STRUCTURE AND ROLES

“The structural perspective champions a pattern of well-thought-out roles and

relationships.”

Primary Metaphor

for Organization:

Central Concepts:

Managerial and

Leadership Image:

Fundamental Challenge:

Factory Machine

Rules Roles Goals Policies Technology Environment

Social architect

Chief Executive Officer

President

Attune structure to task, technology, environment

Align people, process, and technology

Structural Frame

Bolman and Deal, 2003

Scientific Management ApproachFrederick Winslow Taylor

Clear delineation of

authority

Separation of planning

from operations

Task specialization

Responsibility

Incentive schemes for workers Taylor, 1911

Positive and Negative Aspects of Scientific Management

Strengths ~objectivity ~logical

~action oriented ~modes of

accountability

Limitations ~impersonal ~overly simplistic ~pessimistic

~inflexible

Scientific Management At Work In Education:

High-Stakes Standardized Tests

Teaching the curriculum

chosen by test-designers

Creative pedagogy is not

rewarded

Teachers’ prerogatives are

disappearing and the talents

that they once utilized daily

are increasingly no longer called upon.

Other Contributors

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

–Cheaper by the Dozen

Henry Gantt

–Gantt Chart

Henry Ford

–Production Assembly LineA Gantt chart is a popular type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule.

Bureaucratic ModelMax Weber

A bureaucracy is an organizational structure advanced by the development of “Monocratic Bureaucracy.” The model was developed by the German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920). It consisted of:

• Rules• Specialization• Hierarchy of positions• Technical qualification• Long Term employment• Examples: Post Office, Police, and

Fire DepartmentsBolman & Deal (2003)

Bureaucracy and Productivity

Contrary to popular belief, a bureaucracy can be an organizational structure which can deliver productivity.– Rules and policies govern conditions of work

and specify standard processes for carrying out tasks.

– Rules and policies do much to ensure equality, conformity, safety, and order in the workplace.

Negative Aspects of Bureaucracy

The very rules and policies which make anorganization successful and productive if carried too far lead to:

Lack of flexibilityStifling of creativityConfusionIndecisionReliance on traditionUpper management ignoring lower levels

Bureaucratization

Pro

duct

ivit

y

Excessive Bureaucratization – “J” Curve (Caiden, 1994)

Vertical and Lateral CoordinationTwo Main Roots:

Scientific Management – designed to get the most from each worker, for every minute worked (Taylor, 1911, Fayol, 1949, Gulick, 1937 and Urwick, 1937)

Patriarchal systems – where father figure has absolute power, gives way to Monocratic Bureaucracy.Bowman and Deal, 2003, p. 45-46.

VerticalFixed division of labor

Hierarchy of offices

Rules governing performance

Specific skills or ability

Employment is long term

Specification of Task

Knowledge or skill based

Units of time

Organized by product

Customer or client

Geography

By process

Lateral

Informal communication

Task forces

New technology can support lateral groups

HierarchyFormal structures enhance morale if it helps get the job done.

Hierarchy is best used if it provides opportunities to use workers’ skills.

Systems Thinking

Human systems are biological systems.

Adapted from Bolman and Deal, 2003 (www.leebolman.com)

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Mintzberg’s Structural Configurations Simple Structure

• Example: Mom & Pop operation• Positive: Simple/Flexible• Negative: Distracted by daily

operations; neglects long-range problems; capricious rewards; authority may block changes

Machine Bureaucracy

• Example: McDonald’s

• Positive: efficient/effective; masters routine tasks

• Negative: boring; negatively effects employee motivation and initiative.

Adapted from Bolman and Deal, 2003 (www.leebolman.com)

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Mintzberg’s Structural Configurations Professional Bureaucracy

• Example: Harvard University• Positive: professional, trained core;

insulation from formal interference• Negative: problematic coordination

& quality control; slow response to external change

Divisionalized Form

• Example: Campuses within university system

• Positive: ample resources; responsiveness without undue economic risks

• Negative: “cat-and-mouse” game between HQ and divisions; HQ may lose touch with operations

Adapted from Bolman and Deal, 2003 (www.leebolman.com)

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Mintzberg’s Structural Configurations Helgesen’s Web of Inclusion

Adhocracy

• Example: DEC

• Positive: encourages creativity; challenges tradition, legitimizes controversies

• Negative: Lack of timely coordinated shift may result in downfall

More Circular than hierarchical

Emphasis on lateral relationships rather than hierarchy

Leadership at the center rather than at the top

Web builds from the center out through a network of interconnections

Example: Village Voice newspaper

Positive: Strong sense of community

Negative: Increasingly challenged as organization expands

Social Structure is:

Refers to relationships among social elements including people, positions, and the organizational units to which they belong (e.g., departments, divisions) (Mary Jo Hatch, 1997, p. 161).”

Social StructurePositive Aspects

Processes and relationships are human traits that infiltrate organizations and may determine their success.

– Example:

• The more complex the organization, the more communication is needed to collaborate and produce.

Social StructureNegative Aspects

When relationships and processes are the focus of an organization, time is then taken away from the actual functions of the organization.– Example:

• If the majority of organizational development time is designated for relationships, the production procedures and necessary changes may be overlooked.

Structural DilemmasDifferentiation vs. IntegrationGap vs. OverlapUnderuse vs. OverloadLack of Clarity vs. Lack of CreativityExcessive Autonomy vs. Excessive InterdependenceToo Loose vs.Too TightGoalless vs. GoalboundIrresponsible vs. Unresponsive

Bolman and Deal, 2003

Why Restructure?Positives—

Organizational improvement in response to external change

New leadership “stamp”

Negatives— Demanding process

Poor record of success

What is the Restructuring Process?

Unfreezing

Transition

Refreezing  

Kurt Lewin, 1951

Restructuring: A Response to Change

Change is an inevitable journey. All things are constantly changing, transforming, becoming something different. Guiding change so that it is successful is what leadership is all about. Indeed, the measure of a leader may well be her or his capacity to understand and deal successfully with change—to stimulate it, shape it, guide it, manage it, and keep it going in the right direction.

California School Leadership Academy

ReferencesBolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations:

Artistry, choice and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills,

CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in

educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.

Taylor, F. W. (1911/1967). The principles of scientific management. New York: W. W. Norton.

Weber, M. (1930/1992). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (A. Giddens, Trans.). New York: Routledge.