² wï, yd NIau ms<snoj bÈßm;a lr we;s jdo yÿkajd fokak' ^wdySkshia

jdoh" fn%dkaiagâ - ,õß jdoh iy ¨úia jdoh&

² iqÿiq ksoiqka Ndú; lrñka ixhq.aul wï, iy Niau meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² c,fha iajhx whkSlrKh i,lñka kw yd Kb , Ka ioyd m%ldYk

jHq;amkak lrkak'

² ixhq.aul wï, - Niau hq.,la ioyd ka yd kb w;r we;s iïnkaOh

jHq;amkak lrkak'

² pH hk moh w¾: olajkak'

² fok ,o wï, yd Niau ødjk j, pH w.h .Kkh lsÍug bv i,id

fokak'

² legdhk yd wekdhk j, c, úÉfþokh ioyd wod, m%;sl%shd ,sùug bv

i,id fokak'

² o¾Yl ms<sn| fmr ±kqu úuikak'

² o¾Yl ms<sno isoaOdka;h idlÉPd lrkak' ^j¾K úm¾hdi" pH mrdi"

pkIn&


² wï, - Niau o¾Yl hkq ÿn, wï, fyda ÿn, Niau jk nj wjOdrkhh

lrkak'

² o¾Ylhla whkSlrKh jq yd fkdjq ;;a;aj hgf;a§ tlsfklg fjkia

j¾K fmkakqï lrk whqre meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² o¾Ylhl pH mrdih tys ú>gk ksh;h" KIn u; rod mj;sk nj m%ldY

lrkak'

² fok ,o wï, - NIau wkqudmkhlg fhda.H o¾Ylh f;dard .kakd whqre

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² wï, $ NIau wkqudmkhl wka; ,laIHfha pH w.h .Kkh lsÍug bv

i,iajkak'

² úúO wï,$NIau wkqudmk ioyd wkqudmk pl% (pH jl%& wÈk whqre

iqÿiq rEm igyka iys;j meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² wkqudmkhl iul;d ,laIH wdikakfha§ isÿjk iS>% pH úp,kh ms<sn|j

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² Na2CO

3 yd HCl w;r wkqudmkhg wod, isoaOdka; idlÉPd lrkak'

wod< mÍlaIK ² pH w.h uekSu u.ska c,Sh ødjKj, wdï,sl$NdIañl$ WodiSk iajNdjh


² o¾Yl f,i msfkdama;,Ska yd fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ Ndú; lr Na2CO

3 yd HCl

w;r wkqudmkh isÿ lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² úúO j¾.fha ødjk j, pH w.h .Kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

WodyrK my; ødjK j, pH w.h .Kkh lrkak'

0.1 moldm-3 HCl ødjKhl

0.1 moldm-3 NaOH ødjKhl

0.1 moldm-3 CH3COOH ødjKhl (K

a =1×10-5 moldm-3)

0.1 moldm-3 NH4OH ødjKhl (K

b =1×10-5 moldm-3)

0.1 moldm-3 HCl 250 cm3 la yd 0.1 moldm-3 CH3COOH 250 cm3 ñY%

lr we;s ødjKhl

0.1 moldm-3 HCl la yd 0.1 moldm-3 NaOH 250 cm3 ñY% lr we;s

ødjKhl

² fok ,o wkqudmkhla ioyd fok ,o o¾Yl j,ska jvd fhda.H o¾Ylh

f;dard .ekSug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'3 wjYH;d wkqj iajdrlaIl ødjK ms<sfh, lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 12

bf.kqï M, ² iajdrËl ødjKhla w¾:olajhs'

² iajdrËl ødjK .=Kd;aulj yd m%udKd;aulj úu¾Ykh lrhs'

² talNdIañl iajdrËl moaO;s i|yd fykav¾ika iólrKh jHq;amkak

lrhs'

² ir, .Kkh lsÍï i|yd fykav¾ika iólrKh fhdod .kshs'

² iajdrËl moaO;shl pH w.h .=Kd;aulj yd m%udKd;aulj meyeos,s lrhs'


mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ² iajNdjfha mj;sk iajdrlaIl ødjK ms<sn|j ±kqj;a lsÍu ioyd

idlÉPdjla fufyhjkak'

² iajdrlaIl ødjKhla w¾: l:kh lrkak'

² wï, yd NIau Ndú;fhka iajdrlaIl ødjKhla ms<sfh, lr.kakd whqre

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² iajdrlaIl ødjK j¾. yÿkajd fokak’

² tal wdï,sl yd tal NdIañl iajdrlaIl ødjK ioyd fykav¾ika iólrKh

jHq;amkak lrkak'

² fykav¾ika iólrKh Ndú;d lr iajdrlaIl ødjK j, pH w.h .Kkh

lsÍug bv i,id fokak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fykav¾ika iólrKh Ndú;d lr fok ,o ødjK ñY%K j, pH w.h

.Kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

WodyrK( my; ødjK ñY%Kfha pH w.h .Kkh lrkak' 0.1 moldm-3

CH3COOH wï, 100cm3 la yd 0.1 moldm-3 NaOH 50cm3 la ñY% lr

we;s ødjKhl'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'4 c,fha w,am jYfhka ødjH whksl ixfhda. wdY%S; iu;=,s;;dj moaO;sj,

.=K m%udKh lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 12

bf.kqï M, ( ² we;eï whksl ixfhda. c,fha b;d ødjH kuq;a iuyr whksl ixfhda.

c,fha hka;ñka Èhjk nj m%ldY lrhs'

² hka;ñka ødjH úoHq;a úÉfÊoHhlg iu;=,s;;d uQ,O¾uh fhdohs'

² c,Sh ødjK ;=< whksl ixfhda. wjlafIam ùug wod, uQ,O¾u úia;r

lrhs'

² fmdÿ whk wdprKh Ndú; lrhs'

² wjlafIamKfhka yd tu wjlafIamh úúO m%;sldrlj, øjKh ùu

wkqidrfhka legdhk y÷kd .kS'

² ødjH;d .=Ks;h uQ,O¾u Ndú;fhka wjlafIamhl ødjH;dj meyeos,s lrhs'

² úúO ;;a;aj hgf;a whksl ixfhda.j, ødjH;d .=Ks; mokï lr .ksñka

,ehsia;= .; lrk ,o legdhk ldKav mylg fnohs'

² ødjH;dj yd ødjH;d .=Ks;h u; mokï jQ .Kkh lsÍï isÿ lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ( ² fok ,o whksl ixfhda. c,fha Èhùu yd Èh fkdùu ldKav follg

fjka lsÍug i,iajkak'

² iuyrla whksl ixfhda. c,fha Èh fkdjk nj fmkqko ish¨u whksl

ixfhda. hka;ñka fyda c,fha Èhjk nj wjOdrKh lrkak'

² iq¿ jYfhka c,fha ødú; whksl ixfhda.hl ix;Dma; ødjKhl mj;sk

iu;=,s;dj ioyd iólrKhla ,shd olajkak'

² by; iu;=,s; ioyd kp i|yd m%ldYkhla jHq;amkak lr .kak'

² ixfhda.hla wjlafIam ùu ioyd wjYH;dj ildÉPd lrkak'


² fok ,o iq¿ jYfhka c,fha ødú; whksl ixfhda. KSP

ioyd m%ldYK

,súug i,iajkak'

² iqÿiq ksoiqka yd .Kkh lsÍï iu. fmdÿ whk wdprKh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² fmdÿ whk wdprKh u; mokï jq .eg¨ úi§ug i,iajkak'

² ødjH;d .=Ks;h fhdod .ksñka isÿ lrk ldKv úYaf,aIKfha uq,O¾uh

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² by; uq,O¾uh fhdod .ksñka legdhk ñY%Khla ldKav j,g fjkalrk

whqre meyeÈ,s lrkak'

wod< mÍlaIK ² Ca(OH)2j, ødjH;d .=Ks;h mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² KSP

fmdÿ whk wdprKh fhdod .ksñka .eg¨ úi‘§ug we;s yelshdj

iqÿiq .eg¨ bÈßm;a lsÍu u.ska w.hkak'

² ldKav úYaf,aIKh Ndú; lr fok ,o legdhk ñY%Khl we;s legdhk

yÿkd.ekSug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'5 tal ixrpl moaO;sj, øj - jdhq iu;=,s;;dj úp,kh jk wdldrh úu¾Ykh

lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 05

bf.kqï M, ² l,dmhla hkak w¾: olajhs'

² ixY=oaO øj moaO;s y÷kd f.k kï lrhs'

² wKql p,s;h mokï lr .ksñka øj-jdhq iu;=,s;;dj meyeos,s lrhs'

² ika;Dma; jdIam mSvkh w¾: olajhs'

² ;dmdxlh w¾: olajhs'

² WIaK;ajh iuÕ øjj, jdIam mSvkfha úp,kh meyeos,s lrhs'

² jdIam mSvkh yd ;dmdxlh w;r iïnkaO;dj y÷kd .kshs'

² wjê WIaK;ajh w¾: olajhs'

² c,fha l,dm rEmigyk Ndú;fhka ;%sl ,laIH kï lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² l,dmhla hkq l=ula±hs meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² fok ,o iu;=,s; moaO;shl we;s l,dm .Kk yÿkd .ekSug i,iajkak'

² wKql p,s;h mokï lr.ksñka øj-jdIam iu;=,s; meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² ixY=oaO øjhl ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkh w¾: olajkak'

² ixY=oaO øjhl ;dmdxlh w¾: olajkak'

² øjHl jdIam mSvkh WIaK;ajh iu. úp,kh jk wdldrh m%ia;dr u.ska

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² jdIam msvkh yd ;dmdxlh w;r we;s iïnkaO;d úia;r lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh ² fok ,o ;dmdxl iys; úúO ødjK ioyd wod, m%ia;dr ^jdIam mSvk yd

WIaK;ajh w;r& we§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'6 oajHdx.S øj moaO;sj, øj - jdIam iu;=,s;;dfõ jp,kh úu¾Ykh lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 12


bf.kqï M, ( ² rW!,a kshuh jHq;amkak lsÍu i|yd oajHdx.S øj moaO;shlg iu;=,s;;d

yd pd,l uQ,O¾u fhdohs'

² mßmQ¾K ødjKhla w¾:olajhs'

² wmßmQ¾K ødjK rW!,a kshufhka wm.ukh jkafka flfia o yd thg

fya;=j l=ulao hk nj meyeos,s lrhs'

² iu;=,s;;dfõ oS øj yd jdIam l,dmj, ixhq;s fiùu i|yd rW!,a kshuh

fhdohs'

² oajHx.S ødjKj, mßmQ¾K yd wmßmQ¾K yeisÍï úia;r lrhs'

² wjdIamYS,S øjHhla jdIamYS,S ødjlhl øjKh ù iEfok ødjKhl ix>gl

fjkalsÍu i|yd ir, wdijkh Ndú; l< yelsnj m%ldY lrhs'

² ir, wdijkh yd Nd.sl wdijkh i|yd ksoiqka olajhs'

² øj ñY%Khkays jdIamYS,s ix>glhla fjklr .ekSug Nd.sl wdijkh

fhdod.; yels nj m%ldY lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² iïmq¾Kfhka ñY%jk øj-øj moaO;s lSmhla ioyd ksoiqka imhkak'

² iu;=,s;;dj yd pd,l úoHdj ms<sn| uq, O¾u i,lñka ÈjHx.S ødjK

moaO;shla ioyd rW!,a kshuh jHq;amkak lrkak'

² iqÿiq WodyrK fhdod .ksñka mßmq¾K ødjKhla w¾: olajkak'

² jdIam msvk - ixhq;s m%ia;dr fhdod .ksñka rW!,a kshufhka Ok wm.uk

yd RK wm.uk fmkajk oajHdx.S ødjK ms,sn|j meyeÈ,s lsÍï isÿ

lrkak'

² rW!,a kshuh Ndú;fhka øj l,dmfha yd jdIam l,dmfha ixhq;s .Kkh

lsÍug i,iajkak'

² ir, wdijkfha yd Nd.sl wdijkfha isoaOdka; meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² Nd.sl wdijkh meyeÈ,s lsÍu ioyd WIaK;aj ixhq;s l,dm rEm igyka

wÈkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o oajHdx.S ødjK ioyd ksjerÈ jdIam mSvk - ixhq;s rEm igyka

we§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

WodyrK

1' fylafiaka yd fymafÜka

2' t;fkda,a yd fnkaiSka

3' laf,drf*daï yd weisfgdaka

ksmqK;d uÜgu 12'7 iïmq¾Kfhka wñY% øj moaO;s foll hï øjHhla jHdma; ùu ms<snoj úu¾Ykh

lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 08

bf.kqï M, ( ² jHdma;s ix.=Klh meyeos,s lrhs'

² Ndú; lrñka .eg¨ úiohs'

² c,fha yd ìhqgfkda,a w;r t;fkdhsla wï,fha jHdma;s ix.=Kh

mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lrhs'


mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² wñY% ødjl folla w;r jHdma; ù we;s hï lsis ødjHhla ioyd jHdma;s

ix.=Klh KD iqÿiq WodyrK fhdod .ksñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² fok ,o o;a; Ndú;d lr jHdma;s ix.=Kkh KD g wod, .eg¨ úi‘§ug

i,iajkak'

wod< mÍlaIK( ² c,h yd ìhqgfkda,a w;r tlfkdhsla wï,fha jHdma;s ix.=Klh


we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o o;a; Ndú; lr KD u; mokï jq .eg¨ úi§ug we;s yelshdj

w.hkak'

tallh 13 úoHq;a ridhkh

ksmqK;dj 13'0 úoHq;a ridhksl moaO;sj, m%dfhda.sl jeo.;alu úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'1 c,Sh ødjKfha we;s øjHj, iajNdjh yd ikaøKh ms<snoj wjfndaOh ,nkq

jia fia ikakdhl;djh Ndú; lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk ( 07

bf.kqï M, ² m%n, úoHq;a úÉfÊoH" ÿn, úoHq;a - úÉfÊoH yd úoHq;a wúÉfÊoH hk mo

meyeos,s lrhs'

² c,Sh udOHfha m%N, úoHq;a úÉfÊoH" ÿj, úoHQ;a úÉfÊoH yd úoHq;a

wúÉfÊH i|yd ksoiqka m%ldY lrhs'

² Odrdj f.k hk wxY= ip, whk yd ip, bf,lafg%dak weiqßka úoHq;a

ikakdhl yd whksl ikakdhl ii|hs'

² úoHq;a úÉfÊoHhla yryd úoHq;a Odrdjla .e,Sug bf,lafg%dav folu wi,

bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd isÿúh hq;= nj m%ldY lrhs'

² m%;sfrdaOh yd m%;sfrdaOl;dj hk mo w¾:olajhs'

² ikakdhl;dj yd ikakdhk;dj hk mo w¾: olajhs'

² úoHq;a úÉfÊoHhl ødjKhl ikakdhl;dj flfrys n,mdk iOl m%ldY

lrhs'

² ikakdhl;dfõ mßfïh yd mßfïh fkdjk tall jHq;amkak lrhs'

² fok ,o o;a; Ndú;fhka úúO c, ksheosj, ikakdhl;d iiohs'

^ikakdhl;d .Kkh lsÍu wkjYHh&

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² úoHq;a úÉfþokh" úoHq;a wúÉfþoHh" m%n, úoHq;a úÉfþoHh yd ÿn,

úoHq;a úÉfþoHh hk mo iqÿiq WodyrK foñka yÿkajkak'

² úoHq;h ikakhkh ùug wjYH ip, bf,lafg%dak yd ip, whk fhdod

.ksñka Odrdj ikakhkh ùfï hdka;%Kh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² úoHq;a úÉfþoHhla yryd Odrdjla ikakhkh ùu ioyd bf,lafg%dav

foflysu m%;sl%shd isÿúh hq;= nj m%ldY lrkak'

² m%;sfrdaOh" m%;sfrdaO;dj" ikakdhkh yd ikakdhl;dj hk mo w¾;

olajkak'

² by; mo w;r we;s iïnkaO;dj fmkajd fokak'

² úoHq;a úÉfþoH ødjKhl ikakdhl;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl ms<snoj

idlÉPd lrkak'


^idkaøKh" WIaK;ajh úoHq;a úÉfþoHfha iajNdjh&

² úúO c, ksheÈj, ikakdhl;d ikaikaokh lsÍug fok ,o o;a; Ndú;

lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o ridhksl øjH m%n, úoHq;a úÉfþoH" ÿn, úoHq;a úÉfþoH yd

úoHq;a wúÉfþoH f,i j¾. lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² by; øjH whksl ikakdhl yd úoHq;a ikakdhl f,i fjka lsÍug we;s

yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'2 iu;=,s;;dfõ we;s bf,lafg%dav yd tajdg wod, m%;sl%shd úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 10

bf.kqï M, ² f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%davhla lgqigyka lrhs'

² ksoiqka foñka" iq,n f,day-f,day whk bf,lafg%davj, bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd

,shhs'

² bf,lafg%dav / úoHq;a - úÉfÊoH w;=re uqyqKf;aoS bf,lafg%davh yd tlS

ødjKh w;r úNj wka;rhl we;sjk whqre úia;r lrhs'

² úúO j¾.fha bf,lafg%dav rEmigyka weiqßka úoyd olajhs' ^jdhq

bf,lafg%dav" f,day-f,day whk bf,lafg%dav" frfvdlaia bf,lafg%dav&

² úúO j¾.fha bf,lafg%dav i|yd m%;sj¾;H bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

² iïu; bf,lafg%davh w¾:olajhs'

² iïu; wxlkfhka fldaI ksrEmKh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%davhla idod .kakd wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² iqÿiq WodyrK Ndú;d lr f,day - f,day whk bf,lafg%dav lgq igyka

lrkak'

² f,dayh yd úoHq;a úÉfþoH ødjkh w;r úNj wka;rhla yg.kakd wkaou

yd tys Rcq úNjh ueksh fkdyels úu ms<snoj idlÉPd lrkak'

² bf,lafg%davj, úNj wka;rh Rcqj uekSug fkdyels ùug fya;= meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² iïu; ;;a;aj olajñka iïu; bf,lafg%dav w¾: olajkak'

² úúO j¾.j, bf,lafg%dav yÿkajd fokak'

f,day - wødjH ,jK bf,lafg%dav jdhq bf,lafg%dav (O2, H

2, Cl

2) frfvdlaia

bf,alfg%dav

² iqÿiq WodyrK Ndú;d lr by; bf,lafg%dav idod .kakd whqre meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² by; bf,lafg%dav ioyd w¾O bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd ,shk wdldrh meyeÈ,s

lrkak'

² bf,lafg%davhl iïu; wxlkh w¾: olajkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o úúO j¾.fha bf,lafg%dav ioyd lgq igyka we§u iïu; wxlkh

ioyka lsÍu yd w¾O bf,lafg%dav m%;sl%shd ,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'


ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'3 úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIj, .=K ks¾Kh lrhs

ld,Éfþo .Kk 15

bf.kqï M, ² bf,lafg%davhl bf,lafg%dav úNjh w¾:olajhs'

² ieiÿï bf,lafg%davhla f,i iïu; yhsârcka bf,lafg%davh y÷kajd

fohs'

² m%dfhda.sl ieiÿï bf,lafg%davh f,i is,aj¾ - is,aj¾ laf,darhsâ

bf,lafg%davh y÷kajd fohs'

² rEm igyka wdOdrfhka úoHq;a ridhksl fldaI i|yd ksoiqka imhhs'

² úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIhl iïu; wxlkh bÈßm;a lrhs'

² øj ikaêhla iys; yd rys; fldaI yÿkajd fohs'

² bf,lafg%davj,ska iukaú; ir, úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIj, bf,lafg%dav

m%;sl%shd ,shhs'

² bf,lafg%davhl iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjh uksk wldrh meyeos,s lrhs'

² bf,lafg%davhl úNjh flfrys n,mdk idOl m%ldY lrhs'

² bf,lafg%davhl iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjh w¾:olajhs'

² úoHq;a.dul n,h w¾: olajhs'

² úoHq;a.duln,hg wod, ir< .eg¨ úiohs'

² úoHq;a.dul n,h flfrys n,mdk idOl úia;r lrhs'

² tÈfkod Ndú; lrk m%dfhda.sl úoHq;a ridhksl fldaI ioyd WodyrK

iemhhs' f,la,dkaÉ fldaIh" veksh,a fldaIh" Bhï wï, welshqñf,agrh&

² veksh,a fldaIfha rEm igyk w§hs'

² iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNj Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsh

f.dvkÕhs'

² f,day" úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsfha ork ia:dkh yd tajdfha meje;au"

ksiaidrK l%u yd ridhksl .=K w;r we;s iïnkaO;d úia;r lrhs'

² iq,N f,day lsmhla úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsfha mj;sk idfmalaI ia:dkh

mÍlaIKd;aul ks¾kh lrhs'

² iïu; Ag(s)

/ AgCl(s)

/ Cl-(aq)

bf,lafg%davh ms<sfh, lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%dav w¾: olajkak'

² ieiÿï bf,lafg%davhla f,i iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davfha we;s

jeo.;alu ioyka lrñka tu bf,lafg%davh rEm igyka wdOdrfhka

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davh fjkqjg fhdod.; yels m%dfhda.sl ieiÿï

bf,lafg%davhla f,i is,aj¾ - is,aj¾ laf,drhsâ bf,lafg%davfha jHqyh

bÈßm;a lrkak'

² úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIhla idod .kakd wdldrh yd th rEm igykla

u.ska ksremKh lrk wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² øj ikaêhla we;s yd øj ikaêhla ke;s úoHq;a ridhksl fldaI ms<snoj

úia;r lrkak'


² úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIj, wefkdavfha§ yd lef;davfha§ isÿjk bf,lafg%dav

m%;sl%shd ,shd olajkak'

² bf,lafg%davhl iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjh E w¾: olajkak'

² iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%dav Ndú; lr iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjh uksk


² iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjh flfrys n,mdk idOl ms<snoj idlÉPd lrkak'

² E - ^lef;davh& E ^wefkdavh& yd hk iólrKh bÈßm;a lr úoHq;a

ridhksl fldaIhl iïu; úoHq;a .duln,h hk moh yÿkajd fokak'

² úoHq;a.dul n,h flfrys n,mdk idOl idlÉPd lrkak'

² úúO úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIj, Ecell

w.hhka ikaikaokh lrkak'

² ksoiqka lsmhla bÈßm;a lrñka úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIhl iïu; wxlkh

yÿkajd fokak'

² úúO bf,lafg%davj, úNj ie,ls,a,g f.k úohq;a ridhksl fY%aKsh

f.dvk.k wdldrh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsfha f,day yd wf,day msysgk ia:dkh iy tajdfha

ksiaidrK l%u w;r we;s iïnkaO;dj ms<snoj úia;r lrkak'

wod< mÍlaIK( ² iq,Nj mj;sk f,day lsysmhla úohq;a ridhksl fY%aKsfha mj;sk ia:dkh

mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾kh lsÍu'

² iïu; Ag(s)/AgCl(s)/Cl-(aq) bf,lafg%davh ms<sfh, lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² my; ioyka wdldrfha m%Yak ,nd§u u.ska úoHq;a ridhksl fldaI ms<snoj

,nd we;s ±kqu w.hkak'

WodyrK(- Zn yd Mg bf,lafg%dav fhdod we;s úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIh

i,lkak' (Zn yd Mg j, E0 w.hhka fokak&

1' by; fldaIfha iïu; wxlkh ,shkak'

2' tys wefkdavfha yd lef;davfha isÿjk w¾O fldaI m%;sl%shd ,shkak'

3' iïu; fldaI m%;sl%shdj ,shkak'

4' fldaIfha RK w.%h l=ula o@

5' fldaIfha Ok w.%h l=ula o@

6' E0 cell .Kkh lrkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 13'4 úoHq;a úÉfþok l%shdj,sfha § imsßh hq;= wjYH;d y‘ÿkd.ksñka *erfâ kshuh

Ndú; lr wod< .Kkh lsÍï isÿ lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 08

bf.kqï M, ² úoHq;a úÉfÊokh w¾:olajhs'

² úoHq;a úÉfÊokh uQ,O¾u úia;r lrhs'

² ir, úoHq;a úÉfÊok moaO;sj, M, mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

² *erfâ ksh;h m%ldY lrhs'

² *erfâ ksh;h u; mokï jQ ir, .eg¨ úiohs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² úoHq;a úÉfþokh hk moh w¾: olajkak'

² úoHq;a úÉfþokh iïnkaO uq, O¾u idlÉPd lrkak'


² il%Sh yd wl%Sh bf,lafg%dav fhdod .ksñka isÿ lrk úúO j¾.fha úoHq;a

úÉfþoH moaO;s meyeÈ,s lrkak'

• ú,Sk ødjK úoHq;a úÉfþokh' (NaCl(l)

)

• c,Sh ødjKj, úoHq;a úÉfþokh' (NaCl (aq)

yd CuSO4(aq)

ødjK fjk

fjku Cu bf,lafg%dav fhdod .ksñka)

² úoHq;a úÉfþokfhka ,efnk M, m%frdal:kh lrk whqre idlÉPd lrkak'

² *erfâ kshuh yÿkajd fokak'

² úoHq;a úÉfþokh iïnkaO .eg¨ úi§ug *erfâ kshuh Ndú;d lrk

whqre meyeÈ,s lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fok ,o úoHq;a úÉfþoH l%shdj,Ska u.ska ,nd .; yels M, ,shd olaùug


² *erfâ kshu fhdod .ksñka úoHq;a úÉfþokfha § úi¾ckh jk uq,

øjHhkaf.a ialkaO .Kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj ;lafiare lrkak'

tallh 14 l¾udka; iy mßir ÿIKh

ksmqK;dj 14'0 uQ,O¾uj, Ndú;h wjfndaO lr .ekSug;a" l¾udka; wdY%S; ÿIl yÿkajd

.ekSug;a f;dard .;a ridhksl l¾udka; úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'1 ‘s’ f.dkqfõ uq, øjH yd ixfhda. ld¾ñlj ksIamdokh iy tajdfha Ndú;

úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 13

bf.kqï M, ² ridhksl l¾udka;hla ie,iqï lsÍfï oS ie,lsh hq;= uQ,sl idOl ,ehsia;=

.; lrhs'

² l¾udka;hlg wuqøjH f;dard .ekSfï oS ie,lsh hq;= idOl úia;r lrhs'

² ue.akSishï" fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ mg, fldaI l%uh&" inka yd fidaähï

ldnfkaÜ fid,afõ l%uh& hk øjHj, ksIamdokhg wod, ridhksl uq,O¾u

úia;r lrhs'

² inkaj, .=Kd;aul nj /l .ekSug wkq.ukh l<hq;= ms<sfj;a úia;r

lrñka úoHd.drfha § inka ksheÈhla ms<sfh, lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² wm wjg mßirfha ridhksl l¾udka; ia:dms; lsÍug we;s yelshdj

fidhd ne,Sug idlÉPdjla f.dv k.kak'

² j¾;udkfha Y%S ,xldfõ msysgqjd we;s ridhksl l¾udka; ms<sn|j úuikak'

² ridhksl l¾udka;hla ie,iqï lsÍfï § i<ld ne,sh hq;= idOl ms<sn|

idlÉPd lrkak'

² l¾udka;hla ioyd iajNdúl wuqøjh f;dard .ekSfï§ i,ld ne,sh hq;=

idOl úia;r lrkak'

² wuqøjHhla f,i uqyqÿ c,h Ndú; lr NaCl ksIamdokfha§ ,efnk ìg¾ka

ødjkh u.ska Mg ksiaidrkh lsÍfï l%uh yd thg wod, fN!;sl ridhksl

uq,O¾u meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² NaOH ksIamdokfhka ,efnk w;=reM, j, m%fhdack ,shd olajkak'


² fid,afõ l%uh u.ska Na2CO

3 ksIamdokh lsÍfï l%uh yd tys

fN!;sridhksl uq, O¾u meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² Na2CO

3 j, m%fhdack ioyka lrkak'

² Na2CO

3 ksIamdokfha§ ,efnk w;=re M, kej; Ndú;d lsÍfï jeo.;alu

bÈßm;a lrkak'

² inka ksIamdokfha mshjr yd tys fN!;sridhksl uq, O¾u meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² inka ksIamdokfha§ ,efnk w;=re M,hla jk .a,Sifrda,a M, m%fhdack

bÈßm;a lrkak'

wod< mÍlaIK( ² ridhkd.drfha § inka idïm,hla iE§u'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² lKavdhï l%shdldrlula f,i wOhhkh lrk ,o ish¨u l¾udka;

iïnkaO lr .e,Sï igykla ks¾udKh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'2 p f.dkqfõ uQ, øjHj, wvx.= ixfhda.j, ksIamdokh yd m%fhdack úu¾Ykh

lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 08

bf.kqï M, ² wefudakshd" khsá%la wï,h yd i,a*shqßla wï,h hk ixfhda.j, ksIamdokhg

wod< fN!;-ridhksl uQ,O¾u Ndú; lrñka tajdfha ksIamdokh yd

m%fhdack úia;r lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² fyan¾ l%uh u.ska wefudakshd ksIamdokh isÿ lrk l%uh yd tys

fN!;sridhksl uq, O¾u ms<sno idlÉPd lrkak'

² wefudakshd j, m%fhdack ioyka lrkak'

² Tiaj,aâ l%uh u.ska HNO3 wï,h ksIamdokh isÿ lrk l%uh yd tys

fN!;sl ridhksl uq, O¾u idlÉPd lrkak'

² HNO3 wï,fha m%fhdack ioyka lrkak'

² iam¾Y l%uh u.ska H2SO

4 wï,h ksmoùfï l%uh iy tys fN!;sridhksl

uq, O¾u ms<sno idlÉPd lrkak'

² H2SO

4 wï,fha m%fhdack ioyka lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² H2, N

2iy O

2 wuqøjH f,i Ndú; lrñka NH

4NO

3 idïm,hla

ixiaf,aIKh lrk wdldrh ±laùug wod, ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK

,sùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak' ^tys § Tn by; W.;a l¾udka; ms<sno

±kqu Wmfhda.S lr .kak&

ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'3 d f.dkqfõ uQ, øjHj, yd tajdfha ixfhda.j, ksIamdokh yd m%fhdack

úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 04

bf.kqï M, ² ghsfÜkshï Tlaihsvj, ksIamdokh iy Bg mokï jk fN!;sridhksl

uQ,O¾u úia;r lrhs'

² ghsfÜkshï vfhdlaihsâj, m%fhdack úia;r lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² Y%S ,xldfõ we;s Ti m%Nj yd tajd we;s ia:dk ms<snoj úuikak'


² rEghs,a u.ska TiO2 ksIamdokh lsßug wod, m%Odk mshjr meyeÈ,s lr

TiO2 ys m%fhdack ioyka lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² tÈfkod Ôú;fha§ Ti yd wdY%S; ixfhda.j, m%fhdack ,shd olaùug we;s

yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'4 nyq wjhjl øjHj, ridhkh úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 08

bf.kqï M, ² nyqwjhjl" talwjhjl yd mqkrdj¾;k tallh y÷kajhs'

² ksoiqka weiqßka nyqwjhjl" iajdNdúl yd lD;%su f,i j¾.SlrKh lrhs'

² nyqwjhùlrK m%;sl%shd j¾.h wkqj nyqwjhjl j¾.SlrKh lrhs'

² fok ,o ksoiqkaj, jHQyh ^tal wjhjlh" nyqwjhjlh yd mqkrdj¾;S

tallh& .=K yd m%fhdack y÷kd .kS'

² ma,diaála wdl,k øjH yd tajdfha mdßißl wdprK úia;r lrhs'

² iajdNdúl rn¾j, jHQyh" .=K yd m%fhdack úia;r lrhs'

² rn¾ j,alkhsia lsÍu úia;r lrhs'

² rn¾ leá.eiSfï l%shdj,sh yd th je<elaúh yels wdldrh meyeos,s

lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² tÈfkod Ôú;fha§ Ndú;d lrk nyqwjhùl ms<snoj fmr ±kqu úuikak'

² tu nyqwjhúl úúO wdldrfha ks¾Kdhlj,g wkqj fnod fjkalsÍug

i,iajkak'

² tal wjhúlh yd mqkrdj¾;k tallh meyeÈ,s lrñk nyq wjhúl yÿkajd

fokak'

² ms<sfh, lr.kakd l%uh wkqj ish¨u lD;%Su nyqwjhúl wdl,k nyq

wjhúl yd ix>Kk nyq wjhúl f,i j¾.SlrKh lrkak'

² wod, m%;sl% shd fhdod .ksñka wdl,k nyq wjhúl ^fmd,s;Ska"

fmd,sfg*af,daka" fmd,s iaghsÍka" PVC) yÿkajd fokak'

² wod, m%;sl%shd olajñka ix>Kk nyq wjhúl f,i khsf,daka yd fmd,stiag¾

yÿkajd fokak'

² ;%sudk nyqwjhúhlg ksoiqkla f,i fíla,hsÜ jHqyh bÈßm;a lrkak'

² by; ioyka lrk ,o nyq wjhúl j, m%fhdack ioyka lrkak'

² nyq wjhúl Ndú;fhka isÿjk mdßißl n,mEu idlÉPd lrkak'

² iajNdúl nyq wjhúlhla f,i iajNdúl rn¾ yÿkajd fokak'

² rn¾ j, jHqyh fhdod .ksñka tys m%;Hia:;dj meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² rn¾j, hdka;%sl .=K jeälrk l%uhla f,i j,alkhsia lsÍu ms<snoj

meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² rn¾ lsßj, ixhq;sh" leá .eiai ùfï l%u iy leá .eiSu j<lajk

whqre bÈßm;a lrkak'

² rn¾ lsß leá .eiaiùfï u.ska iys; rn¾ ,nd .kakd nj wjOdrKh

lrkak'


we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² fmd,s;Ska" PVC, fg*af,daka wd§ nyqwjhúl j, tal wjhúl mqkrdj¾;k

tall" nyq wjhúl yÿkd .ekSug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² nyq wjhúl j, m%fhdack ,shd ±laùug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'5 øjHfha mokï lr.;a we;eï ridhksl l¾udka; úu¾Ykh lrhs'

ld,Éfþo .Kk 15

bf.kqï M, ² wuqøjHj, mqk¾ckkSh m%Njhla f,i Ydl úia;r lrhs'

² t;fkd,a yd ffcj ãi,a ksIamdokh úia;r lrhs'

² i.kaO f;,a Ydlj,ska ksiaidrKh lr.kakd ixlS¾K" jdIamYS,s ixfhda.

nj mjihs'

² i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKfha oS Ndú;d flfrk uQ,O¾u meyeos,s lrhs'

² t;fkd,a" úkdlsß" i.kaO f;,a yd ãi,aj, m%fhdack m%ldY lrhs'

² úoHd.drfha oS l+re÷ fld<j,ska l+re÷ f;,a ksiaidrKh lrhs'

² úoHd.drfha § ffcj ãi,a idïm,hla ms<sfh, lrhs'

² úoHd.drfha oS úkdlsßj, weisála wï, m%;sY;h ks¾Kh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² me<Eá u.ska ksiaidrKh lr .; yels ridhk øjH ms<snoj ,nd f.k

we;s fmr ±kqu úuikak'

² me<Eá hkq mqk¾ckkh l< yels wuq øjHhka nj wjOdrKh lrkak'

² t;fkda,a yd úkdlsß ms<sfh, lr .ekSug fhdod .; yels YdL ms<snoj

úuikak'

² wod, ridhksl m%;sl%shd fhdod .ksñka t;fkda,a yd úkdlsß ksmoùug

wod, mshjrj,a meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² wkd.;fha we;s úh yels bj;ajk w¾nqohg ms<shula f,i Ôj ãi,a j,

jeo.;alu idlÉPd lrkak'

² l=reÿ fld< Ndú; lr l=reÿ f;,a ksiaidrKh lsÍug fhdod .kakd

yqud, wdijk l%uh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² i.kaO f;,a úúO j¾.fha jdIamYS,s ix>gl wvx.= ñY%Khla f,i ie,lsh

yelsnj wjOdrKh lrkak'

² i.kaO f;,aj, m%fhdack meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² l=reÿ f;,a" lrdnq keá f;,a yd isfg%dfk,a,d f;,a j, wvx.= m%Odk

ridhksl øjHhj, kï bÈßm;a lrkak'

wod< mÍlaIK( ² yqud, wdijkh Ndú;d lr l=reÿ fld< u.ska l=reÿ f;,a idïm,hla

ksiaidrKh lsÍu'

² úkdlsß idïm,hl we;s weisáka wï, m%;sY;h ks¾Kh lsÍu'

² Ôj ãi,a idïm,hla ms<sfh, lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² my; § we;s wdldrfha m%Yakhla ,nd§u u.ska úkdlsß idïm,hl we;s

CH3COOH idkaøKh .Kkh lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

fok ,o úkdlsß idïm,hl § we;s WIaK;ajfha § >K;ajh 1.05g cm-3

fõ' bka 25.00 cm3 f.k 250 cm3 olajd ;kql lsÍfuka ,efnk ødjKfhka


25.00 cm3 la f.k 0.1 moldm-3 NaOH ødjKhla iu. wkqudmkh lrk

,§' ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh 16.0 cm3 la úh'

1' úkdlsß idïm,hla we;s CH3COOH idkaøKh .Kkh lrkak'

2' tu idïm,fha we;s wï, m%;sY;h .Kkh lrkak'

3' fuu wkqudmkh ioyd iqÿiq o¾Ylhla ioyka lrkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'6 iq,N ld¾ñl ¥Il

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² ¥Ilhla hkq l=ula oehs meyeos,s lrhs'

² jd ;;a;aj yd c, ;;a;aj mrdñ;s y÷kd kï lrhs'

² jd ;;a;aj mrdñ;s (COx , NO

x , SO

x , C

xH

yuÜgï) úia;r lrhs'

² c, ;;a;aj mrdñ;s pH, WIaK;ajh" øú; Tlaiscka (COD), ikakdhl;dj"

wdú,;dj" lÀk;ajh& yÿkd f.k kï lrhs'

² >K wmøjH yd lDIs ridhk øjH ksid isÿjk mdxY+ ¥IKh meyeÈ,s

lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² ÿIlhla hkq l=ulao hkak iy ÿIlhla yÿkd .kakd wdldrh idlÉPd

lrkak'

² ridhksl l¾udka; u.ska ÿIl iEfok nj wjOdrKh lrkak'

² ld¾ñl ÿIl jdhq ÿIl c, ÿIl yd mdxY= ÿIl f,i fnod fjka lrkak'

² SOx, NO

xyd wxY=uh øjH jdhquh ÿIl ioyd jk mrdñ;ska f,i yÿkajd

fokak'

² pH w.h" WIaK;ajh" ødú; Tlaiscka (DO) ridhksl Tlaiscka b,a¨u

(COD) lÀk;ajh yd wdï,s;dj c, ÿIKh ioyd jk fN!;sl yd ridhksl

mrdñ;Ska f,i yÿkajd fokak'

² lDIS ridhksl yd >k øjH fya;=fjka isÿjk mdxY= ÿIKh ms<snoj idlÉPd

lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² lKavdhï l%shdldrlula f,i jdhquh ÿIl yd c, ÿIK ms<sno úia;r

tla/ia lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² tla/ia lr.;a úia;r bÈßm;a lsÍug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

² by; ioyka lrk ,o ÿIl u.ska we;sjk mdßißl n,mEu ms<sno l=vd

fmd;a msxpla iE§ug we;s yelshdj w.hkak'

ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'7 ld¾ñl ksl=;= úiska isÿ flfrk jd; ¥Ikfha ridhkh

ld,Éfþo .Kk 06

bf.kqï M, ² wï, jeisj, ridhkh yd tu.ska isÿjk mdßißl n,mEu meyeos,s

lrhs'

² m%ldY-ridhksl OQñldj, ridhkh yd tys mdßißl n,mEï meyeos,s

lrhs'

² ´fidaka úhk laIh ùu yd tys mdßißl n,mEï meyeos,s lrhs'


² yß;d.dr wdprKfha yd f.da,Sh WKqiqfï ridhkh yd tajdfha mdßißl

n,mEï meyeos,s lrhs'

² ¥IKh wju lsÍug fhosh yels mQ¾fjdam ms<sfj;a úia;r lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï ioyd Wmfoia ( ² wï, jeis ms<snoj fmr ±kqu úuikak'

² wï, jeis ioyd fya;=jk jdhquh ÿIl (SOx, NO

x) kï lrkak'

² wod, ridhksl m%;sl%shd i,lñka by; ÿIl u;ska wï, jeis we;sjk


² wï, jeis u.ska mßirhg isÿjk n,mEu idlÉPd lrkak' wjYH wjia:d

j,§ wod, m%;sl%shd ioyka lrkak&

² m%ldY ridhk Oqñldj we;sùug n,mdk idOl iy th yÿkd .kakd

wdldrh i,lñka meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² by; l%shdj,shg wod, m%;sl%shd ,sh olajkak'

² m%ldY ridhksl Oqñldj u.ska mßirhg øjHj,g yd ñksidf.a fi!LH

flfrys we;slrk n,mEu idlÉPd lrkak'

² ´fidaka ia;rh ke;Sùu iïnkaO ridhkh meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² ´fidaka ia;rh ;=kSùu ksid isÿjk mdßißl n,mEu ioyka lrkak'

² yß;d.dr wdprKh ms<snoj fmr ±kqu úuikak'

² yß;d.dr jdhq tajdfha ;sìh hq;= Wmßu uÜgu blaujd hdu ksid f.da,sh

WKqiqu we;sjk wdldrh fmkajd fokak'

² f.da,Sh WKqiqu ksid mßirhg we;sjk n,mEu meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² l¾udka; ksid isÿjk jdhq ÿIKh wju lr .ekSu ioyd wkq.ukh l,

hq;= wdrlaIdldß l%shdud¾. ioyka lrkak'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² wï, jeis" yß;d.dr wdprKh" fidaka ia;rh ;=kSùu yd m%ldY ridhksl

Oqñldj ms<sno bÈßm;a lsÍfï yelshdj mx;sfha isiqka lKavdhï y;rlg

fn§u u.ska w.hkak' tla lKavdhug tla ud;Dldjla f;dard .; yelsh&

ksmqK;d uÜgu 14'8 ld¾ñl ksl=;= úiska isÿ flfrk c, ÿIKfha ridhkh

ld,Éfþo .Kk ( 07

bf.kqï M, ² iqfmdaIKh yd tys m%;sM, meyeos,s lrhs'

² ld¾ñl wmjdyj, øjKh ù we;s ldnksl ¥Il kï lrhs'

² øú; ldnksl ¥Il ksid we;s jk n,mEï úia;r lrhs'

² c, ¥IKhg fya;=jk iq,n nerf,day yd tajdhska isÿ jk mdßißl n,mEï

meyeÈ,s lrhs'

² øú; Tlaiscka ridhksl Tlaiscka b,a¨u WIaK;ajh" w.h" wdú,;dj yd

lÀk;ajh c,fha ;;a;ajh ms<sn| mrdñ;s nj meyeos,s lrhs'

² ld¾ñl wmjdyj, wvx.= ¥Il wju lsÍu i|yd ;kd we;s mQ¾fjdamdh

úia;r lrhs'

² ñßosfhys øjKh ù we;s Tlaiscka uÜgu mÍËKd;aul j ks¾Kh lrhs'

mdvï ie,iqï i|yd Wmfoia ² iuyr wjia:dj,§ c, uq, fmdl=K" jeõ" .x.d wd§& mdis j,ska jeishdug

fya;= fudkjd±hs isiqkaf.ka m%Yak wid lreKq reia lrkak'


² iqfmdaIKh we;sùug fya;=jk whk j¾. yÿkajd fokak'

² c, uq, j,g by; ioyka whk tl;=jk wdldrh ioyka lrkak'

² iqfmdaIKh ksid mek k.sk .eg¨ idlÉPd lrkak'

² ld¾ñl l%shdj,ska u.ska ksoyia jk wm c,fha wvx.= jk c,fha ødú;

ldnksl ixfhda. ms<snoj idlÉpd lrkak'

² by; l%shdj,ska u.ska mßirhg yd c,fha .=Kd;aul Ndjhg we;sjk

n,mEu meyeÈ,s lrkak'

² l¾udka;j,ska msgjk wm c,fha wvx.= úh yels ner f,day ms<snoj fmr

±kqu úuikak'

² ner f,day u.ska mßirhg yd ñksidf.a fi!LHhg we;súh yels wys;lr

n,mEï ms<sno idlÉPd lrkak'

² ødú; .=Kd;aulNdjhg mÍlaId lsÍu ioyd fhdod .kakd mrdñ;Ska f,i

pH w.h" wdï,sl;dj" lÀk;ajh yd WIaK;ajh yÿkajd fokak'

² c, ÿIKh wju lr .ekSu ioyd fhdod .; yels wdrlaIdldÍ l%shd

ud¾. idlÉPd lrkak'

wod< mÍlaIK( ² úkala,¾ l%uh Ndú;fhka c, idïm,hl øú; Tlaiscka m%udKh

m%dfhda.slj ks¾Kh lsÍu'

we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh( ² lKavdhï l%shdldrlï my; ioyka tla tla l¾udka; u.ska isÿjk

mdßißl n,mEu iy tajd wju lr .kakd we.hSï yd ;lafiarelrKh

• fyan¾ l%uh u.ska NH3 ksIamdokh

• iam¾Y l%uh u.ska H2SO

4 ksIamdokh

• mg, fldaI l%uh u.ska NaOH ksIamdokh

• Tiaj,aâ l%uh u.ska HNO3 ksIamdokh

• fid,afõ l%uh u.ska Na2CO

3 ksIamdokh

ridhk úohdj - chemistry · ridhk úohd úih ks¾foayh b. sc. engineering (hon's) 2 tallh 1...

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