studii culturale engleza

8/12/2019 Studii culturale engleza

1/18

1. THE RENAISSANCE

-the Renaissance started in the Late Middle Ages and was characterized by s rge !"interest in classical learning and #al es$ th s an e%tra!rdinary ! tb rst !" c lt raland intellect al creati#ity.-it was a ti&e !" rebirth !" h &anis& and new disc!#eries in "ine arts$ & sic$literat re$ 'hil!s!'hy$ science and techn!l!gy$ architect re$ religi!n ands'irit ality.-"irst started in the Nth !" Italy in (l!rence and s bse) ently s'read t! the rest !"western and central E r!'e "r!& the 1* th cent ry t! the early 1+th cent ry.- in Italy sch!lars and a s!cial elite beca&e &!re interested in the literat re andideas !" ancient ,reece and R!&e. As interest in Classical ci#ilizati!n grew$ s! did atendency t! re ect &any !" the ideas and 'ractices !" &edie#al ci#ilizati!n.- 'e!'le !" the Renaissance c!ncerned the&sel#es &!re with the sec lar$ 'hysicalw!rld than &edie#al 'e!'le did. The ter& that best enc!&'asses the &eaning !" theRenaissance is h &anis& a new c!ncern with 'e!'le as '!wer" l$ creati#eindi#id als in a dyna&ic sec lar w!rld. /$the dignity !" h &an th! ght$ the #al e !"h &an s'ec lati!n 0-All this was re"lected in the literat re$ art$ and s!cieties !" the ti&e- the Renaissance witnessed

the re#i#al !" classical learning and wisd!& a"ter a l!ng 'eri!d !" c lt ral

decline and stagnati!n In literary ter&s the 'eri!d is &ar2ed by a new sel" c!n"idence in #ernac lar literat res$ a "l! rishing !" lyric '!etry$ and are#i#al !" s ch classical "!r&s as e'ic and 'ast!ral literat re. S!&e !" the&!st "a&! s Renaissance writers were 3illia& Sha2es'eare$ ,i!#anni4!ccacci! and Christ!'her Marl!we.

5ainters began t! tilize &eth!ds !" realis& by i&'r!#ing s2ills in three-di&ensi!nal 'ers'ecti#e. 5ainters began t! #eer away "r!& religi! s the&esand "!c sed &!re !n 'e!'le and landsca'es. Le!nard! 6a 7inci$ Ra'haeland Michelangel! 4 !narr!ti were s!&e !" the &!st 'r!&inent Renaissance'ainters.

the disc!#ery and e%'l!rati!n !" new c!ntinents /C!l &b s &ade 2n!wnA&erica in 1*890

the s bstit ti!n !" the C!'ernican "!r the 5t!le&aic syste& !" astr!n!&y the decline !" the "e dal syste& and the gr!wth !" c!&&erce the in#enti!n !r a''licati!n !" s ch '!tentially '!wer" l inn!#ati!ns as

'a'er$ 'rinting$ the &ariner:s c!&'ass$ and g n'!wder.

- The Renaissance was the d! ble disc!#ery !" the ! ter and the inner w!rld "!r theh &anity$ the disc!#ery !" the w!rld and the disc!#ery !" &an.-The English Renaissance was in"l enced by the Italian indirectly$ thr! gh (rance$4 rg ndy$ and the Netherlands$ as well as directly.


2/18

9. THE NE3 M;NARCH< ;( THE T=6;RS

-the war !" the r!ses->sla ghtered &!re than hal" !" the n!ble "a&ilies-br! ght the

end !" an era-the T d!r &!narchy br! ght the re'lace&ent !" "e dal relati!ns with a str!ngessential /central0 a th!rity-be"!re$ the "e dal 2ing was st !ne !" the n!bles /the "irst a&!ng the e) als0 b td ring the Renaissance the 2ing is Re% I&'erat!r$ the d!&inant a th!rity-the great l!rds had t! l!se their '!wer "!r this t! ha''en-d e t! the l!ss !" '!wer !" the bar!ns$ Henry 7II $ the last Lancaster$ t!!2 thecr!wn and br! ght change ndis' ted a th!rity ran the c! ntry !n c!&'letelydi""erent "ashi!n ? change in the syste&- he will 2ee' the bar!ns away "r!& the'!wer-d ring the T d!r era the 5arlia&ent will c! nt #ery little$ is was wea2- he

s &&!ned 'arlia&ent !nly + ti&es d ring his reign$ r led !nly with the hel' !" hisc! cil/ s!ns !" b rgesses$ trained in ni#ersities0-the T d!rs were re&ar2ably s2illed &!narchs$ they 2new when t! st!' e#en t! ghthey wanted abs!l te '!wer-the reign !" the T d!rs was disting ished by c!nsiderable g!#ern&entalre!rganizati!n$ which strengthened the '!wer !" the &!narchy the rise !" Englandas a na#al '!wer and a c!rres'!nding gr!wth in the sense !" nati!nal 'ride- Henry 7II had n! standing ar&y- n!ble lines were "! nded$ n!t by warri!rs b t by the high " ncti!naries-d ring the renaissance 'eri!d -> &erit!cracy ar! nd the &!narch


3/18

@. L CAL INSTIT=TI;NS IN T=6;R EN,LAN6

-the T d!rs br! ght the re'lace&ent !" "e dal relati!ns with a central a th!ritybe"!re$ the "e dal 2ing was st !ne !" the n!bles d ring the Renaissance the 2ing isRe% I&'erat!r$ the d!&inant a th!rity- The T d!rs will g!#ern the c! ntry relying !n l!cal instit ti!ns which are#!l ntarily ad&inistered /n! centralized b rea cracy0$ the 'arish is the" nda&ental nit in T d!r !rganizati!n-England is a c! ntry !" 'arishes than r n the&sel#es ? traditi!n !" sel"-reliance-the T d!rs &ade se !" the @ new classes-

-the gentry /the "!r&er 2nights0- 'etty n!bles$ l!cal s) ires-the ye!&en /the bac2b!ne !" the English ar&ies0 ? the "ree &en-the &erchants

-e#ery 'arish had s!le res'!nsability "!r its '!!r /the 'e!'le had t! d!nate al&s "!rthe '!!r0-in e#ery 'arish there was the 'etty c!nstable -wh! was in charge with arresting andwhi''ing #agab!nds$ 'aci"ying brawlers$st!''ing illegal ga&es$ and c!&'ellingres'ect "!r the Bing:s 5eace./ellected "!r 1 year$ entirely res'!nsible "!r the 'arish0- citizens were &aintaing law and !rder by their !wn e""!rts /the rich were the

dges ? it w!r2ed they weren t 'aid "!r their w!r2 0- the s) ire had t! acce't the " ncti!n !" stice !" the 'eace/ch!sen by the 2ing - thelin2 between the 'arish and the c! nty$ the big land!wner$ highly res'ected0 anagent !" the central '!wer b t als! a l!cal '!wer inde'endent !" the g!#ern&ent-Henry 7II "!r&ed a 'rer!gati#e c! rt ! t !" his !wn c! cil$ the c! rt !" StarCha&ber$ where he br! ght any danger! s charges-he was s ''!rted by the s!cial classes$ s! that he c! ld chec2&ate the s r#i#ing'!wer !" the bar!ns

-d ring the T d!r era the 5arlia&ent will c! nt #ery little /Henry 7II s &&!ned'arlia&ent !nly + ti&es d ring his reign0$ is was wea2 ? the T d!rs werere&ar2ably s2illed &!narchs-the T d!rs will n!t ha#e an ar&y$ b t r led with an ir!n "ist- the stat s !" the n!bility changed$ b t they &anaged t! s r#i#e->they ne#erbeca&e an !bstacle t! de#el!'&ent and 'r!gress-2ing g!#erns with the hel' !" &inisters


4/18

*. HENR< 7III AN6 THE RELI,I;=S RE(;RM

-the re"!r&ati!n started when Martin L ther st c2 t! the d!!r !" a ch rch in3ittenberg the te%t !" the 8D theses against ind lgences / ;ct!ber 1D1+0 and hisideas s!!n s'read bey!nd ,er&any-> br! ght &any religi! s wars-L ther wanted t! end the c!rr 'ti!n !" the ch rch as the Christian Ch rch wasrich$ it c!ntr!lled 1 @ !" the wealth !" E r!'e$ s!ld ind lgences ? all sins were'ard!ned as l!ng as !ne c! ld 'ay -> he was 'set with the instit ti!ns !" thech rch-he started translating the bible in !rder t! get rid !" the 'riests-bringing the biblet! the 'e!'le

-Henry 7III did n!t agree with L ther s #iews and wr!te a re" tati!n which earnedhi& the 5a'al title !" 6e"ender !" (aith /1D910- The Re"!r&ati!n was established in England a"ter Bing Henry 7III declaredhi&sel" head !" the Christian Ch rch in that c! ntry.F> Many "act!rs c!ntrib tedt! the 'r!cess the decline !" "e dalis& and the rise !" nati!nalis&$ the rise !" thec!&&!n law$ the in#enti!n !" the 'rinting 'ress and increased circ lati!n !" the4ible$ the trans&issi!n !" new 2n!wledge and ideas a&!ng sch!lars and the ''erand &iddle classes.-Henry 7III wanted t! c!ntin e his dynasty s! he needed a s!n- 3hen the 5!'e re" sed t! grant Henry 7III a di#!rce "r!& Catherine !" Arag!n$Henry s'lit !"" the English Ch rch "r!& the R!&an ch rch$ &a2ing hi&sel" thehead !" the ch rch-he &arried Anne 4!leyn$ di#!rced Catherine and was e%c!&& nicated-he 2e't his bish!'s$ he 2e't the Cath!lic Ch rch b t with hi& as the head !" thech rch and n!t the '!'e$ sing English instead !" Latin

- in "i#e years: ti&e$ /between 1D@D and 1D* 0 the Dissolution of the Monasteries wascomplete - has been primarily concerned with matters of money and land, but it also sweptaway a huge and privileged clerical society.

-Henry br! ght the H! se !" L!rds t! 'ass the Si% Articles in 1D@8 -> The firstarticle expressed the doctrine of transubstantiation.


5/18

D. ELIGA4ETH I- =EEN ;( RENAISSANCE

-Elizabeth I was the ) intessencial &!narch !" the renaissance.-She was the da ghter !" Henry 7III and Anne 4!leyn-She had a great character and the wisd!& !" her "ather and grand"ather.- A tr e 'rincess !" the renaissance$ s'!2e &any lang ages$ nderst!!d the h &annat re$ well-read-d ring her reign the c! ntry 'r!s'ered and she led the "! ndati!ns !" the " t ree&'ire-as a ) een she was the abs!l te r ler$ gi"ted in the art !" c!&'r!&ise and

nderstanding what '!wer &eans and what sacri"ices are necessary-she 2new h!w t! 'lease her 'e!'le- Elizabeth had a geni s "!r s!#ereignty and an int iti#e sense which enabled the&generally t! "!retell the reacti!ns !" ' blic !'ini!n-she ch!se c! nsell!rs "!r intelligence rather than high birth /chie" c! sell!r3illia& Cecil0$ and &inisters "!r their ad&inistrati#e talents$ 'atri!tis& and a"eeling "!r State interests. /3illia& Sen!l ? c!&'etent0-she re" sed t! c!nsider &arriage$e#en th! gh she en !yed &en s "latteries /she hada 'hysical h!rr!r !" &arriage0-in religi!n as in '!litics she te&'!rized$ see2ing an a#erage in belie" and c lti#atingc!&'r!&ise /has a 'r!testant 'bringing0-early in her reign Cecil !bliged her t! re#ert t! the religi! s '!licy !" Henry 7III.-in 1DD8 5arlia&ent #!ted "!r a sec!nd ti&e an Act !" S 're&acy$ which ab!lishedthe 5a'al '!wer in England and an Act !" =ni"!r&ity which &ade the 4!!2 !"C!&&!n 5rayer !bligat!ry in all 'arishes-in 1D @ ca&e the ad!'ti!n !" the Thirty-Nine Articles$ which were t! re&ain the

basis !" Anglican belie" --the &!st i&'!rtant cha'ter d ring her reign the "!reign '!licy with the S'anishAr&ada de"eated d ring her reign-her relati!nshi' with Mary St art$ the een !" Sc!ts was c!&'le%$ as she wasc!nsidered illegiti&ate by Mary-wanting t! r le England$ Mary s bse) ently c!ns'ired against Elizabeth e#en withthe 5!'e$ being c!nnected with all c!s'iracies- in the 18 years s'ent in English ca'ti#ity$ Mary 'l!tted against Elizabeth againand again-as the ) esti!n !" s ccesi!n beca&e gra#er and the 5!'e and the Ch rch "!rg!twh! Mary was and b ilt h!'es !n her$ a s'y was sent t! lay a tra' "!r Mary$ int!

which she "ell c!&'letely$ a''r!#ing the & rder !" the ) een and e#en gi#ingad#ice$ this being the last straw-Mary was tried and nani&! sly "! nd g ilty. She was e%ec ted a"ter at lastElizabeth signed her death warrant


6/18

. ELIGA4ETH AN6 THE C;N(LICT 3ITH S5AIN

-there are &any ca ses "!r which S'ain w! ld attac2 England the 5r!testant Elizabeth I !" England had antag!nised the Cath!lics by

&a2ing attendance at Ch rch !" England ser#ices c!&' ls!ry andinstit ting i&'ris!n&ent "!r the saying !r attending !" Cath!lic Mass$ since5hili'' II was a str!ng cath!lic S'ain-de"ender !" the Cath!lic religi!n

the r!bbing !" S'anish treas re shi's "r!& the new w!rld !" English sail!rss ch as (rancis 6ra2e / S'ain had c!l!nies in New 3!rld0 ?'ri#ateering$

letters !" the &ar) ee &ade legal the 'irates ->the acti#ities !" English'ri#ateers !n the S'anish Main in the years leading ' t! the war had se#erelydented the S'anish treas ry. Elizabeth:s decisi!n t! sign a death warrant !" the Cath!lic Mary een ;"

Sc!ts

in 1DJD Elizabeth sent an ar&y t! hel' the 6 tch wh! "aced de"eat by theS'anish-there were the ti&es !" c!l!nizati!n->S'ain and 5!rt gal di#ided the w!rld->cath!lic rebelli!ns brea2s ! t in England->Elizabeth is e%c!&& nicated ->theH!ly 3ar begins

F> the war between England and S'ain beca&e ine#itable -> S'anish wanting t!rest!re Cath!licis& in England-5hili' !rdered a great Ar&ada t! be b ilt at Cadiz t! attac2 England.- in A'ril 1DJ+ 6ra2e b rned @+ S'anish shi's in harb! r at CKdiz.->des'ite theda&age$ 5hili':s Ar&ada was ready in 1DJJ- the "leet set sail n!t directly t! England b t H!lland t! ta2e &!re s!ldiers /de"eated

!n the way 0-Ar&ada c!&&anded by the 6 2e !" Medina-Sid!nia and the English "leet by L!rdH!ward !" E""ingha&$ wh! had Haw2ins$ 6ra2e$ (r!bisher nder his !rders with@* warshi's and 1D &erchant #essels-the S'anish "leet arri#ed !" 5ly&! th in a "!r&ati!n li2e that !" a land ar&y-the English !'ened "ire and the S'anich realised that the English g ns ! t-rangedtheirs-t! brea2 the acti!n Medina-Sid!nia laid c! rse "!r the L!w C! ntries/6 2e !"5ar&a0-n! e%cessi#e l!sses$ the battle was indecisi#e as the English "leet was sh!rt !"& niti!ns-the English a&irals es'ied the S' "leet at ach!r !"" Calais and attac2ed it with "ire-shi's "illed with '!wder and tar-the S'aniards had t! c t their cables t! esca'e and headed t!ward the N!rth Sea$where the English destr!yed &any #essels-d e t! a st!r& the S'anish "leet headed "!r Ireland$ in h!'e t! be able t! land andtryed t! r! nd the Nth !" Sc!tland -his #essels were n"it t! atte&'t this di""ic lt'assage


7/18

->dis!rder s!!n beca&e a disaster ->at the &ercy !" r!c2s and wa#es ? 9 @ #esselsl!stS'ain had l!st the &astery !" the seas- S'ain was still the str!ngest c! ntry !" e r!'e and England had n! ar&y-'hili' b ilt a new Ar&ada which s cces" lly in#aded Ireland

C!nse) ences- a t rning '!int in E r!'ean hist!ry-> the beginning !" the i&'erial 'eri!d inEngland-The de"eat !" the S'anish Ar&ada b!!sted the &!rale !" the English 'e!'le$strengthened the '!' larity !" Elizabeth I$ and enc! raged !ther 5r!testants"ighting Cath!lic "!rces in the Netherlands and (rance.

+. ELIGA4ETHAN C=LT=RE

-the c lt re was "l! rishing in the Elizabethan era-> nati!nal c lt re e&erged "!rthe "irst ti&e and its was 'r!"! ndly !riginal-> nati!nalis& e&erged /'atri!tic"eeling0- "r!& the E r!'ean Renaissance she e%tracted what s ited her geni s$ e%ce'ti!nal) ality$ Renaissance c lt re by e%cellence-it was an age !" nati!nal 'ride$ acti#is& $ enth sias& and di#ersity-it was an era !" n'recedented de#el!'&ents in ed cati!n / es'ecially in the5r!testant en#ir!n&ent0 -> sch!!ls "l! rished /l!nd!n sch!!l "! nded0 and newteaching &eth!ds "! nd e#en b!ys !" #ery '!!r "a&ilies were able t! attend sch!!li" they were n!t needed t! w!r2 at h!&e-there were &assi#e translati!n w!r2s /they translated a l!t "r!& classical a th!rs -great tragedies$ als! "r!& &!dern lang ages$ (rech$ Italian ? lang ages bec!&e

ca'able !" trans&itting new &eaning > c lt re bec!&es a c!&&!dity-English bec!&es a lang age !" c lt re- nder Elizabeth$ the theater is the center !" the c lt ral li"e / !'en-air 'layh! ses0->dra&a was the tele#isi!n !" th!se days ?e%celled- In the 1DJ s$ the writings !" the =ni#ersity 3its s ch as Christ!'her Marl!we$,reene$ !hn Lyly$ Byd$ and 5eele de"ined the L!nd!n theatre. Sha2es'eare ! tdidthe& all he c!&bined the best traits !" Elizabethan dra&a with classical s! rces$enriching the &i%t re with his i&aginati!n and wit.- Sha2es'eare was ni) e$ right &an !n the right ti&e$-tre&end! s di#ersity !" hisw!r2$ n!t !nly characters$ b t h &an beings--England 'r!d ced an art and literat re !" her !wn

-Sir Th!&as M!re$ great h &anist and a th!r !" the =t!'ia-based 'ri&arily!n w!r2s by classical a th!rs ->says that the w!rld can change /the 'er"ect s!ciety isscary in his #iew0

-'!etry "l! rished /!" i&&ense di#ersity s!nnets$ ballads0$ 'r!se / !hn Lyly ? writes E 'he s ?als! a 'laywriter0 -> it s all ab! t "!r&$ n!t ab! t the c!ntent/ sy&&etry$ balance$ alliterati!n0$ Christ!'her Marl!w / a tre&end! s 'ers!nality0$Sir 5hili' Sydney- c lt re is still an arist!cratic thing$ b t it bec!&es a c!&& nal "!r& !" art


8/18

J. ;LI7ER CR;M3ELL-;li#er Cr!&well was L!rd 5r!tect!r !" the re' blican C!&&!nwealth !" England$Sc!tland$ and Ireland /1 D@ ? DJ0

-he was elected t! 5arlia&ent in 1 9J$ b t Charles I diss!l#ed that 5arlia&ent in1 98 and did n!t call an!ther "!r 11 years.

-in 1 * Cr!&well was als! elected t! the Sh!rt and the L!ng 5arlia&ent . 3hendi""erences between Charles and 5arlia&ent er 'ted int! the English Ci#il 3ars $ /-the entire c!n"lict ar!se beca se !" the St art s inability t! c!&'r!&ise$ t! gi#e the5arlai&ent the ill si!n !" '!wer li2e the T d!rs0

-Cr!&well beca&e !ne !" the leading generals !n the 5arlia&entary side$ winning&any n!table #ict!ries$ incl ding the 4attles !" Marst!n M!!r and Naseby . He wasa&!ng th!se wh! br! ght the 2ing t! trial and signed his death warrant.

-he 'r!clai&s the c! ntry a C!&&!nwealth / lasts 11 years0 with the 5r!tect!rateas a g!#ern&ent ntil 1 .

-in 1 *8$ a"ter the 'r!cla&ati!n !" the re' blican C!&&!nwealth$ Cr!&wellattac2ed Ireland/ is es'ecially re&e&bered "!r the &assacre !" the r!yalist garris!nat 6r!gheda.0 He then initiated a '!licy !" syste&atic dis'!ssessi!n !" the Irish$trans"erring their lands t! 5r!testant 'r!'riet!rs.

-In 1 D he in#aded Sc!tland and r! ted the Sc!ttish r!yalists at 6 nbar later hede"eated the Sc!ts and Charles II hi&sel" at 3!rcester /1 D10 and le"t the rest !" thec!n) est !" Sc!tland t! ,en. ,e!rge M!nc2.

-Cr!&well$ n!w #irt al dictat!r !" the C!&&!nwealth /&ilitary dictat!rshi'0$

diss!l#ed the R &' 5arlia&ent in 1 D@ a"ter it had "ailed t! e""ect re"!r&sde&anded by the ar&y and als! it was nsatis"act!ry t! Cr!&well

- a gr! ' !" ar&y !""icers /s ch as Ma !r-,eneral La&bert0 then drew ' thec!nstit ti!nal d!c &ent 2n!wn as the Instr &ent !" ,!#ern&ent /1 D@0$ by whichCr!&well beca&e l!rd 'r!tect!r
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9/18

-the 5arlia&ent !" 1 D*$ which was elected nder the ter&s !" the sa&e d!c &ent$wanted t! 're'are a new c!nstit ti!n and was s!!n diss!l#ed.

-a"ter that Cr!&well res!rted t! !'en &ilitary g!#ern&ent$ di#iding England int!11 districts$ each ad&inistered by a &a !r-general.

-an!ther$ &!re a&enable / !bedient0 5arlia&ent was s &&!ned in 1 D $ and in1 D+ it 'resented t! Cr!&well a new c!nstit ti!n 2n!wn as the H &ble 5etiti!n andAd#ice and !""ered hi& the cr!wn.

-he declined the cr!wn b t acce'ted /with s!&e &!di"icati!ns0 the H &ble 5etiti!n$which " rther increased his '!wer and set ' a sec!nd legislati#e cha&ber.

-the sec!nd sessi!n !" this sa&e 5arlia&ent$ h!we#er$ challenged the newc!nstit ti!n$ and Cr!&well diss!l#ed it /1 DJ0 se#en &!nths be"!re his death.

-Cr!&well:s "!reign '!licy was g!#erned by the need t! e%'and English trade and're#ent the rest!rati!n !" the St arts. He als! laid "! ndati!ns "!r new ni#ersitiesand le"t the c! ntry in religi! s 'l ralis&

-Cr!&well died in 1 DJ and was s cceeded by his s!n$ Richard Cr!&well. Richardwas "!rced "r!& '!wer less than a year later$ and Charles II t!!2 the thr!ne$ret rning the sh!rt-li#ed c!&&!nwealth t! a &!narchy.


10/18

8. THE REST;RATI;N

-the Rest!rati!n was the reestablish&ent !" the &!narchy !n the accessi!n in 1!" Charles II a"ter the c!lla'se !" the C!&&!nwealth and the 5r!tect!rate-In England a str!ng reacti!n had set in against 5 ritan s 're&acy and &ilitaryc!ntr!l. And ' blic !'ini!n had already crystallized in "a#!r !" recalling the e%iled2ing.-M!nc2 recalled t! the R &' 5arlia&ent the &e&bers wh! had been e%cl ded by5ride:s 5 rge in 1 *J b t it #!ted its !wn diss!l ti!n.-The newly elected C!n#enti!n 5arlia&ent$ which &et in 1 $ was !'enly r!yalistin sy&'athy.-Charles II iss ed the d!c &ent 2n!wn as the 6eclarati!n !" 4reda$ 'r!&ising ana&nesty t! the "!r&er ene&ies !" the h! se !" St art and g aranteeing religi! st!lerati!n and 'ay&ent !" arrears in salary t! the ar&y.-h!we#er he all!wed 5arlia&ent t! nd! !ne !" the c!rnerst!nes !" his 6eclarati!n

!" 4reda$ the 'r!&ise t! 'h!ld religi! s "reed!&. The Ca#alier 5arlia&ent$ whichasse&bled in 1 1$ rest!red a &ilitant Anglicanis&. In 1 * all n!n-Anglicanreligi! s asse&blies were banned.-Charles and een Catherine were nable t! ha#e children th s s ccessi!n 'assedt! his br!ther a&es$ 6 2e !"

the T!ries.-Charles II died 1 JD and the thr!ne 'assed t! his br!ther. Sc!tland$ England$Ireland and 3ales were t! ha#e their "irst Cath!lic 2ing "!r 1@ years$ n!t li2ed bythe nati!n-An 'rising led by the d 2e !" M!n&! th was cr shed /1 JD0$ b t the se#erere'risals !" the 4l!!dy Assizes added t! the h!stility t!ward a&es.-the 2ing "a#!red a t!cratic &eth!ds$ 'r!r!g ing the h!stile 5arlia&ent /1 JD0$re#i#ing the !ld ecclesiastical c! rt !" high c!&&issi!n$ and inter"ering with the
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c! rts and with l!cal t!wn and c! nty g!#ern&ent. His 'rinci'al !b ect was t! "ill'!siti!ns !" a th!rity and in"l ence with R!&an Cath!lics he iss ed tw!declarati!ns !" ind lgence $ s s'ending the laws against Cath!lics and dissenters.-6e"iance and disli2e !" hi& grew$ "ed by the trial /1 JJ0 !" se#en bish!'s wh! hadre" sed t! read his sec!nd declarati!n in 1 JJ and Cath!lic 2ing had "ew l!yal

"!ll!wers being nable t! de"end hi&sel". He "led$ was ca't red$ b t was all!wed t!esca'e t! (rance$ and 3illia& and Mary t!!2 the thr!ne.

-in the rest!rati!n ti&e$ the establish&ent !" tw! '!litical 'arties t!!2 'lace-the T!ries /C!nser#ati#es0 ? s ''!rters !" the 2ing they re'resent the

high Ch rch !" England / Anglicans0 -> gentry$ n!ble "a&ilies-the 3higs ? were 'resbitarian the dissenters and the &ercantile classes$arrist!cratic "a&ilies which s ''!rted the 5arlia&ent

1 . THE ENLI,HTENMENT

- it is the age !" reas!n$ an intellect al$ 'hil!s!'hical$ c lt ral$ and s!cial&!#e&ent that s'read thr! gh England$ (rance$ ,er&any$ and !ther 'arts !"E r!'e d ring the 1+ s$ enabled by the scienti"ic re#!l ti!n

- 'e!'le begin t! c!nte&'late change /thr! gh reas!n0$ a new &entality bec!&esd!&inant man begins to use his reason to discover the world

-the &ain c!&'!nents are-The ni#erse is " nda&entally rati!nal$ that is$ it can be nderst!!dthr! gh the se !" reas!n al!ne

-Tr th can be arri#ed at thr! gh e&'irical !bser#ati!n$ the se !"reas!n$ and syste&atic d! bt-H &an e%'erience is the "! ndati!n !" h &an nderstanding !"

tr th a th!rity is n!t t! be 're"erred !#er e%'erience-H &an hist!ry is largely a hist!ry !" 'r!gress-H &an beings can be i&'r!#ed thr! gh ed cati!n and 2n!wledge-

the w!rld will change "!r the better-Religi! s d!ctrines ha#e n! 'lace in the nderstanding !" the

'hysical and h &an w!rlds

- there are intense ' blicistic acti#ities &eant t! enlighten 'eri!dical / Addis!nand Steel-"! nders and ' blishers !" 9 'eri!dicals$ The S'ectat!r and theTatler0-the establish&ent !" C!""eeh! ses /c lt ral instit ti!ns where the best &inds&eet and circ late0- s'ecies c lti#ated by the enlighten&ent -'!etry is still classical in "!r& andd!ctrine /Ale%ander 5!'e0 5r!se- 6aniel 6e"!e 1+18 R!bins!n Cr s!e


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-it is the ti&e when science really begins-> the tw! great inn!#ati!ns were thede#el!'&ent !" e&'irical th! ght / h &an !bser#ati!n -> reliable0 and the&echanistic w!rld #iew-the beginning !" the '!litical 'hil!s!'hy-there were &a !r thin2ers s ch as

- Ren 6escartes carthesian &eth!d a single$ech!ing tr th C!git!$ erg! s & $ I thin2$ there"!reI a& O- I" I want t! &a2e a state&ent I need t!gr! nd &y state&ent int! an abs!l te tr th de#el!'ed a ded cti#e a''r!ach t! 'hil!s!'hy sing&ath and l!gic

- L!c2e his Essay ta2es as its s b ect h &an'sych!l!gy and c!gniti!n $ the h &an &ind isc!&'letely e&'irical$ the !nly tr e 2n!wledge ise&'irical 2n!wledge-

- H!bbes regarded h &an s!cieties as ' rely&echanical syste&s set in &!ti!n by ! r a''etitesand desires

- All belie#ed that science c! ld e%'lain e#erything

-ed cati!n lea#es the ecclesiastical en#ir!n&ent$ the c!&&!ners had interest innews'a'er and ed cati!n-&any c lt ral 'r!d cts that re"lect the 'rinci'le !" the age

-, lli#er s Tra#els by . Swi"t &!c2s the ridic l! s s!cialc!n#enti!ns and the 'retence !" science The tr e &eas re !" a creat re is gi#en byits reas!n and n!t by its sha'e

-R!bins!n Cr s!e by 6aniel 6e"!e where ci#ilizati!n ischanging$ !rganising the en#ir!n&ent h &ans "ace$ thin2 and s!l#e 'r!ble&s-> 'r!gress by teaching the &an (riday ?R!bins!ns enlightens hi&$ ses his'!tential


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11. THE L;SS ;( THE AMERICAN C;L;NIES

-the t rning '!int in the relati!nshi' between 4ritain and the N!rth A&ericanc!l!nies was the year 1+ @. ;n 1 (ebr ary 1+ @$ 4ritain signed the Treaty !" 5arisa"ter ha#ing w!n the Se#en


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-alth! gh the 4ritish tr!!'s were &!re de#el!'ed and larger than the c!l!nialtr!!'s$ 4ritain had &any "act!rs w!r2ing against her it had n!t been l!ng since the(rench and Indian war$ 4ritain still had a hea#y nati!nal debt t! 'ay$ the 4ritishwere "ighting !n c!l!nial gr! nd$ which &eant the c!l!nists were able t! strategize&!re easily and swi"tly$ were &!re "a&iliar with the terrain$ and had &!re tr!!'s

readily a#ailable.

-the A&erican Re#!l ti!nary 3ar !""icially ended in 1+J@ with the signing !" theTreaty !" 5aris by England a2n!wledged the inde'endence !" the =nited States

C!nse) ences-l!sing A&erica had ad#antages "!r England$ as the #!l &e !" ec!n!&ic e%changesincreases- 4ritain shi"ted its attenti!n away "r!& the A&ericas t! Asia$ the 5aci"ic and laterA"rica.-India beca&e the &ain trading 'artner with the 4ritish E&'ire which 'r!#ed t! be

"a#!rable "!r b!th c! ntries

19. RE7;L=TI;N IN A,RIC=LT=RE AN6 IN6=STRres lted in a greater cr!'$ "ields easier t! weed-the land had been all!wed t! rest e#ery three years in the "irst r!!t cr!'s IIani&al "!!d and in the III wheat -> th s "ar&ers c! ld 'r!d ce &!re-gr!wing ani&al "!!d &eant than ani&als c! ld be 2e't "!r winter-new &eth!ds res lted in &!re "!!d-> the '!' lati!n started t! gr!w$ the "!!d'r!d cti!n was &!re e""icient !ne c! d gr!w wheat al&!st e#erywhere-b t 4ritain c! ld n!t l!nger "eed itsel" by the end !" the cent ry-s!cial c!nse) ences-> the encl!s res were da&aging landless class-> s!&e were

able t! w!r2 with the new "ar&ing class$ s!&e n!t-a"ter years !" har#est-ca&e a shar' increase in wheat 'rices$ !ther 'e!'le le"t the#illage$ &!#ed t! t!wns t! "ind w!r2 Ind stry-the landless w!r2ers beca&e w!r2ers wh! &ade 'r!d cts s ch as cl!thing$ "!!dand !ther g!!ds-in the early 18th cent ry$ si&'le &achines were in#ented "!r basic !bs ->&ass-'r!d cti!n


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-each &achine in#!l#ed !ne si&'le 'r!cess-> di#isi!n !" lab! r a&!ngst w!r2ers-was an i&'!rtant 'art !" the ind strial re#!l ti!n-4ritain beca&e the leading ir!n 'r!d cer in E r!'e-> increased ir!n 'r!d cti!n->new &achinery a''ears "!r !ther ind stries c!tt!n$ w!llen cl!th->basic &aterials !" the ind strial re#!l ti!n$ '!' lar abr!ad

-new &achinery t! re'lace hardw!r2 -in 1+ * the s'inning &achine was in#ented and the '!wer &achine "!r wea#ing in1+JD$ than2s t! which 4ritain c! ld &a2e cl!th chea'ely than elsewhere the&achineries ' t 'e!'le ! t !" w!r2 -s!cial e""ects !" the ind strial re#!l ti!n

-w!r2ers had t! 'r!tect the&sel#es against '!wer" l e&'l!yers-they wanted "air wages$ res!nable w!r2ing c!nditi!ns-ri!ts !c rred-> the &achines re'laced h &an lab! r

-=rban de#el!'&ent-li#ing c!nditi!ns in the city were a''aling-e""!rts were &ade t! &a2e t!wn healthier

- streets were b ilt wider-in 1+@* L!nd!n had street "ighting syste&-a ti&e !" scienti"ic brea2thr! gh- a&es 3att in#ented the stea& engine in 1+ 8$ 3illia&s!n i&'r!#ed it-in 1+J1-> 3att 'r!d ced an engine with a t rning &!ti!n &ade !" ir!n and steel-in 1+ * - the in#enti!n !" the s'inning &achine-c!al was sed "!r changing ir!n !re int! ir!n-the de&and "!r c!al grew ) ic2ly-there were i&'r!#e&ents in trans'!rt s ch as new waterways between t!wn-the r!ads were i&'r!#ed-ra'id r!ad tra#el chea' trans'!rt by canal -> br! ght ec!n!&ic s ccess !" theind strial re#!l ti!n- the L ddites -re'resented a s!cial &!#e&ents !" 4ritish te%tile -> they s&ashed the&achines beca se they were re'lacing h &an lab! r-they "elt that the Ind strial Re#!l ti!n was lea#ing the& with! t w!r2 and als!changing the way !" li"e-there were ri!ts als! d e t! degrading w!r2ing c!nditi!ns in te%tile "act!ries-wide-"ra&ed a t!&ated l!!&s were intr!d ced$ they c! ld be !'erated by chea'$

ns2illed lab! r$ res lting in the l!ss !" !bs "!r &any s2illed w!r2ers-&eas res were ta2en a &ass trial in 1J19->e%ec ti!ns$ 'enal trans'!rtati!ns


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1@. 5;LITICAL RE(;RM IN 7ICT;RIANEN,LAN6

-4ritain in the 18th cent ry was a highly '!wer" l nati!n$ h!we#er the early 18thcent ry was an era !" '!litical and s!cial nrest in 4ritain.-by the end !" the cent ry &!st &en had right t! #!te-4ritain en !yed a str!ng 'lace in the E r!'ean C! ncil a"ter the de"eat !"Na'!le!n and wanted balance !" '!wer$ "ree &ar2et and a str!ng trading '!siti!n-the Na'!le!nic 3ars- t rned the nati!n "r!& th! ghts !" re#!l ti!n t! the need t!de"eat the (rench$ 'e!'le were nha''y$ 'rices d! bled$ h nger$ ri!ts$ "ear "!r the

'!!r-the 3higs nderst!!d the need t! re"!r& the law in !rder t! i&'r!#e the s!cialc!nditi!ns-they wanted a change t! a#!id re#!l ti!n-the 3higs w!n the electi!ns-> 3hig g!#er&ent t!!2 charge ->in 1J@9- The 1stRe"!r& 4ill is 'assed-it eli&inated the r!tten b!r! ghs-> 'arlia&entary c!nstit encies that had the rightt! elect &e&bers !" the H! se !" C!&&!ns nder the c!ntr!l !" !ne &an b t with#ery "ew #!ters c!ntr!lled seats in the H! se !" C!&&!ns-e%tended the right t! #!te t! any &an !wning a h! seh!ld w!rth Q1-be"!re the re"!r&$ 1* seats ! t !" DJ were in r!tten b!r! ghs-> there'resentati!n in 5arlia&ent was ridistrib ted t! new &a !r '!' lati!n centres andt! 'laces with signi"icant ind stries-it redesigned English c!nstit ancy->it l!wers the le#el !" inc!&e$ rent->"ew "ar&ersre&ained-ad!'ti!n !" &any interesting laws the '!litical e&anci'ati!n-> the Act !"E&anci'ati!n - Cath!lics w! ld be elected in the H! se !" C!&&!ns - 1J98 -&ainly rich-the i&'!rts ha#e t! be ta%ed->'r!tecti!nis&->the ti&e was !ne !" !'ti&is&-the '!litical re"!r&s c!ntin ed- h!we#er the w!r2ing class were e%cl ded "r!& the re"!r&s "r!& 1J@J a w!r2ingclass 'r!test &!#e&ent called the Chartists was "!r&ed.-& ch greater changes were br! ght ab! t by later re"!r& acts-the 9nd Re"!r& -> 1J + -at the initiati#e !" a T!ry g!#ern&ent-> 4en a&in6israeli/ great wits$ h ge achie#e&ents0-ind strial w!r2ers were gi#en the right t! #!te-c!nsiderable achie#e&ents-they t rned 4ritain int! the greatest E&'ire !" that ti&e-the L!rds re ected the Re"!r& 4ill-> ' blic #i!lence


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-the 4all!t Act "r!& 1J+9 intr!d ces the secret ball!t /secret #!te0$ 'r!#!2es a greatdeal !" 'arlia&entary !''!siti!n.-it t!!2 s!&e ti&e ntil it was acce'ted- the @rd Re"!r& 4ill 1JJ* ->ga#e t! &!st agric lt ral lab! rers the right t! #!te

-w!&en weren t granted #!ting rights ntil the Act !" 181J$ which ga#e rights t! all

&en !#er 91 and w!&en !#er @ . This discri&inati!n was eli&inated in 189J by theE) al (ranchise Act which granted the right t! #!te t! all ad lt w!&en.-Ed cati!n in nineteenth-cent ry England was n!t e) al - n!t between the se%es$and n!t between the classes.-legislati!n t! reg late w!r2ing c!nditi!ns$ li&its the h! rs "!r children andad!lencents ? &ines$ "act!ries "!r w!&en- ntil 1899 'arents c! ld withdraw their children "r!& sch!!l at age 19 i" theyneeded inc!&e "r!& their w!r2.

1*. 4RITAIN IN THE 3;RL6 3AR I

-the (irst 3!rld 3ar was a gl!bal &ilitary c!n"lict which in#!l#ed the &a !rity !"the w!rld:s great '!wers$ !rganized int! tw! !''!sing &ilitary alliances theEntente 5!wers /4ritain$ (rance and R ssia0 and the Central 5!wers / ,er&any$A stria-H ngary$ 4 lgary$ and the ;tt!&an E&'ire0.-!#er + &illi!n &ilitary 'ers!nnel were &!bilized in !ne !" the largest wars inhist!ry. ;#er 1D &illi!n 'e!'le were 2illed$ &a2ing it !ne !" the deadliest c!n"licts

in h &an hist!ry as ne#er seen be"!re-the &ain 'rete%t "!r the war was the 9J ne 181* assassinati!n !" Archd 2e (ranz(erdinand !" A stria$ heir t! the A str!-H ngarian thr!ne$ by a 4!snian-Serbnati!nalist.-A stria -H ngary:s res lting de&ands against the Bingd!& !" Serbia led t! theacti#ati!n !" a series !" alliances which within wee2s saw all !" the &a !r E r!'ean'!wers at war. 4eca se !" the gl!bal e&'ires !" &any E r!'ean nati!ns$ the wars!!n s'read w!rldwide. In early A'ril$ the =nited States$ angered by attac2s '!nits shi's in the Atlantic / the attac2s at 5earl Harb! r0$ declared war !n ,er&any.- 4y the war:s end$ "! r &a !r i&'erial '!wers - ,er&any$ R ssia$ A stria-H ngary$ and the ;tt!&an E&'ire - had been &ilitarily and '!litically de"eated.

-The re#!l ti!nized S!#iet =ni!n e&erged "r!& the R ssian E&'ire$ while the &a'!" central E r!'e was c!&'letely redrawn int! n &er! s s&aller states. TheLeag e !" Nati!ns was "!r&ed in the h!'e !" 're#enting an!ther s ch c!n"lict.-The E r!'ean nati!nalis& generated by the war$ the re'erc ssi!ns !" ,er&any:sde"eat$ and the nwise Treaty !" 7ersailles w! ld e#ent ally lead t! the beginning !"3!rld 3ar II in 18@8.


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