Tabel 2.1 Tarkvõrgu ühtsesse loogilisse struktuuri kuuluvate teoliste kirjeldused

Teolise number

Valdus Teoline Lühend Kirjeldus

1. Elektri suurtootmine

Elektrijaama juhtimissüsteem - hajusjuhtimissüsteem

DCS Elektri suurtootmisjaama kohtjuhtimissüsteem. Vahel nimetatakse seda ka hajusjuhtimissüsteemiks (Distributed Control System, DCS).

2. Klient Klient Olem, mis maksab elektriliste kaupade või teenuste eest. Teenindusettevõtte kliendid sh need kliendid, kes toodavad rohkem elektrit kui tarbivad.

3. Klient Kliendi elektripaigaldised ja seadmed

Kodumajapidamises määratud funktsiooni täitev elektriline seade või aparaat nagu nt röster. Elektripaigaldis või elektriline masin või, mida saab jälgida ja juhtida ning mille talitlusandmeid saab edastada ja kuvada.

4. Klient Kliendi hajaenergia ressursid: generaatorid ja salvestid

DER Koduvaldusvõrgu või büroovaldusvõrgu (HAN/BAN) kontrolleri kliendipoolse liidesega ühendatud elektri hajatootmise nagu tuule- ja päike jaamade ressursid, mida kasutatakse tarkvõrgus elektri genereerimiseks ja salvestamiseks.

5. Klient Kliendi energiahaldus-süsteem

EMS Rakenduslik teenindusüksus, mis on andmevahetuses kliendi kodumasinate, elektripaigaldiste ja seadmetega. Rakenduslikul teenindusüksusel võivad olla liidesed mõõteriistade, andmekogumis- ja esitlusseadmetega või liides andmesideks talitlusvaldusega, et saada hinna- vm infot, ning automaatse või käsijuhtimise abil tõhusamalt juhtida energiatarbimist. Energiahaldussüsteem võib olla teenindusettevõtte poolt tellitav teenus, kliendi poolt koostatud rakendusprogramm või käsijuhtimine mida teostab teenindusettevõte või klient.

6. Klient Elektersõiduki teenindatav element Võrkulülitatav elektersõiduk

EVSE/ PEV

Elektersõidukit võib käitada üksnes elektrimootor mida toidetakse korduvalt laetavast akumulaatorist. Akut võidakse laadida võrku lülitatavast toiteseadmest või sisepõlemismootoriga käivitatavast elektrigeneraatorist.

1

2

Teolise number

Valdus Teoline Lühend Kirjeldus

7. Klient Energiateenuste liides/ Koduvalduse andmelüüs

HAN Jaotusvalduse, talitlusvalduse ja kliendivalduste vaheline ning kliendivalduses olevate seadmete vaheline liides.

8. Klient Mõõteriist Teenindusettevõtte omanduses olev liitumispunkti paigutatud seade, mille kaudu edastatakse, mõõdetakse ja müüakse energiat ühest valdusest teise.

9. Klient Kliendivalduse (kinnistu) andmekuvar

Seade mis võimaldab kliendil kodus või ärihoones vaadata oma energiatarbimist ja hindu.

10. Klient Allmõõteriist - Arvesti EUMD Müügiarvesti järele ühendatud arvesti, mida üldjuhul kasutatakse teavitamise eesmärgil.

11. Klient

Liitumispunkti vee- või gaasiarvesti

Teenindusettevõtte omanduses olev liitumispunkti paigutatud seade, millega edastatakse, mõõdetakse ja müüakse vett või gaasi ühest valdusest teise.

12. Jaotusvaldus Jaotusandmete koguja Paljudest andmeallikatest kogutud andmete koondaja ning jaotaja erinevatesse andmeesitusvormidesse (different form factors).

13. Jaotusvaldus Hajutatud tehisintellekti võimalused

Tsentraliseeritud juhtimissüsteemi töökindluse ja tundlikkuse (responsiveness) suurendamiseks ette nähtud nüüdisautomaatika hajutatud tehisintellektil põhinev rakendus.

14. Jaotusvaldus Jaotusvalduse juhtimisvälja seadmed

Laias juhtimis-, talitlus-, mõõteparameetrite vahemikus toimivad multifunktsionaalsed paigaldised, mis võimaldavad teenindusettevõtte töötajail plaanida ja koostada süsteemi talitluse aruandeid.

15. Jaotusvaldus Jaotusvõrgu kaugterminal või Intelligentne elektronseade

RTU või IED

Andmete vastuvõtmine anduritelt ja energeetilistelt seadmetelt ning juhtimis-käskude väljastamine, nt kaitselülitite (võimsuslülitite) vabastite rakendamiseks, juhul kui tuvastatakse pinge, voolu või sageduse anomaalia või pinge suurendamine (vähendamine) selleks, et säilitada pinge soovitud tase.

16. Jaotusvaldus Välitööriistad Field Crew Tools

Tehniline või hooldusotstarbeline mobiilne tööriistakomplekt, mis sisaldab suvalist mobiilset arvutit ja käsitööriista.

Teolise number

Valdus Teoline Lühend Kirjeldus

17. Jaotusvaldus Territoriaalne (geograafiline) infosüsteem

GIS Hajutatud investeeringute haldussüsteem, mis tagab teenindusettevõttele info investeeringutest ja võrgu ühendusvõimalustest uute rakenduste jaoks.

18. Jaotusvaldus Jaotusandur Seade, mis mõõdab füüsikalisi suurusi ja muundab neid signaaliks, mida saab lugeda inimene või mõõteriist.

19. Turuvaldus Energiaturu arvelduskeskus (Clearinghouse)

Territoriaalne turuoperatsioonisüsteem, mis annab kõrgtasemel turusignaale jaotusvalduse firmadele (ISO/RTO ja teenindusoperatsioonid). Märkus: Finantssüsteemi juhtimine ei kuulu SCADA süsteemi ülesannete hulka.

20. Turuvaldus Sõltumatu süsteemioperaator võihulgimüügituru regionaalne edastusorganisatsioon

ISO/RTO Sõltumatu süsteemioperaatori või regionaalse edastusoperaatori (ISO/RTO) poolt juhitav keskus, mis osaleb turul kuid ise turgu ei käivita. Electric Power Supply Association, EPSA veebilehelt: “Elektri hulgimüügiturg on avatud kõigile, kes pärast vastavate tagatiste andmist ja heakskiitu suudavad genereerida elektrit võrku ning kes leiavad sellele ka ostja. Nendeks on omavahel võistlevad elektritootjad ning turustajad, kes on ühinenud teenindusettevõttega, sõltumatud elektritootjad (independent power producers, IPP), kes pole ühinenud teenindusettevõttega kui ka muud elektri kogused, mida müüvad traditsioonilised vertikaalselt integreeritud teenindus-ettevõtted. Kõik need turuosalised võistlevad omavahel hulgimüügiturul.”

21. Talitlusvaldus Advanced Metering Infrastructure Headend

AMI Süsteem haldab infovahetust kolmanda osapoole süsteemide või niisuguste süsteemide vahel, mis ei loeta esmatähtsateks (headend), nagu MDMS süsteem ja AMI andmevõrk.

22. Talitlusvaldus Suurtootmissalvesti haldamine

Suurtootmissüsteemi lülitatud energiasalvesti

23. Talitlusvaldus Kliendi infosüsteem CIS Ettevõttelaiune tarkvararakendus, mis võimaldab firmal hallata oma suhtlemist klientidega.

3

4

Teolise number

Valdus Teoline Lühend Kirjeldus

24. Talitlusvaldus Klienditeeninduse esindaja

CSR Klienditeenindust esindav isik (nt müügi- või teenindusesindaja), või iseteeninduseks nimetatav automaatseade (programm), nt interaktiivne automaatvastaja (Interactive Voice Response, IVR).

25. Talitlusvaldus Elektri hajatootmise ja salvestamise haldamine

Elektri hajatootmine, mida mõnikord nimetatakse ka kohalikuks, detsentraliseeritud, jaotatud, tarbijaga integreeritud (lõimitud), või väiketootmiseks, toodetud elektrit aga detsentraliseeritud või hajaelektriks (-energiaks), genereerib või salvestab elektrit paljudes väikese võimsusega seadmetes või süsteemides.

26. Talitlusvaldus Jaotusvalduse insenerikeskus

Jaotussüsteemi ehitamise ja laiendamise plaanimise ja haldamisega seotud tehniliste ülesannete täitmine. Näiteks, uute klientide ja täiendava koormuse lisandumisel on süsteemi töökindluse tagamiseks vaja ka jaotussüsteemi täiustada ning hankida uusi investeeringuid.

27. Talitlusvaldus Jaotushaldus-süsteem

DMS Elektrisüsteemi operatsioone toetav rakendustarkvarapakett. Näidisrakenduste hulka kuuluvad topoloogiaprotsessor (topology processor), kolmefaasilise mittesümmeetrilise energiavoo sidushaldus (on-line three-phase unbalanced distribution power flow), häiringute analüüs (contingency analysis), iseõppimismooduses analüüs (study mode analysis), lülitusjärjekorra haldamine (switch order management), lühiste analüüs (short-circuit analysis), pinge või reaktiivvõimsuse halamine (volt/VAR management) ning kadude analüüs (loss analysis). Need rakendused annavad talitlusvalduse operatsiooni- ja insenerpersonalile lisainformatsiooni ja on töövahendiks seatud eesmärkide täitmiseks.

28. Talitlusvaldus Jaotusoperaator Isik, kes juhib jaotusvõrgu talitlust 29. Talitlusvaldus Jaotusvõrgu

talitlusjärelevalve, juhtimine ja andmehõive

SCADA Jaotusvõrgu SCADA süsteem salvestab andmebaasi infot võrguseadmete, jaotusfiidrite parameetrite, toitealajaamade liitepunktide (bulk supply interface points), ja klientide mõõtepunktide kohta.

Teolise number

Valdus Teoline Lühend Kirjeldus

30. Talitlusvaldus Energiahaldus-süsteem

EMS Arvutipõhiste tööriistade süsteem, mida elektrivõrkude operaatorid kasutavad elektri genereerimis- või edastussüsteemi tehniliste omaduste jälgimiseks juhtimiseks ja optimeerimiseks. Jälgimis- ja juhtimisfunktsioone tuntakse nimetuse SCADA all; optimeerimistarkvara nimetatakse ka täiustatud rakenduseks. (Märkus: gaasi- või veevarustust võib vaadelda energiahaldussüsteemiga (EMS) koos või eraldi.)

31. Talitlusvaldus ISO/RTO operatsioonid

Geograafiliselt ulatusliku elektrisüsteemi juhtimiskeskus, mis teostab edastusvõrkude (transmission grid) koormuse juhtimise ja varustuskindluse kõrgtasemel analüüsi, kasutades tavaliselt energiahaldamissüsteemi (Energy Management System, EMS) koos elektri genereerimise ja võrguanalüüsi rakendustega.

32. Talitlusvaldus Koormushaldus-süsteemid / Nõudluskaja haldussüsteem

LMS / DRMS

Koormushaldussüsteem (Load Management System, LMS) väljastab koormushalduskäsklusi kliendivalduse paigaldistele ja seadmetele selleks, et vähendada koormust tippkoormuse või hädaolukorra puhul. Nõudluskaja haldussüsteem (Demand Response Management System, DRMS) väljastab kliendivalduse paigaldistele ja seadmetele hinna või muid signaale selleks, et kliendi (või tema eelprogrammeeritud süsteemi) nõudluse kohaselt vähendada või suurendada koormust vastavalt nendele signaalidele.

33. Talitlusvaldus Mõõteandmete haldussüsteem

MDMS Mõõteandmete haldussüsteem (Measurement Data Management System, MDMS) salvestab mõõteriistade näitude andmed (nt energiatarbe, genereeritava energia, mõõteriistade logi, mõõteriistade testimistulemused) ning muudab need andmed pädevatele süsteemidele (authorized systems) kättesaadavaks. See süsteem on osa kliendi andmesidesüsteemist. Seda süsteemi komponenti võib nimetada ka arvestusmõõdikuks (billing meter).

34. Talitlusvaldus Metering/Billing /Utility Back Office

Mõõtmisteks ja arveldusteks mõeldud teenindussüsteemide Back office utility systems.

35. Talitlusvaldus Operaatorikuvar (operator displays)

Talitlussüsteemi inimese-masina liides (human machine interface, HMI)

5

6

Teolise number

Valdus Teoline Lühend Kirjeldus

36. Talitlusvaldus Talitlusrikete tõrgetehaldussüsteem Talitluskõlbmatuse haldussüsteem Outage Management System

OMS Talitlusrikete (tõrgete) haldussüsteem (OMS) on elektri jaotussüsteemi operaatori poolt kasutatav arvutisüsteem selleks, et abistada operaatorit talitlusrikke tuvastamisel ning süsteemi töövõime taastamisel. Tavaliselt on OMS peamised funktsioonid: • Kõikide talitlustõrgetega klientide loendi koostamine. • Talitlusrikke tulemusena rakendunud sulavkaitse või kaitselüliti asukoha

ennustamine. • Energiavarustuse taastamisega seotud jõupingutuste ja haldusressursside

eelisreastamine, mis põhineb niisugustel kriteeriumitel nagu rikete ulatusel ja kestusel ning hädaabinõude (emergency facilities) asukohal.

• Info edastamine rikete ulatusest ja neist mõjutatud hallatavate klientide arvust meediale ning regulaatoritele.

• Hinnangulise taastamisaja arvutamine. • Taastamist toimetavate meeskondade abistamine. • Taastamiseks vajaminevate meeskondade arvu kalkuleerimine.

37. Talitlusvaldus Edastusvalduse SCADA

SCADA süsteem edastab üksikseadmete olekuinfot, haldab vastavate seadmete kontrollimisega energiakasutust ning võimaldab operaatoritel otseselt juhtida elektrisüsteemi seadmeid.

38. Talitlusvaldus Kliendiportaal (Customer Portal)

Veebiserver. Igal veebiserveril on oma IP aadress ja võimaluse korral ka domeeni nime. Teenindusettevõtte poolt pakutava serveriteenuse puhul saab klient veebi kaudu sidusinfot energiakasutuse ja hinna kohta. Klient saab registreerida end ettemaksuga elektriteenuste saamiseks ning saab võimaldada kolmandal osapoolel jälgida ja juhtida oma seadmeid.

39. Talitlusvaldus Territoriaalne andmehõivesüsteem (Wide Area Measurement System)

WAMS Andmesidesüsteem faasimõõteriistade ja alajaamaseadmete töö jälgimiseks geograafiliselt suurel territooriumil ning süsteemse info edastamiseks elektrisüsteemi operaatoritele visualiseerimise teel või muul viisil.

7

Teolise number

Valdus Teoline Lühend Kirjeldus

40. Talitlusvaldus Töökorraldussüsteem(Work Management System)

WMS Süsteem, mis kavandab tööde üksikasjad ning ajakava selleks, et üles ehitada või hallata ja käitada elektrisüsteemi infrastruktuuri.

41. Teenindus-valdus

Aggregator Suvaline turustaja, maakler, avalik agentuur, linn, maakond või eripiirkond, mis koondab paljude klientide (lõpptarbijate) koormusi nende klientide nimel toimuva elektri ostu-müügi, edastamise ja muude teenuste lihtsustamiseks.

42. Teenindus-valdus

Müügiarvete väljastamine (Billing)

Elektrimüügi arvete genereerimise protsess klientidele müüdud energia eest tasumiseks.

43. Teenindus-valdus

Energiateenus-ettevõtted (Energy Service Providers)

ESP Pakub elektri, loodusliku gaasi ja rohelise energia jaemüügi valikuid koos energiatõhususe toodete ja teenustega.

44. Teenindus-valdus

Kolmas osapool Väljapool teenindusettevõtet toimiv (kolmas) osapool, kes pakub turul olulist (kriitilist) ärilist teenust (critical business function).

45. Edastusvaldus Faasimõõteseade PMU Seade, mis mõõdab vahelduvvoolulainete faase selleks, et hinnata süsteemi talitlusvõimet.

46. Edastusvaldus Edastusvalduse elektrooniline tarkseade (Transmission IED)

Elektrooniline tarkseade (intellectual electronic device, IED), mis võtab anduritelt ja energeetilistelt seadmetelt vastu andmesignaale ja väljastab juhtimiskäske, nt kaitselülitite (võimsuslülitite) vabastite rakendamiseks, juhul kui tuvastatakse pinge, voolu või sageduse anomaalia või pinge suurendamine (vähendamine) selleks, et säilitada pinge soovitud tase. Seade, mis saadab andmeid andmebaasi (data concentrator) nende vormingu võimalikuks muutmiseks (for potential reformatting).

47. Edastusvaldus Edastusvalduse kaugterminal (Transmission RTU)

Kaugterminal (remote terminal unit, RTU) edastab oleku- ja mõõteinfot alajaamast või fiiderseadmetelt SCADA süsteemile ning juhtimiskäskusid SCADA süsteemilt tööväljaseadmetele.

8

Elektri suurtootmisvaldus 1. Elektrijaama juhtimissüsteem - hajusjuhtimissüsteem Plant Control System - Distributed Control System DCS Elektri suurtootmisjaama kohtjuhtimissüsteem. Vahel nimetatakse seda ka hajusjuhtimissüsteemiks (Distributed Control System, DCS). Kliendivaldus 2. Klient Olem, mis maksab elektriliste kaupade või teenuste eest. Teenindusettevõtte kliendid sh need kliendid, kes toodavad rohkem elektrit kui tarbivad. 3. Kliendi elektripaigaldised ja seadmed

Customer Appliances and Equipment Kodumajapidamises määratud funktsiooni täitev elektriline seade või aparaat nagu nt röster. Elektripaigaldis või elektriline masin või, mida saab jälgida ja juhtida ning mille talitlusandmeid saab edastada ja kuvada. http://www.sciencentral.com/video/2008/10/17/smart-appliances/Video: USA Tipukoormust saab vähendada kuni 15 % http://www.appliancesmart.com/Külmkapid Features in some of our top-of-the-line refrigerators include:

• Through-the-door ice and water dispensers • Adjustable door bins and interior shelves • Spill-proof glass shelves for easy clean-up • Automatic ice makers • Temperature-controlled meat drawers • Humidity-controlled crisper drawers

http://www.smartappliancesuk.com/http://www.smartappliances.com.au/Smart Wholesale Appliances opened its doors in early 2006 specializing in European domestic kitchen appliances, bathroomware and outdoor cooking products. We dedicate ourselves to providing our customers with the best possible products at wholesale prices, not to mention a personalized service that is convenient and friendly to all our customers. We are not a large retailer with excessive overheads and over inflated pricing. We keep it simple, so that we can concentrate on providing

http://www.sciencentral.com/video/2008/10/17/smart-appliances/http://www.appliancesmart.com/http://www.smartappliancesuk.com/http://www.smartappliances.com.au/

you with personalised advice, service and low wholesale pricing everyday. So you don't have to wait for a sale to get a bargain!! http://green.yahoo.com/blog/amorylovins/35/smart-appliances-for-an-energy-efficient-future.html Appliances and electricity use

More than a third of electricity generated in the United States is used in households. Air conditioners use 16% of that electricity; refrigerators use another 14%. Hot water heaters and other home appliances -- including clothes dryers and dish washers -- consume an even more: 29%. Using existing technology, each of these machines can be made "smarter," lessening our environmental impact.

Every time your air conditioner kicks on during a hot summer afternoon, it contributes to a larger problem. When many air conditioners turn on at the same time, they force up the demand for power from the local utility, putting stress on the system.

To meet this demand, utilities rely on peak generating plants, which might only be used on the hottest days of the year. Power from these plants is carbon-intensive and expensive to generate.

The benefit of smart appliances

Smart appliances will respond to price signals from the grid to lessen these peak loads. Under a "real-time pricing" system, energy used during peak hours will cost more than energy used at night, when demand is low. This price structure allows residential energy users to optimize their energy usage habits to save energy and reduce emissions.

Imagine setting your air conditioner to save money by remaining off during weekday afternoon hours when power is expensive. It would turn on in the late afternoon, so the house would still be cool when you returned from work.

Similarly, a clothes dryer could be programmed to an "economy" setting which would turn its heating element on and off to take advantage of the cheapest power rates. The dry cycle would take a bit more time, but it would allow the household to respond to variations in electricity supply.

For instance, if a cloud passed in front of the sun, reducing the output of a solar power array, the price of power would increase, signaling the dryer to turn off until the cloud moved away.

Studies have shown that consumers conserve energy when provided with real-time feedback and improved control systems via a computer or appliance smart meters. Just as car owners drive more efficiently when provided with real-time fuel economy data, residences with smart meters use less electricity.

In a recent study in Washington state, overall energy usage fell 10% following the implementation of smart water heaters and dryers. If used nationwide, these technologies could save $70 billion and eliminate the construction of 30 new coal-fired power plants over 20 years.

Smart appliances in the real world

The next step toward getting smart appliances in each of our homes is taking these pilot programs to scale.

9

http://green.yahoo.com/blog/amorylovins/35/smart-appliances-for-an-energy-efficient-future.htmlhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/reps/enduse/er01_us.htmlhttp://green.yahoo.com/blog/amorylovins/30/better-gas-mileage-for-all.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/10/technology/10energy.html

10

In March, Xcel energy, one of the United States' largest utilities, chose Boulder, Colorado, for an innovative smart city project.

Residences will be fitted with smart appliances, and the utility infrastructure will be upgraded to enable real-time demand response and power pricing. Predicted benefits include lower peak demand on summer afternoons, reduced overall carbon emissions, and improved system reliability.

Appliances that can talk back to you are unlikely outside of Hollywood fantasies any time soon. But smart appliances that save money and reduce carbon emissions are not science fiction. These technologies offer a market-based approach to energy efficiency that will help reduce your environmental impact.

http://www.grist.org/article/2009-07-14-smart-appliances-talk-to-grid/

Sure, it’s smart, but is it a good conversationalist? So the oven says to the refrigerator, “Don’t be so cold.”

That line will soon be more than a bad joke. The Jetsons (kodurobotite perekond) are coming to life as dishwashers, washing machines, and other home appliances begin to talk to each other and to the electricity grid in an effort to manage and reduce energy use.

Last week, for instance, General Electric and Boulder, Colo.-based smart-grid startup Tendril unveiled a deal to collaborate on software to connect the industrial giant’s “smart appliances” to the grid. Pilot projects with utilities are expected to begin by year’s end.

Given that about half of a typical home’s electricity consumption goes to power appliances, lighting, and water heating, so-called demand-response dishwashers and

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB120537871607432823.htmlhttp://www.grist.org/article/2009-07-14-smart-appliances-talk-to-grid/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetsonshttp://www.genewscenter.com/content/Detail.asp?ReleaseID=6845&NewsAreaID=2http://www.tendrilinc.com/http://www.reuters.com/article/earth2Tech/idUS407232982020090708

dryers could not only shrink your personal carbon footprint but allow utilities to avoid building new power plants to meet peak demand or firing up dirty ones to avoid brownouts.

“We’re looking at targeting a 30 to 50 percent reduction in energy usage per appliance,” says Tendril CEO Adrian Tuck. Tendril makes software that downloads data from smart meters to let people track their electricity usage in real time.

For most utilities, electricity demand peaks between 3 p.m. and 8 p.m., when people come home from work, cook dinner, wash clothes, run the dishwasher, charge up their mobile phones, and flick on their big-screen televisions.

During the summer they crank up their air conditioners, which is why utilities like California’s PG&E have spent billions of dollars building natural gas “peaker” power plants that sit idle most of the time except when a heat wave hits. (Or in the case of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, dirty coal-burning power plants in Arizona and Utah provide peak power.)

Of course, you, dear consumer, could care less because you pay the same flat electricity rate regardless of what it costs the utility to meet peak demand. But not for too much longer. Smart electricity meters and the interactive power grid will allow utilities to impose variable or time-of-day pricing, which means it’s going to get pricey to run the washing machine at 5 p.m. when you realize you have no clean clothes for work tomorrow.

Hence the Roombaization of the dumb dishwasher. If you turn on your oven to cook a meal when electricity rates are high, your stove will literally tell your refrigerator to delay defrosting or adjust its temperature until dinner is served. Likewise, the washing machine will send a signal wirelessly or through the home’s power lines to the dishwasher to switch on after the clothes are cleaned.

“When consumers buy a new fridge they’ll make a phone call or go online and register their new appliance with the grid,” says Tendril’s Tuck. “If they do that, the appliance will start to receive pricing information and download algorithms to modify its behavior.”

If you sign up for your utility’s demand-response program, the utility’s computers will adjust the energy consumption of your appliances and those in thousands of other homes—without affecting your lifestyle, Tendril and GE take pains to stress—to ensure peak demand is met.

Or you can set up your own rules for your machines—like specifying a monthly electricity budget and instructing your appliances not to break the bank. (Tendril is developing an app that lets customers control household appliances from their iPhone.)

The iPhone app that fights global warming

11

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roombahttp://greenwombat.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2009/03/06/the-iphone-app-that-fights-global-warming/

12

Here’s an iPhone app that really could help save the planet while saving stressed consumers’ money: Boulder, Colo.-based startup Tendril this week unveiled a mobile software program that lets people monitor and control their home’s energy use while on the go.

Say you’re sitting in the unemployment office listening to some bureaucrat drone on, so you pull out your iPhone to update your Facebook status and then check on whether that next unemployment check will cover the utility bill. When Tendril tells you that your electricity consumption is spiking and so will your estimated monthly bill, you remember you left the air conditioner set on Arctic. Flick your finger and shut that energy hog down.

That scenario won’t become common for awhile it as relies on a widespread rollout of smart utility meters that will bring the interactive smart grid and real-time electricity pricing into the home. That is happening, albeit very slowly (though the pace is expected to accelerate with billions in the stimulus package being poured into smart grid-related projects. The ability to remote-control your appliance, however, is some years away).

For instance, Tendril, is rolling out a home energy management system for Texas utility Reliant Energy (RRI) that allows customers to monitor and control their electricity use through a video display that sits in the living room. When Green Wombat visited Reliant’s smart house project in Houston last September, the utility’s tech guys showed me their own home-brewed iPhone app.

http://www.tendrilinc.com/http://greenwombat.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2008/11/25/a-smart-energy-grid-inside-your-home/http://greenwombat.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2008/11/25/a-smart-energy-grid-inside-your-home/http://money.cnn.com/quote/quote.html?symb=RRI

As anyone with an iPhone knows, Apple’s (AAPL) app store makes it ridiculously easy to turn the gadget into Dr. Who’s sonic screwdriver – a gizmo that does everything but put out the trash and feed your pet bunny. But earth2tech’s Katie Fehrenbacher questions how widespread Tendril’s app would be used given the difficulty in putting any third-party software program on a BlackBerry or other smartphone. But that’s changing by dint of Apple’s growing share of the smartphone market and the advent of the app-friendly Google (GOOG) phone.

Green Wombat is most intrigued by the potential of such apps as the Tendril Mobile Vantage to tap into people’s inherent competitiveness, keeping-up-with-Jones mentality and, in the Facebook era, compulsion to share, share, share. The data generated by smart meters and home energy management systems like Tendril’s will let consumers compare their energy use – and thus contribution to global warming – with their neighbors and friends.

In fact, Tendril is planning to add a carbon footprint feature to its mobile app. Funnel that data into a Facebook newsfeed and let the peer-to-peer pressure go to work to see who can claim Twittering rights to a low-impact lifestyle.

Kevin Nolan, vice president of technology for GE’s consumer and industrial group, notes that homes must get smart to meet climate-change goals and manage an increasingly complex electricity system—one that will only get more complicated with solar panels on the roof and an electric car in the garage.

“When you think about having photovoltaics and plug-in cars, you really want to have an energy system in the home,” says Nolan. “One appliance will need to know what the others are doing.”

Smart appliances will come with higher price tags, given the added electronics. But Nolan thinks inevitable higher electricity rates will prompt people to replace their old machines when they realize the potential for savings and return on investment.

“In California, which looks like it’s going to have high peak rates, the savings could be substantial,” he notes.

The big question remains how much of an impact smart appliances will have on electricity consumption and greenhouse-gas emissions. While Americans may buy a new car every few years—at least they did pre-recession—they tend to hang on to their Kenmores for a decade and typically replace the range only when the kitchen is remodeled.

Noland and Tuck, however, think electricity prices, rebates, and pressure on utilities to meet renewable-energy goals will spur sales.

13

http://money.cnn.com/quote/quote.html?symb=AAPLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_screwdriverhttp://earth2tech.com/2009/03/03/tendril-dials-up-cell-phone-energy-tool/http://money.cnn.com/quote/quote.html?symb=GOOG

14

GE hybrid electric water heater Tuck met with PG&E execs two weeks ago to demo GE’s smart refrigerator. Houston-based utility Reliant Energy may also conduct trials of the smart appliances; it has been deploying Tendril’s in-home energy monitoring and forecasting system to its customers.

But don’t expect to impress the neighbors with your high-tech intelligent washing machine. GE’s smart appliances look pretty much like their dumb cousins.

Unless, that is, you buy the company’s new smart hybrid hot-water heater that uses a heat pump to cut energy use by 80 percent during peak demand. It looks rather like a Dalek from Doctor Who.

Watch a GE video explaining how “energy demand management” works.

Read past Green State columns by Todd Woody.

http://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/09/smart-grid-whirlpool-clothes-dryers-smart-appliances-energy-electricity.phpRiiete tarkkuivatid

Smart Appliances are Coming: Whirlpool to Produce 1 Million Grid Connected "Smart" Clothes Dryers in 2011 Having a smart grid is great in good part because it allows you to more easily implement time-of-use electricity rates (power costs more at peak demand time, less at night and on weekends...). But to get the most out of it, smart appliances that can talk to the grid and "smartly" adjust their operation to reduce their power demand when electricity is expensive are required. This is why it's good news that Whirlpool is announcing that it will produce 1 million "smart" clothes dryer in 2011. If one million dryers went into power saving mode during peak time, that would reduce demand by the equivalent of about 6 coal power plants!

http://money.cnn.com/2008/11/14/technology/woody_house.fortune/index.htmhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtonWPZSe4Uhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalekhttp://www.geconsumerandindustrial.com/videos/GE_Energy_Demand_Management.wmvhttp://www.grist.org/column/green-statehttp://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/09/smart-grid-whirlpool-clothes-dryers-smart-appliances-energy-electricity.phphttp://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/09/smart-grid-whirlpool-clothes-dryers-smart-appliances-energy-electricity.phphttp://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/07/what-smart-grid-defining-ten.phphttp://planetgreen.discovery.com/tech-transport/timeofuse-electricity-rates.htmlhttp://planetgreen.discovery.com/tech-transport/timeofuse-electricity-rates.html

The Wall Street Journal writes:

Smart appliances can be controlled remotely by a power company to go into energy-saving mode or shut off during times when there is high demand for electricity. Consumers could override the feature but likely will pay more for power during these periods. Over time, wide use of smart appliances could save consumers money and cut the number of power plants needed to satisfy electricity demand, reducing power-industry pollution. The appliances aren't expected to be priced much higher than regular EnergyStar products. So the goal is to take the responsibility of time-shifting energy intensive tasks from people directly to the appliances themselves. Just for the dryers, Whirlpool predicts that its customers could save between $20-40 per year. That's just for one appliance. If all your appliances were "smart", this would certainly save more energy, and thus money. Here's how it would work: In one energy-saving mode that might be used when electricity demand is high, the heat will turn on and off during an extended drying cycle but the spinning will continue to prevent wrinkles. An electric dryer that tumbles clothes without heat uses only about 200 watts of electricity, while one that's set on maximum heat may use as much as 6,500 watts. Multiply that by one million dryers and the difference is equivalent, at a moment in time, to the output of half-a-dozen big coal-fired power plants. But money directly saved on power bills isn't the only benefit. By shaving peaks in energy demand, fewer power plants might need to be built. Some of those costs are often passed on to people through higher electricity rates or taxes. Smart appliances can also help us take advantage of intermittent sources of renewable energy such as wind. On a day that the wind is blowing strongly, appliances could get a message from the smart grid that a lot of clean, cheap power is available, so more of them would run at that time.

15

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB125409532770645001.html

16

Whirlpool has also announced that by 2015 all of the company's "electronically controlled appliances it produces - everywhere in the world - will be capable of receiving and responding to signals from the smart grid." Nice. 4. Kliendi hajaenergia ressursid: generaatorid ja salvestid

Customer Distributed Energy Resources DER: Generation and Storage Koduvaldusvõrgu või büroovaldusvõrgu (HAN/BAN) kontrolleri kliendipoolse liidesega ühendatud elektri hajatootmise nagu tuule- ja päike jaamade ressursid, mida kasutatakse tarkvõrgus elektri genereerimiseks ja salvestamiseks. DER Equipment

Distributed energy resources (DER) have been available for many years. They may have been known by different names such as generators, back-up generators, or on-site power systems, and certain DER technologies are not new (e.g., internal combustion engines and combustion turbines). On the other hand, due to the changes in the utility industry, several new technologies are being developed or advanced toward commercialization (e.g., fuel cells and microturbines).

This section of the California Distributed Energy Resources Guide provides information regarding commercially available DER Equipment as well as those technologies still undergoing development. Some of the technologies are listed in both categories because they are currently commercially available but are also undergoing a significant level of further research and development. Select the links below for detailed information regarding the technologies.

DER Technologies Commercially Available

Emerging Technology

Microturbines Combustion Turbines Reciprocating Engines Stirling Engines Fuel Cells Energy Storage / UPS Systems Photovoltaic Systems Wind Systems Hybrid Systems Combined Heat & Power (CHP)

Mikroturbiinid

http://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/microturbines/microturbines.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/combustion_turbines/combustion_turbines.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/reciprocating_engines/reciprocating_engines.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/stirling_engines/stirling_engines.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/fuel_cells/fuel_cells.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/energy_storage/energy_storage.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/photovoltaic/photovoltaic.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/wind/wind.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/hybrid/hybrid_systems.htmlhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/chp/chp.html

Microturbines are small combustion turbines that produce between 25 kW and 500 kW of power. Microturbines were derived from turbocharger technologies found in large trucks or the turbines in aircraft auxiliary power units (APUs). Most microturbines are single-stage, radial flow devices with high rotating speeds of 90,000 to 120,000 revolutions per minute. However, a few manufacturers have developed alternative systems with multiple stages and/or lower rotation speeds.

Microturbines are nearing commercial status. Capstone, for example, has delivered over 2,400 microturbines to customers (2003). However, many of the microturbine installations are still undergoing field tests or are part of large-scale demonstrations.

Photo Source: Capstone

Microturbine Overview

Commercially Available Yes (Limited) Size Range 25 – 500 kW

Fuel Natural gas, hydrogen, propane, diesel Efficiency 20 – 30% (Recuperated)

Environmental Low (< 9 – 50 ppm) NOx Other Features Cogen (50 – 80°C water)

Commercial Status Small volume production, commercial prototypes now.

Microturbine generators can be divided in two general classes:

• Recuperated microturbines, which recover the heat from the exhaust gas to boost the temperature of combustion and increase the efficiency, and

• Unrecuperated (or simple cycle) microturbines, which have lower efficiencies, but also lower capital costs.

While some early product introductions have featured unrecuperated designs, the bulk of developers' efforts are focused on recuperated systems. The recuperator recovers heat from the exhaust gas in order to boost the temperature of the air stream supplied to the combustor. Further exhaust heat recovery can be used in a cogeneration configuration. The figure below illustrates a recuperated microturbine system.

17

18

Source: EPRI Conventional combustion turbines Conventional combustion turbine (CT) generators are a very mature technology. They typically range in size from about 500 kW up to 25 MW for DER, and up to approximately 250 MW for central power generation. They are fueled by natural gas, oil, or a combination of fuels ("dual fuel"). Modern single-cycle combustion turbine units typically have efficiencies in the range of 20 to 45% at full load. Efficiency is somewhat lower at less than full load.

Photo Source: University of Florida

Combustion Turbine Overview Commercially Available Yes

Size Range 500 kW - 25 MW

Fuel Natural gas, liquid fuels

Efficiency 20-45% (primarily size dependent)

Environmental Very low when controls are used

Other Features Cogen (steam)

Commercial Status Widely Available

There are three main components in a combustion turbine generator:

1. Compressor - incoming air is compressed to a high pressure. 2. Combustor - fuel is burned, producing high-pressure, high-velocity gas. 3. Turbine - energy is extracted from the high-pressure, high-velocity gas flowing from the combustion

chamber.

Reciprocating engines

Reciprocating engines are the most common and most technically mature of all DER technologies. They are available from small sizes (e.g., 5 kW for residential back-up generation) to large generators (e.g., 7 MW).

Reciprocating engines use commonly available fuels such as gasoline, natural gas, and diesel fuel.

Photo Source: Fair Manufacturing, Inc.

Reciprocating Engines Overview Commercially Available Yes

Size Range 5 kW – 7 MWFuels Natural gas, diesel, landfill gas, digester gas

Efficiency 25 – 45% Environmental Emission controls required for NOx and COOther Features Cogen (some models)

Commercial Status Products are widely available

A reciprocating, or internal combustion (IC), engine converts the energy contained in a fuel into mechanical power. This mechanical power is used to turn a shaft in the engine. A generator is attached to the IC engine to convert the rotational motion into power.

There are two methods for igniting the fuel in an IC engine. In spark ignition (SI), a spark is introduced into the cylinder (from a spark plug) at the end of the compression stroke. Fast-burning fuels, like gasoline and natural gas, are commonly used in SI engines. In compression ignition (CI), the fuel-air mixture spontaneously ignites when the compression raises it to a high-enough temperature. CI works best with slow-burning fuels, like diesel.

ICEs are also classified as high-speed, medium-speed, or low-speed:

• High-speed units are derived from automotive or truck engines and operate at 1200-3600 rpm. These engines generate the most output per unit of displacement and have the lowest capital costs, but also have the poorest efficiency.

• Medium-speed engines are derived from locomotive and small marine engines, and operate at 275-1000 rpm, have higher capital costs, but also have greater efficiency.

• Low-speed units are derived from large ship propulsion engines and operate at 58-275 rpm. Low-speed engines are designed to burn low-quality residual fuels and are practical only if there is a

19

20

large price differential between heavy oil and natural gas and there are no environmental restrictions (not in U.S.).

Stirling engines

Stirling engines are classed as external combustion engines. They are sealed systems with an inert working fluid, usually either helium or hydrogen. They are generally found in small sizes (1 - 25 kW) and are currently being produced in small quantities for specialized applications.

Stirling-cycle engines were patented in 1816 and were commonly used prior to World War I. They were popular because they had a better safety record than steam engines and used air as the working fluid. As steam engines improved and the competing compact Otto cycle engine was invented, Stirling engines lost favor. Recent interest in DER, use by the space and marine industries, has revived interest in Stirling engines and as a result, research and development efforts have increased.

Photo Source: WhisperTech Ltd.

Stirling Engine OverviewCommercially Available No

Size Range 30%)

Environmental Potential for very low emissions

Other Features Cogen (some models)

Commercial Status Commercial availability 2003-2005

Fuel Cells While the concept of fuel cells has been around for more than 100 years, the first practical fuel cells were developed for the U.S. space program in the 1960s. The space program required an efficient, reliable, and compact energy source for the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, and the fuel cell was a good fit. Today, NASA continues its reliance on fuel cells to power space shuttle vehicles. Because of technology improvements in recent years and significant investment by auto companies, utilities, NASA, and the military, fuel cells are now expected to have applications for distributed power generation within the next few years.

Photo Source: National Energy Technology Laboratory, Department of Energy

Fuel Cells Overview PAFC SOFC MCFC PEMFC

Commercially Available Yes No Yes Yes

Size Range 100-200 kW 1 kW - 10 MW 250 kW - 10 MW 3-250 kW

Fuel Natural gas, landfill gas, digester gas,

propane

Natural gas, hydrogen, landfill gas, fuel oil

Natural gas, hydrogen

Natural gas, hydrogen, propane,

diesel

Efficiency 36-42% 45-60% 45-55% 25-40%

Environmental Nearly zero emissions Nearly zero emissions Nearly zero emissions Nearly zero emissions

Other Features Cogen (hot water) Cogen (hot water, LP or HP steam) Cogen (hot water, LP or HP steam) Cogen (80°C water)

Commercial Status

Some commercially available

Likely commercialization 2004

Some commercially

available

Some commercially available

A fuel cell is similar to a battery in that an electro-chemical reaction is used to create electric current. The charge carriers can be released through an external circuit via wire connections to anode and cathode plates of the battery or the fuel cell. The major difference between fuel cells and batteries is that batteries carry a limited supply of fuel internally as an electrolytic solution and solid materials (such as the lead acid battery that contains sulfuric acid and lead plates) or as solid dry reactants such as zinc carbon powders found in a flashlight battery. Fuel cells have similar reactions; however, the reactants are gases (hydrogen and oxygen) that are combined in a catalytic process. Since the gas reactants can be fed into the fuel cell and constantly replenished, the unit will never run down like a battery.

Fuel cells are named based on the type of electrolyte and materials used. The fuel cell electrolyte is sandwiched between a positive and a negative electrode. Because individual fuel cells produce low voltages, fuel cells are stacked

21

22

together to generate the desired output for DER applications. The fuel cell stack is integrated into a fuel cell system with other components, including a fuel reformer, power electronics, and controls. Fuel cell systems convert chemical energy from fossil fuels directly into electricity. The image below shows the basic components of a generic fuel cell.

The fuel (hydrogen) enters the fuel cell, and this fuel is mixed with air, which causes the fuel to be oxidized. As the hydrogen enters the fuel cell, it is broken down into protons and electrons. In the case of PEMFC and PAFC, positively charged ions move through the electrolyte across a voltage to produce electric power. The protons and electrons are then recombined with oxygen to make water, and as this water is removed, more protons are pulled through the electrolyte to continue driving the reaction and resulting in further power production. In the case of SOFC, it is not protons that move through the electrolyte, but oxygen radicals. In MCFC, carbon dioxide is required to combine with the oxygen and electrons to form carbonate ions, which are transmitted through the electrolyte.

Types of Fuel Cells

There are four primary fuel cell technologies. These include phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), and proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). The technologies are at varying states of development or commercialization. Fuel cell stacks utilize hydrogen and oxygen as the primary reactants. However, depending on the type of fuel processor and reformer used, fuel cells can use a number of fuel sources including gasoline, diesel, LNG, methane, methanol, natural gas, �waste was� and solid carbon.

Natural gas (methane) is considered to be the most readily available and cleanest fuel (next to hydrogen) for distributed generation applications, so most research for stationary power systems is focused on converting natural gas into pure hydrogen fuel. This is particularly true for low-temperature fuel cells (PEMFC and PAFC). Here, fuel reformers use a catalytic reaction process to break the methane molecule and then seperate hydrogen from carbon based gases.

High temperature fuel cells such as the MCFC or the SOFC do not require a reformer since the high operating temperature of the fuel cell allows for the direct conversion of natural gas to hydrogen.

Energy Storage

Energy storage technologies do not generate electricity but can deliver stored electricity to the electric grid or an end-user. They are used to improve power quality by correcting voltage sags, flicker, and surges, or correct for frequency imbalances. Storage devices are also used as uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). by supplying electricity during short utility outages. Because these energy devices are often located at or near the point of use, they are included in the distributed energy resources category.

The following technologies are discussed in this section, with more details below:

• Battery Storage • Flow Batteries • Flywheel • Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) • Supercapacitor • Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

Photo Source: UP Networks

Battery Storage

Utilities typically use batteries to provide an uninterruptible supply of electricity to power substation switchgear and to start backup power systems. However, there is an interest to go beyond these applications by performing load leveling and peak shaving with battery systems that can store and dispatch power over a period of many hours. Batteries also increase power quality and reliability for residential, commercial, and industrial customers by providing backup and ride-through during power outages.

The standard battery used in energy storage applications is the lead-acid battery. A lead-acid battery reaction is reversible, allowing the battery to be reused. There are also some advanced sodium/sulfur, zinc/bromine, and lithium/air batteries that are nearing commercial readiness and offer promise for future utility application.

Flow Batteries

Flow batteries differ from conventional rechargeable batteries in one significant way: the power and energy ratings of a flow battery are independent of each other. This is made possible by the separation of the electrolyte and the battery stack (or fuel cell stack). A flow battery, on the other hand, stores and releases energy by means of a reversible electrochemical reaction between two electrolyte solutions.

There are four leading flow battery technologies: Polysulfide Bromide (PSB), Vanadium Redox (VRB), Zinc Bromine (ZnBr), and Hydrogen Bromine (H-Br) batteries.

23

http://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/energy_storage/energy_storage.html#battery#batteryhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/energy_storage/energy_storage.html#flow#flowhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/energy_storage/energy_storage.html#flywheel#flywheelhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/energy_storage/energy_storage.html#smes#smeshttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/energy_storage/energy_storage.html#supercapacitor#supercapacitorhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/energy_storage/energy_storage.html#caes#caes

24

Flywheel

A flywheel is an electromechanical device that couples a motor generator with a rotating mass to store energy for short durations. Conventional flywheels are "charged" and "discharged" via an integral motor/generator. The motor/generator draws power provided by the grid to spin the rotor of the flywheel. During a power outage, voltage sag, or other disturbance the motor/generator provides power. The kinetic energy stored in the rotor is transformed to DC electric energy by the generator, and the energy is delivered at a constant frequency and voltage through an inverter and a control system.

Traditional flywheel rotors are usually constructed of steel and are limited to a spin rate of a few thousand revolutions per minute (RPM). Advanced flywheels constructed from carbon fiber materials and magnetic bearings can spin in vacuum at speeds up to 40,000 to 60,000 RPM. The flywheel provides power during period between the loss of utility supplied power and either the return of utility power or the start of a sufficient back-up power system (i.e., diesel generator). Flywheels provide 1-30 seconds of ride-through time, and back-up generators are typically online within 5-20 seconds.

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

Superconducting magnetic energy storage systems store energy in the field of a large magnetic coil with direct current flowing. It can be converted back to AC electric current as needed. Low temperature SMES cooled by liquid helium is commercially available. High temperature SMES cooled by liquid nitrogen is still in the development stage and may become a viable commercial energy storage source in the future.

A magnetic field is created by circulating a DC current in a closed coil of superconducting wire. The path of the coil circulating current can be opened with a solid state switch which is modulated on and off. Due to the high inductance of the coil, when the switch is off (open), the magnetic coil behaves as a current source and will force current into the capacitor which will charge to some voltage level. Proper modulation of the solid-state switch can hold the voltage across the capacitor within the proper operating range of the inverter. An inverter converts the DC voltage into AC power. SMES systems are large and generally used for short durations, such as utility switching events.

Supercapacitor

Supercapacitors (also known as ultracapacitors) are DC energy sources and must be interfaced to the electric grid with a static power conditioner, providing 60-Hz output. A supercapacitor provides power during short duration interruptions and voltage sags. By combining a supercapacitor with a battery-based uninterruptible power supply system, the life of the batteries can be extended. The batteries provide power only during the longer interruptions, reducing the cycling duty on the battery. Small supercapacitors are commercially available to extend battery life in electronic equipment, but large supercapacitors are still in development, but may soon become a viable component of the energy storage field.

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

Compressed air energy storage uses pressurized air as the energy storage medium. An electric motor-driven compressor is used to pressurize the storage reservoir using off-peak energy and air is released from the reservoir through a turbine during on-peak hours to produce energy. The turbine is essentially a modified turbine that can also be fired with natural gas or distillate fuel.

Ideal locations for large compressed air energy storage reservoirs are aquifers, conventional mines in hard rock, and hydraulically mined salt caverns. Air can be stored in pressurized tanks for small systems.

Photovoltaic (PV) cells, or solar cells, convert sunlight directly into electricity. PV cells are assembled into flat plate systems that can be mounted on rooftops or other sunny areas. They generate electricity with no moving parts, operate quietly with no emissions, and require little maintenance. However, the cost is currently too high for bulk power applications.

A photovoltaic cell

A photovoltaic cell is composed of several layers of different materials. The top layer is a glass cover or other encapsulant to protect the cell from weather conditions. This is followed by an anti-reflective layer to prevent the cell from reflecting the light away (see the figure below).

Photovoltaic Overview Commercially Available Yes

Size Range

26

Wind Turbine Overview

Commercially Available Yes

Size Range Several kW � 5 MW Fuel Wind

Efficiency

20-40% Environmental

No emissions

Other Features Various types and sizes Commercial Status Wind turbines are widely available

The majority of California's installed wind turbine capacity is located in several large-scale wind farms, including:

• Tehachapi - 623.9 MW • Altamont Pass - 544.5 MW • San Gorgonio - 273.3 MW • Solano - 65.1 MW • Pacheco Pass - 16.4 MW

The remaining capacity is from smaller scale wind farms or residential turbines.

Generally, individual wind turbines are grouped into wind farms containing several turbines. Many wind farms are MW scale, ranging from a few MW to tens of MW. Wind farms or smaller wind projects may be connected directly to utility distribution systems. The larger wind farms are often connected to sub-transmission lines. The small-scale wind farms and individual units are typically defined as distributed generation. Residential systems (5-15 kW) are available; however they are generally not suitable for urban or small-lot suburban homes due to large space requirements.

Developers and manufacturers of DER are looking for ways to combine technologies to improve performance and efficiency of distributed generation equipment. Several examples of hybrid systems include:

• Solid oxide fuel cell combined with a gas turbine or microturbine • Stirling engine combined with a solar dish (see the photograph) • Wind turbines with battery storage and diesel backup generators • Engines (and other prime movers) combined with energy storage devices such as

flywheels

Combined heat and power (CHP) Combined heat and power (CHP) systems simply capture and utilize excess heat generated during the production of electric power. CHP systems offer economic, environmental and reliability-related advantages compared to power generation facilities that produce only electricity. Distributed power generation systems, which are frequently located near thermal loads, are particularly well suited for CHP applications.

Combined Heat and Power Overview

Commercially Available Yes

Size Range Several kW - 25 MW Fuel Depends on the DER technology Efficiency 50-90%

Environmental Reduces the use of excess fuel to produce heat. Market segments for CHP systems include: Other Features

• Large and Medium Industrial Systems � greater than 25 MW (outside DER range of 3-10,000 kW)

Commercial Status Selected systems commercially available.

• Small industrial system � 50 kW to 25 MW • Smaller commercial and institutional systems � 25 kW+ • Residential � 1 kW to 25 kW

27

28

5. Kliendi energiahaldus-süsteem EMS

Customer Energy Management System Rakenduslik teenindusüksus, mis on andmevahetuses kliendi kodumasinate, elektripaigaldiste ja seadmetega. Rakenduslikul teenindusüksusel võivad olla liidesed mõõteriistade, andmekogumis- ja esitlusseadmetega või liides andmesideks talitlusvaldusega, et saada hinna- vm infot, ning automaatse või käsijuhtimise abil tõhusamalt juhtida energiatarbimist. Energiahaldussüsteem võib olla teenindusettevõtte poolt tellitav teenus, kliendi poolt koostatud rakendusprogramm või käsijuhtimine mida teostab teenindusettevõte või klient. http://www.iso.org/iso/energy_management_system_standard

ISO management system standard for energy ISO has identified energy management as a priority area meriting the development and

promotion of International Standards. Effective energy management is a priority focus

because of the significant potential to save energy and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions worldwide.

Existing ISO standards for quality management practices (ISO 9000 series) and environmental

management systems (ISO 14000 series) have successfully stimulated substantial, continuous

efficiency improvements within organizations around the globe. An energy management standard is

expected to similarly achieve major, long-term increases in energy efficiency.

A pressing need for international energy management standards “The urgency to reduce GHG emissions, the reality of higher prices from reduced availability of

fossil fuels, and the need to promote efficiency and the use of renewable energy sources provide a

strong rationale for developing this new standard, building on the most advanced good practices

and existing national or regional standards.”

Alan Bryden

ISO Secretary-General

Discussions between US experts and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) led to a

formal proposal for ISO to establish a committee on this subject. In February 2008, the Technical

Management Board of ISO approved the establishment of a new project committee (ISO/PC 242 –

Energy Management) to develop the new ISO Management System Standard for Energy. Early on,

the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) recognized industry’s need to

mount an effective response to climate change and to the proliferation of national energy

management standards. In March 2007, UNIDO hosted a meeting of experts, including

representatives from the ISO Central Secretariat and nations that have adopted energy

management standards. That meeting led to submission of a UNIDO communication to the ISO

http://www.iso.org/iso/energy_management_system_standard

Central Secretariat requesting that ISO consider undertaking work on an international energy

management standard.

The work will be carried out in a new ISO committee PC 242 Energy Management. The American

National Standards Institute (ANSI) will serve as the committee Secretariat in partnership with

Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (ABNT). ISO 50001 will establish an international

framework for industrial plants or entire companies to manage all aspects of energy, including

procurement and use. The standard will provide organizations and companies with technical and

management strategies to increase energy efficiency, reduce costs, and improve environmental

performance. Based on broad applicability across national economic sectors, the standard could

influence up to 60 percent of the world’s energy demand. Corporations, supply chain partnerships,

utilities, energy service companies, and others are expected to use ISO 50001 as a tool to reduce

energy intensity use and carbon emissions in their own facilities (as well as those belonging to their

customers or suppliers) and to benchmark their achievements.

As part of the standard development process, ISO/PC 242 will define relevant terminology and

develop management system requirements along with providing guidance for use, implementation,

measurement, and metrics associated with the standard. To provide compatibility and integration

opportunities with other management systems, it is anticipated that the standard will foster the

same management system principles of continual improvement and use the Plan-Do-Check-Act

approach as employed in ISO 9001 and ISO 14001.

The future standard will provide organizations and companies with a recognized framework for

integrating energy efficiency into their management practices. Multi-national organizations will have

access to a single, harmonized standard for implementation across the organization with a logical

and consistent methodology for identifying and implementing energy efficiency improvements. The

standard will also:

Assist organizations in making better use of their existing energy-consuming assets Offer guidance on benchmarking, measuring, documenting, and reporting energy intensity

improvements and their projected impact on reductions in GHG emissions

Create transparency and facilitate communication on the management of energy resources Promote energy management best practices and reinforce good energy management behaviors Assist facilities in evaluating and prioritizing the implementation of new energy-efficient

technologies

Provide a framework for promoting energy efficiency throughout the supply chain Facilitate energy management improvements in the context of GHG emission reduction projects.

Energy leaders are encouraged to participate in their country’s national mirror committee which will

coordinate the country’s participation in writing the standard. Contact information for ISO members

in each country is available on ISO Online. Countries wishing to actively participate and send

representatives to ISO/PC 242 meetings should confirm their participation status with the ISO

29

http://www.iso.org/iso/about/iso_members.htm

30

Central Secretariat (vyze@iso.org) and should also inform the ISO/PC 242 Secretary, Mr. Jason

Knopes, ANSI, JKnopes@ansi.org and Co-Secretary Felipe Viera, ABNT,

Felipe.Vieira@abnt.org.br.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_management_system

Energy management system

An energy management system (EMS) is a system of computer-aided tools used by operators of electric utility grids to monitor, control, and optimize the performance of the generation and/or transmission system. The monitor and control functions are known as SCADA; the optimization packages are often referred to as "advanced applications".

The computer technology is also referred to as SCADA/EMS or EMS/SCADA. In these respects, the terminology EMS then excludes the monitoring and control functions, but more specifically refers to the collective suite of power network applications and to the generation control and scheduling applications.

Manufacturers of EMS also commonly supply a corresponding dispatcher training simulator (DTS). This related technology makes use of components of SCADA and EMS as a training tool for control centre operators. It is also possible to acquire an independent DTS from a non-EMS source such as EPRI

Energy Management Systems http://www.psnh.com/Business/Commercial/EnergyMgmt.asp

Energy management systems (EMS) conserve energy by adjusting operating hours and/or cycling equipment. EMS devices range from simple on/off time clocks controlling a single system, to sophisticated computerized controls that manage all the energy-consuming systems in a building.

Single function EMS units can cost as little as $100, while complex systems can cost more that $100,000.

EMS cost savings vary according to the load being controlled. Typically, they can help reduce energy costs 10 to 30 percent, with payback periods usually less than two years.

Types of EMS Systems Time-of-Day Scheduling: This type of system uses electro-mechanical time clocks, to control various functions according to time schedules. Ideally, these systems take into account, holidays, weekends, daylight savings time, planned maintenance and have an override feature.

mailto:vyze@iso.orgmailto:JKnopes@ansi.orgmailto:Felipe.Vieira@abnt.org.brhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_management_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_utilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCADAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispatcher_training_simulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispatcher_training_simulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPRIhttp://www.psnh.com/Business/Commercial/EnergyMgmt.asp

They usually control

• Interior and exterior lighting • Security lighting • Space heating systems • Air conditioning • Ventilation and exhaust fans • Thermostat setbacks and setforwards

Temperature/Time Optimization: These systems provide for the control of multiple functions and more sophisticated control of temperature setback/setforward. Inside and outside air temperature are monitored and used accordingly to vary the time of startup or setback of heating and/or air conditioning. These systems achieve additional savings by using the least amount of energy to produce comfortable conditions during occupancy.

Depending on the complexity of the system, an economizer cycle can also be incorporated. By controlling air dampers, this cycle brings outside air into the cooling system whenever possible.

Demand Control Systems: With these systems, all of the functions of temperature/time optimization and time clock controls are incorporated in a system that also controls electricity demand by cycling pre-selected loads on and off as demand approaches preset limits.

Typical interruptible loads are heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems; air compressor motors; and manufacturing processes that can readily be interrupted or delayed. In addition to generating energy savings by shutting off unnecessary loads, these systems reduce monthly peak demand charges on electric bills.

Demand control systems provide for a large number of control and monitoring points. They also incorporate features such as the ability to monitor fire and burglar alarms, log internal environmental conditions, record equipment running time and duty cycles, and track energy use.

Applications Not every business can benefit from the more sophisticated EMS. Weigh the cost against potential savings before determining the type and level of sophistication warranted. Before investing in a system, you should conduct an in-depth analysis and inventory of your facility's lighting, HVAC systems, and interruptible or deferrable loads. Other major factors to consider include building type, size, nature of business, and number of systems to be controlled.

Let Us Help PSNH Account Executives can help you identify EMS opportunities and recommend the appropriate technology to control your electrical loads. Our state-of-the-art meters can

31

32

measure electrical loads, equipment duty cycles, and other measurements necessary to evaluate the feasibility of an EMS.

Energy management articles http://www.verisae.com/page/1/energy.jsp

Smart Grid Operations http://www.mdsi.ca/solutions/smart-grid.asp

Smart Grid Solution for Demand Response Programs, Distributed Energy Management & Commercial Operations

Ventyx Smart Grid Operations solution enables support of utility commercial operations in a Smart Grid world along with retail-level operations support including demand response program and distributed energy management and resource optimization for utility Smart Grid Programs.

Demand Response Programs & Distributed Energy Management

Smart Grid Operations supports program design, customer enrollment and preference tracking. Demand Response and Distributed Energy Resources are aggregated into actionable resources via Virtual Power Plants (VPPs). This includes benefits calculations to design programs, day ahead and real time operations forecast and aggregations of DER into virtual power plants, and performing billing determinant computations based on customer tariffs.

http://www.verisae.com/page/1/energy.jsphttp://www.mdsi.ca/solutions/smart-grid.asp

Ventyx Smart Grid Operations Solution

Unit Commitment & Resource Optimization

Smart Grid Operations enables utility portfolio optimization by supporting unit commitment and dispatch for complex portfolios that include the full range of portfolio components, including generation, storage, renewables, Virtual Power Plants and complex contracts. Key outputs are the price and emissions signaling for communications to commercial systems, and to customer portals, The Smart Grid operations solution enables utilities to realize the benefits of renewables, distributed energy, and demand response in terms of daily operations, and mid-to-long term investment in portfolio and infrastructure expansion.

Smart Grid Operations Dashboard

To facilitate the speed of decision making required to dispatch distributed energy resources, and to provide a comprehensive portfolio view, Ventyx's Smart Grid Operations solution includes a Smart Grid Operations dashboard that brings all portfolio elements into a framework and view for final execution of decisions, and reporting of the forecast and execution results. The dashboard is used to dispatch the Virtual Power Plants and to initiate the signals to the underlying control systems for interruption and recording of results.

Energy Demand Manager

http://www.verisae.com/page/1/energy-management.jsp

Verisae’s Energy Demand Manager provides utility data integration, real time energy monitoring with active energy appliances, asset level control, and energy consumption analysis. This actionable information provides energy managers and sustainability

33

http://www.verisae.com/page/1/energy-management.jsp

34

officers who need to reduce energy consumption or to initiate energy efficiency programs a single energy portfolio across hundreds of facilities.

Sustainable Energy Planning & Enterprise Portfolio Control

A distributed enterprise may place profits at risk without a strong plan to manage energy across facility design, operations management, maintenance processes, and energy procurement. With legislative changes and continued political pressure around energy efficiency, costs are continuing to rise. This creates risk of unexpected budget overruns and lower profits across the board. At the same time, managing a portfolio of energy use down to high load assets is extremely complex.

Verisae's Energy Demand Manager Provides

• Automated of meter data management, verification, control, and monitoring

• Behind the utility meter management and asset level control

• Collect data from utility meter plus and sub-metered pulses tied to specific pieces of equipment

• Energy curtailment event management and control across multiple facilities

• Real-time energy monitoring at each site down to the asset level

• Information that allows companies to decide on the best energy rates across customer sites

• Controlled energy usage to improve sustainable business processes

• Leveraging of energy monitoring to capture favorable energy pricing

• Ability to benchmark facilities based upon utility, energy usage, and asset management events

• Track and manage individual assets impact on carbon emissions via energy consumption

It is not a surprise that energy is fast becoming the largest and most critical component of the profitability for the distributed enterprise. The near real-time monitoring of energy use to the asset level at each facility offers unprecedented insight and reporting capabilities. For many organizations, next to labor and employee benefits, energy is the largest operating expense.

An energy management system, as it relates to efficiency programs and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, combines strategy and policy with regulatory compliance to leverage opportunities throughout the entire energy chain. As such, energy use is reduced, costs are controlled, and risks related to regulatory programs to mitigate climate change are addressed.

Energy Demand Manager defines short and long-term objectives in reducing energy consumption. Through this process, areas of opportunity are revealed so an energy plan can be implemented. This improves and optimizes business performance and reduces energy risk. Since energy is a major expense for any company, a comprehensive plan to

manage all energy sources is beneficial in identifying inefficiencies associated with design, operations, and maintenance.

RELATED PAGES • Product Overview • Value & Benefits • Product Features • Energy Management

Energy Supply Manager http://www.verisae.com/page/1/demand-response.jsp Energy Supply Manager from Verisae deliver “push button” control of energy consumption via a single, integrated energy management platform. You can gain control of your sites energy consumption and real-time usage. If energy is in high demand, it is going to cost more, as dictated by normal supply and demand rules. If an enterprise wants to take advantage of energy price reductions through a demand response program, it can utilize active energy technologies from Verisae.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF “THE SMART GRID” The future of electricity generation, transmission, and consumption means the grid will change to meet the needs of the U.S. residents, businesses, and distributed organizations. The future Smart Grid will:

• Enable active participation by energy consumers

• Accommodate generation and storage options whether traditional or renewable

• Enable new products, services, and markets to emerge to improve energy efficiencies

• Provide better power quality based upon energy management information system

• Optimize asset usage, operating efficiencies, and building automation

• Anticipate and respond to electricity grid problems and offer immediate fixes

• Operate effectively when stressed by demand issues, cyber attacks, or natural disasters

The Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), also called advanced metering, is one of the key technologies required to enable several of The Smarter Grid characteristics to become a reality. Verisae is uniquely positioned with the following energy management products to enable smart grid implementation to take root immediately.

DEMAND RESPONSE (DR) ENERGY MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS Demand Response (DR) programs continue to grow across the US. Take control of your energy budget and sites enterprise wide with Verisae Enterprise Energy Management. Actively responding to and changing energy use to take advantage of energy market prices, utility incentives, reliability issues, or energy use anomalies. Our controls and

35

http://www.verisae.com/page/1/energy-management.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/energy-management-benefits.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/energy-management-features.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/how-energy-management-works.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/demand-response.jsp

36

software enable you to manage store electrical loads and provide guaranteed curtailment for your budget.

DEMAND RESPONSE (DR) CAPABILITIES:

• Energy demand & control at the asset or device level

• Control HVAC/R & lighting controls from your computer - worldwide

• Get real-time energy tracking with integrated RDM monitors

• Utility bill verification with caparisons of utility reported vs actual energy used

• Web-based controls & application integration of all data across all site

• Benchmark leading and lagging sites & set energy usage tolerances

• Globally set energy scenarios to allow for demand response execution

Energy Supply Manager from Verisae provides controls and software to enable an organization to actively manage energy utilization without sacrificing critical operations. Verisae understands the energy related problems faced by the distributed enterprise. It is our specialty.

RELATED PAGES • Product Overview • Value & Benefits • Product Features • Demand Response

Utility Bill Processing http://www.verisae.com/page/1/utility-bill-processing.jsp

Verisae’s Utility Bill Processing solution offers specific capabilities and benefits that will greatly impact your efforts to reduce the administrative and operating costs of paying your utility bills and improve efficiencies in your utility management and sustainability programs.

Our utility bill processing service is an automated and streamlined payment service that features a web-based utility bill analysis, reporting and tracking solution designed to reduce enterprise-level utility cost and usage. All utility services are supported including electricity, natural gas, water/sewage, solid waste, etc.

Utility Bill Processing Value

We work with customers to ensure all of their utility vendors send bills to our mailing address. Within 24-hours of bill receipt, the Verisae team works to scan, digitize, audit, and present the bill details and exceptions on our web site.

Customers can hire Verisae to resolve the bill exceptions, or manage the resolution process through their own in-house resources. When it comes to bill payment, we can pay these on your behalf or allow you to maintain the payment responsibility.

http://www.verisae.com/page/1/demand-response.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/demand-response-benefits.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/demand-response-features.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/how-demand-response-works.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/utility-bill-processing.jsp

Reporting Highlights:

• Reporting by location, utility, vendor or enterprise

• Reporting that identifies problem areas such as high cost per square foot, high cost per kWh, etc.

• Ad-hoc reporting that allows you to create your own custom reports

• Reporting for your accounting department that allows for various accrual methods

• Reporting that compares cost or usage for two separate time periods

• Reporting that shows rate codes, meter numbers, account numbers, and other bill details

• Reporting that shows bill audit savings by category

• Turning paper into actionable knowledge

• Auditing 100% of the bill components

• Leveraging data for carbon emissions management

• Cash management for your utility expenses

When using the utility bill processing solution, clients are able to easily capture every data point from their utility bill and track those bill details. Thus our clients can manage by exception - digging into only the bills that may indicate a billing error, use that is out of range, a rate change, a meter change, or other pertinent changes that should raise a flag for additional investigation and potential cost avoidance.

Billing data also enables clients to create site-to-site benchmarking, establish budgets, and in conjunction with Verisae's other modules, correlate billed energy use to real-time energy, maintenance events and procurement decisions.

RELATED PAGES • Product Overview • Product Benefits • Product Features • Utility Bill Processing

RESOURCE DATA MANAGEMENT (RDM) Energy controllers HTTP://WWW.VERISAE.COM/PAGE/1/ACTIVE-ENERGY-APPLIANCES.JSP Resource Data Management (RDM) specializes in the Design manufacture and maintenance of energy data monitors and electronic controllers. They provide real-time monitoring of facilities and automation with technical support and training for all RDM products.

They design and manufacture control systems for the refrigeration industry and for full building facilities control. These devices are designed for flexibility and reliability. The systems are Internet Protocol (I.P) based and can be fully configured.

37

http://www.verisae.com/page/1/utility-bill-processing.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/utility-bill-processing-benefits.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/utility-bill-processing-features.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/how-utility-bill-processing-works.jsphttp://www.verisae.com/page/1/active-energy-appliances.jsp

38

There is a range of pre-designed software suites built into the controllers, but, if they don't suit your needs you can create your own complex control algorithms using the "Data Builder" software. Our systems are designed to be fully transparent and to give the Client immediate access to all the data and decision making.

DATA MANAGER PRODUCTS The Data Manager is modular system designed to meet temperature assurance requirements of supermarkets to corner shops, factories, storage warehouses, retail outlets, hotels, restaurants, public houses, fast food retailers and anywhere where temperature assurance is needed.

Features:

• Modular options available

• Analogue probe expansion cards

• Data builder software

• Hard disc drive for storage

Download Data Manager Brochure

The Data Manager's modularity ensures that the Client only buys the specification needed and that makes it very cost effective. The flexibility allows you to create your own control and alarm requirements, and there is no reason to limit the capabilities to refrigeration. The system can be used to control almost anything.

MERCURY CONTROLLER PRODUCTS control strategy starts with Mercury controllers. These are highly complex yet capable devices that have been engineered to be extremely flexible, reliable and yet remain simple to use. Each model is capable of being used to control high or low temperature on coldrooms, integral or remote display cases. They both come complete with a display and can be set up through the surface mounted buttons without the need for a separate complex hand- held setup unit. These controllers can be networked or they can stand alone using their on - board real-time clock.

Features:

• Speedset technology TCP/IP option

• Multiple network options

• Extended intelligent control

• Stand alone operation

Download Mercury Controller Brochure

To make things simple, we have produced the Mercury controllers using a switched mode power supply. This means that supply voltage fluctuations are not an issue; the

http://www.verisae.com/media/document/1/rdmdatamanager.pdfhttp://www.verisae.com/media/document/1/rdmmercurycontroller.pdf

controller can operate in the range of 70 to 270 volts without any performance degradation. The controllers can use PT1000 or NTC probes.

RELATED PAGES • Data Manager • Plant Controller TDB • Plant Pack/Condenser • 48 channel data monitor • Mercury 6-5E case controller • Mercury Mk2 RTU unit • Mercury mk2 Pulse Counter • Mercury Mk2 Timer • Mercury mk2 5ITStat • Mercury mk2 monitor • 3-relay Trim Controller

6. Elektersõiduki teenindatav element Võrkulülitatav elektersõiduk Electric Vehicle Service Element/Plug-in Electric Vehicle (EVSE/ PEV) Elektersõidukit võib käitada üksnes elektrimootor mida toidetakse korduvalt laetavast akumulaatorist. Akut võidakse laadida võrku lülitatavast toiteseadmest või sisepõlemismootoriga käivitatavast elektrigeneraatorist. Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle

An electric vehicle (EV), also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, is a vehicle which uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. Depending on the type of vehicle, motion may be provided by wheels or propellers driven by rotary motors, or in the case of tracked vehicles, by linear motors. Electric vehicles can include electric cars, electric trains, electric lorries, electric airplanes, electric boats, electric motorcycles and scooters, and electric spacecraft.

Electric vehicles first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. At one time the internal combustion engine (ICE) had completely replaced the electric drive as a propulsion method for automobiles, but electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types.

Electric vehicles are different from fossil fuel-powered vehicles in that they can receive their power from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable sources such as tidal power, solar power, and wind power o