syntax lecture 13: revision. lecture 1: x-bar theory x-bar rules for introducing: – complement (x...

Syntax

Lecture 13:Revision

Lecture 1: X-bar Theory

• X-bar rules for introducing:– Complement

• (X1 X0 Y2)

– Specifier• (X2 Y2 X1)

– Adjunct• (Xn Xn, Ym)

if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise



• (X’ X YP)

– Specifier• (XP YP X’)


if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise



• (X’ X YP)



if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Adjunction to XP: adjunct = YP (Y2)



• (X’ X YP)



if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Adjunction to X’: adjunct = YP



• (X’ X YP)



if n = 0, m = 0; 2 otherwise Adjunction to X: adjunct = Y


• DP analysis: an example– Determiner is the head of

the nominal phrase– NP is complement– Possessor is specifier

Lecture 1: X-bar theory

1) A: the sister of the head is the specifierB: the mother of the head is X’

a A is true and B is falseb A is false and B is truec A and B are falsed A and B are true

Lecture 2: Categories and Subcategorisation

• Binary features– [±F] functional vs. thematic– [±N] nounlike vs. not nounlike– [±V] verblike vs. not verblike


• [-F] categories– [+N, -V] noun N– [-N, +V] verb V– [+N, +V] adjective/adverb A– [-N, -V] preposition P

• [+F] categories– [+N, -V] determiner D– [-N, +V] inflection I– [+N, +V] degree adverb Deg– [-N, -V] complementiser C


• Subcategories of [-F] categories determine what arguments a head selects– DP, PP, CP, , etc.– E.g.

• write [DP a letter]

• smile• fact [CP that the world is round]

• out [PP from the cupboard]

• certain [CP that I am right]


• All [+F] categories have only one type of complement:– D – NP– I – VP– C – IP– Deg – AP


2) Which categories are [+N, +V]?a Nouns and adjectives/adverbsb Nouns and determinersc Adjectives/adverbs and prepositionsd Adjectives/adverbs and degree adverbs

Lecture 3: The Subject

• The subject is odd– It can be an argument of the

verb• But it isn’t in the VP

– It can be meaningless– It can be underlyingly empty

and moved into• E.g. passive


• We also find VPs with subjects– He made [VP the ice melt]

• So there are two subject positions – but only one subject


• Solution– Subject originates inside VP

• D-structure

– Moves to specifier of IP• S-structure


3) What is in the specifier of an active IP at S-structure

a Nothingb The subjectc The objectd The VP

Lecture 4: The complementiser system

• The complementiser heads a CP– Different forces

• Declarative (that/for)• Interrogative (if)

• The IP is its complement– Different complements

• Finite (that/if)• Infinitive (for)

• Wh-phrases move to its specifier

Lecture 4: The complementiser system

4) What is the complementiser of the underlined CP in the following?

I wonder [CP whether he knows]

a A phonologically empty complementiserb There is no complementiserc Whetherd If

Lecture 5:Wh-movement

• Wh-phrases move for semantic reasons– A CP with a wh-phrase in spec is interrogative– A CP without a wh-phrase in spec (and no

interrogative head) is declarative• But not all wh-clauses are interrogative

– Relative clauses involve wh-movement– The relative wh-phrase moves to enable to clause

to be interpreted as a modifier– So, all wh-movement is semantically motivated


• Restrictive relative clauses– Wh-relative

• The man [CP who you dislike]– that-relative

• The man [CP that you dislike]– zero relative

• The man [CP you dislike]– All involve wh-movement

• The wh-phrase is covert in that and zero relatives


5) What is in the specifier of CP of a restrictive relative clause which is introduced by an overt complementiser?

a Nothingb An overt wh-phrasec A covert wh-phrased that

Lecture 6: non-finite clause subjects

• There are two types of infinitival clause which appear to lack a subject– John seems [ -- to be rich]– John wants [ -- to be rich]

• They look the same, but they are not.


• Raising verbs– lack their own

subjects – can take infinitival

complements, – the subject moves

to the subject of the raising verb


• Control verbs– have their own

subjects – can take infinitival

complements, – the subject is a

covert pronoun which refers to the subject of the control verb


6) In the following structure, if V is a control verb, what will be in ‘—’ at S-structure?

[ – may V [ John is rich]]a A meaningless element (it)b Johnc PROd The verb’s own subject argument

Lecture 7: Verb positions• They are in V when

– I is a free morpheme– I is a bound morpheme, but the verb cannot move

• In negative contexts• In inversion contexts where the subject stays in spec IP

• They are in I when– I is a bound morpheme and the verb can move

• They are in C when– I is a bound morpheme– I to C movement (inversion) is necessary– The subject moves to spec CP

Lecture 7: Verb positions

• When a verb moves to support a bound morpheme, it adjoins to the morpheme

Lecture 7: Verb positions

7) In a main clause with the following D-structure, what will be in C at S-structure?

[CP - [IP -- -ed [VP John see who]]]

a didb sawc thatd who

Lecture 8: Verb types 1

• Causatives– They made the ice melt

• Overt free causative verb• Lexical verb does not move

– They melted the ice• Covert bound causative verb• lexical verb moves to support it

Lecture 8: Verb types 1• Transitives

– John may throw Bill• Theme is specifier of throw• Agent is specifier of covert bound agentive verb (= do)• Lexical verb moves to support agentive verb• Agent moves to subject position

• Passives– Bill may be thrown

• Theme is specifier of throw• Passive morpheme replaces agentive verb, so no agent• Lexical verb moves to support passive morpheme• Theme moves to subject position

Lecture 8: Verb types 1

8) In which of the following sentences is there a covert verb bound by the lexical verb?

a He was killedb They made him walkc I saved himd The ice melted

Lecture 9: verb types 2

• Unergative verbs– Take cognate objects– Can’t appear in there and

locative inversion constructions

– Have an agent argument


• Unaccusative verbs– Can’t take a cognate object– Can appear in there and

locative inversion structures– Have a theme argument


9) If V is an unaccusative verb, which of the following sentences will be ungrammatical?

a He V-ed a cunning Vb There V-ed a letterc In the post V-ed a letterd The letter V-ed

Lecture 10: auxiliary verbs

• The aspectual morphemes (-ing, -en) are heads of VPs

• Main verbs can support only one overt bound morpheme

• All other morphemes have to be supported by a dummy auxiliary (do, have and be)– Do is used when the following verbal head is a

thematic verb– Have is used when the following head is perfect (-en)– Be is used in all other cases

Lecture 10: auxiliary verbs

10) In a sentence containing the following sequence of bound morphemes, which one will be supported by be?

tense – perfect - progressivea Tenseb Perfectc Progressived None of them

Lecture 11: the DP

• Empty determiners with proper nouns and bare plurals– [DP John], [DP men]

• Post determiners are APs in specifier of NP– [DP the [NP [AP very few] complaints]

• Pre-determiners are determiners preceding an abstract ‘group noun’ for which of does not have to appear– [DP all [NP members of [DP the committee]]]– [DP all [NP (of) [DP the crowd]]]

Lecture 11: the DP

11) Which of the following DPs does not involve an abstract group noun?

a Very few of the menb Both the menc All mend Some of the men

Lecture 12: adjectival phrases• Adjectival phrases are headed by a degree adverb

(so they are DegPs)• DegPs have measure phrases in their specifiers

and APs in their complements– [DegP [two sandwiches] [Deg’ too [AP short of a picnic]]]

• APs have extent phrases (very) in their specifiers and PPs, CPs or nothing in their complements– So [AP very [A’ small [PP for a giant]]]

• Deg can be free (too, as, so, etc.) or bound (-er, -est)– In the latter case the adjective moves to bind the Deg

Lecture 12: adjectival phrases

12) In which of the following DegPs is the specifier of AP filled?

a really very funnyb almost too widec so brightd better than the rest

Answers

• 1 = b• 2 = d• 3 = b• 4 = a• 5 = c• 6 = d

• 7 = a• 8 = c• 9 = a• 10 = b• 11 = c• 12 = a

• 0-6 = 1

• 7 =2

• 8 =3

• 9-10 =4

• 11-12 =5

syntax lecture 13: revision. lecture 1: x-bar theory x-bar rules for introducing: – complement (x...

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