Structured Structured ObservationObservation

Instructor：陳怡真 老師 Student ：洪淑玲 Number ：MA1C0101 Class ：碩研英二甲

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IntroductionIntroduction

Open observation It might characterise the early stages of

participant observation where the observer tries to get a general sense of the setting and the activities associated with it.

Closed observation The observer is strictly coding behaviour

on a low-inference schedule, or instrument.

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The hidden dangers of The hidden dangers of closedclosed observation (1/5)observation (1/5)

PerspectiveDesignProcedureInterpretation

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The hidden dangers of closed The hidden dangers of closed observation (2/5)observation (2/5)

PerspectiveStrength It allows researchers to focus on those

areas and characteristics that they wish to know more about.

Weakness The introduction of a closed system

brings with it a necessary narrowing of focus and even an element of instrumentality.

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The hidden dangers of closed The hidden dangers of closed observation (3/5)observation (3/5)DesignIf it is done with limited ambitions and with a view to deepening the researcher’ s understanding of particular features of behaviour, it can serve the project well.

If it attempts to capture precise teaching activities in a single set of descriptive terms can produce a plethora of labels and a deal of confusion. p. 146 Box 3.9

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The hidden dangers of closed The hidden dangers of closed observation (4/5)observation (4/5)

Procedure1. The opportunity to tinker for people like me (chart and table)2. The appeal of the systematic for those who

enjoy creating order out of chaos3. An opportunity to establish fixed routines for

others

The problem can be one of trying to piece them together to produce an overall picture.

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The hidden dangers of closed The hidden dangers of closed observation (5/5)observation (5/5)

Interpretation Structured observation can undermine its analytic purpose, so it is possible to become swamped with information that has distorted the shape of the original project, leaving the researcher with no clear sense of the co-ordinates that inform effective decision-making.

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Participants and structured Participants and structured observation (1/2)observation (1/2)

Good decisions are made in the light of evoking needs and the context of the project as a whole, and it helps to have an overall picture if how participants observation compares with structured observation.

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Participants and structured Participants and structured observation (2/2)observation (2/2)

Participant observation Structured observation

Orientation Open Closed

Foundation Event-based Category-based

Form Narrative Descriptive

Observer status

Observer-as-instrument Observer-through-instrument

Coding Post-observation Pre-observation

Recording Retrospective Cotemporaneous

Format Notebook Observation schedule

Replicability

No-replicable Replicable

QI status Main or supplementary method

Supplementary method

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Standard observation Standard observation schedules (1/3)schedules (1/3)

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Teacher talk Pupil talk

Indirect influence

Accepts feeling Response teachers

Pupil talk-response

Praises or encourages Talk actively Pupil talk-initiation

Accepts use uses ideas of pupils

Unrecognizable behavior

Silence or confusion

Ask questions

Direct influence

Lecturing

Giving directions

Criticising or justifying authority

FIAC (the Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories)

Standard observation Standard observation schedules (2/3)schedules (2/3)FIAC 記錄表

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學校 ○○小學 老師 李○○ 班級 六年○班 課程 數學課 日期 96.4.15 觀察者 王○○

Standard observation Standard observation schedules (3/3)schedules (3/3)FIAC 記錄示例

符合類別

老師：黑板上所寫的這些城市， 6( 給予指導 )

哪一個和我們距離最近？ 4( 問問題 )

( 停頓約 5 秒鐘 ) 10( 沈默 )

學生：應該是東京。 8

( 學生回答問題 )

◎記錄的類別序列為： 6-4-10-8

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Deciding whether to use Deciding whether to use structured observationstructured observationThe sorts of questions that can be best be answered

by structured observation are those related to particular behaviours about which we need specific information.

For example1. How often do students initiate interaction with the

teacher?2. How much lesson time is taken up with teacher talk?

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Working up a scheduleWorking up a schedule1. Research question(s)2. Focus3. Setting4. Slice of reality5. Observation instrument(s)6. Observation procedures7. Analytical procedures8. Presenting of findings

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Basic decisionsBasic decisions

Descriptive Category

Rating Non-rating

High inference Low inference

Event sampling Interval sampling

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Essential characteristics of an Essential characteristics of an effective category systemeffective category system

Clearly definable categories related to observable behaviour

Mutually exclusive categories—no overlap

The category set is exhaustiveThe system can be operationalised

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Some practical Some practical problems (1/5)problems (1/5)

1. Observer effect2. Expectancy effect3. Observer drift4. Central tendency

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Some practical Some practical problems (2/5)problems (2/5)

Observer effect

Hawthorne effecta form of reactivity in which subjects modify an aspect of their behavior, in response to the fact that they know that they are being studied.

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Some practical Some practical problems (3/5)problems (3/5)Expectancy effectThe higher the degree of inference involved in the observation, the more important it is to be aware of factors that might influence your coding.

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Some practical Some practical problems (4/5)problems (4/5)Observer driftObservers become familiar with the schedule they are using and begin to “see” things in expected ways.

Awareness can help to reduce it and where teams of coders are involved periodic checks on inter-rater agreement can direct attention to emerging problems.

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Some practical Some practical problems (5/5)problems (5/5)Central tendencyThis applies to rating scales and refers to the tendency for opt for something at or near the middle.

Keeping options to a minimum can help to reduce it.

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