takashi maeyama - connecting repositories · 2018. 2. 11. · e徴nund leach wrote,三11 his...

18
A Minority Group in an Underdeveloped The Japanese Case in Brazil Takashi Maeyama With relation to tbe em,igrat玉ng Peqples who are l theロormal evolutio匝of t血e Aryan race, I w葦雌poiロt ouヒ an adm重rab!e nationaHty because of bεing inte11量g progressive(Ferra21938:ユ4均. @ 1 r1 求@There童s a chronic di伍culty in the taxonomlc classi丘cat 6’加飴g70妙,劉η伽oア∫ゴッ,‘耀s’8, c伽s,搬‘8. and the like. T血…s三s pardeularly the 1 モ≠唐?@in relatioh to‘‘minority.,, AU these s㏄iological and’an are concerned with pattems of association among peopl “1eセels,”that is, the state and the family(cf. Weber』1940:1ザ19 I モ盾獅狽窒≠唐煤@to fomlal organizations, such as voluntary環ssoc三ation I 翌奄狽?奄氏@the same socia1‘ぱ1evei,,, they are not concerned with ‘‘ 魔盾撃浮獅狽≠窒凵f, involve瓶ent, They are intrin5ical監y related{o the proble 吻5s解‘姻oπof some pe6ple by others within£he same state society ahd’a1300f sci・・ti且・m。直・1・, f。・。・曲a・y p・・pl・t・b・v・・。・i・1 a・ti。孕・i打・v・・yd・y!if巳 ’The・e hav6 been a great many・tudies t・ying t。 c・R6eptuall・e ρ 奄?@a s圭ngle general framewo士k. Among them there l合atrend to tr as we1正as‘‘class”and‘reaste,・・in generaI terms of‘‘stfati窺ed gr 9「ouPs.”In this paper 1 shall argue ag旦inst this point of view data co脆¢erning the JapaRese量n.BraziL of people,.. that’‘℃1as5, Castεl Slavery…,・・each of thLese words overtones which suggest the’ ??垂hoitation of the underpriv土1eged dy the v三leged”(Leach 1967;14}. The same is true wifh re{e祀癖ce to the concept of L 高高盾窒奄狽凵ELouls Wirth, i皿his frequent呈y cited de長ni亡ion of Inlnorit out“di衡ential and unequa1壮ea㎞ent”and“cdllective discrl the crucia玉Ψa罫iables(1945:34η;Schermerhorn ment量oaed‘ごexclusion fro孤ful1 participation in the life of the culture”11949:5);Wagley “1・w鈴t・6血by tb・・d。min。nt、eg鶏,nt6。f the s。・i・ty・〔1§58・1G};Harrl

Upload: others

Post on 30-Jan-2021

0 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

  • A Minority Group in an Underdeveloped Nation:

    The Japanese Case in Brazil

    Takashi Maeyama

    With relation to tbe em,igrat玉ng Peqples who are least useful for

    theロormal evolutio匝of t血e Aryan race, I w葦雌poiロt ouヒthe Japan6sel

    、        an adm重rab!e nationaHty because of bεing inte11量gentガbr呂vel and

    progressive(Ferra21938:ユ4均.

    @    」                                                                          ■                                辱                                      1                                      凸

                                     r1

    求@There童s a chronic di伍culty in the taxonomlc classi丘cat皇on o壬such’unlts as6’加飴g70妙,劉η伽oア∫ゴッ,‘耀s’8, c伽s,搬‘8. and the like. T血…s三s pardeularly the                                            ’                                   1

    モ≠唐?@in relatioh to‘‘minority.,, AU these s㏄iological and’anthropologlca星皿odels

    are concerned with pattems of association among people which lie between£wo

    “1eセels,”that is, the state and the family(cf. Weber』1940:1ザ1947:145-152}. In

                                                                    Iモ盾獅狽窒≠唐煤@to fomlal organizations, such as voluntary環ssoc三ations, wむich also lie

      I翌奄狽?奄氏@the same socia1‘ぱ1evei,,, they are not concerned with organizations of

    ‘‘魔盾撃浮獅狽≠窒凵f, involve瓶ent, They are intrin5ical監y related{o the proble:ns ofθエ’6r,癬

    吻5s解‘姻oπof some pe6ple by others within£he same state society ahd’a1300f                                                   ,

    sci・・ti且・m。直・1・, f。・。・曲a・y p・・pl・t・b・v・・。・i・1 a・ti。孕・i打・v・・yd・y!if巳 .

    ’The・e hav6 been a great many・tudies t・ying t。 c・R6eptuall・e the・e categ。・ies

                                                  ρ 圃奄?@a s圭ngle general framewo士k. Among them there l合atrend to treat君‘瓢ninority,,,

    as we1正as‘‘class”and‘reaste,・・in generaI terms of‘‘stfati窺ed groups,, or 4‘ranke在

    9「ouPs.”In this paper 1 shall argue ag旦inst this point of view on thei bas葦s of the

    data co脆¢erning the JapaRese量n.BraziL

    E徴nund Leach wrote,三11 his taxonomまc dlscu5sion of a皿£hropologlcal categor三es          」

    of people,.. that’‘℃1as5, Castεl Slavery…,・・each of thLese words isユ韮able to carry

    overtones which suggest the’ ??垂hoitation of the underpriv土1eged dy the overpri・v三leged”(Leach 1967;14}. The same is true wifh re{e祀癖ce to the concept of             L

     ●高高盾窒奄狽凵ELouls Wirth, i皿his frequent呈y cited de長ni亡ion of Inlnority group, po三nted

    out“di衡ential and unequa1壮ea㎞ent”and“cdllective discrlminat三〇n”as some ofthe crucia玉Ψa罫iables(1945:34η;Schermerhorn ment量oaed‘ごexclusion fro孤ful1                                                         ,

    participation in the life of the culture”11949:5);Wagley a醐Harfis pointed out

    “1・w鈴t・6血by tb・・d。min。nt、eg鶏,nt6。f the s。・i・ty・〔1§58・1G};Harrl・, i曲i・

  • 、68

    Iater discussions, emphasized ratheピ‘low ranking豊,(1959:248-54)and‘‘三mnlobile,,

    and‘‘stratif…ed1’aspects〔1967:298-324};and Y量nger, in his theoretical formulation,

    referred to 4‘{permanent星y, ranked di£ferentiation”11965:10).

    Even ln these few examples one can observe a new trend in de丘ning m三norlty

    nation,旧‘unequal treatment,”incomplete‘‘particlpatlon,蹄etc., to a formulation

    in more specifically de丘ned theoretical frameworks with reference to social strati・

    fication{this is of course only one of lnany trends}. Many have relected the term

    “minority”in their theoret1cal conceptualizatio皿, for example, Myrdal on the basis

    that iピ‘fail(s)to乞nake a distinction between the’θ輿ρ07αアy soclal disabi1量ties of

    recent white三mmigrants and theヵθη加π8π診disabilities of Negroes and other colored

    people” (1964:667). Others, for example Leach (196739), have rejected the use of.

    the term‘‘caste”outside the Indian context, notwithstandlng that it is widely used

    in explaining the natures of the Black group in Southern U. S. A。,of th6δ〃罐麗厩η

    in Japan, of the Indian as well as mestizo groups in Latin Am、erican countries,

    and the like. There is a strong tendency to conceptualige such concepts as class,

    caste, and minority in general terms with reference to strati且cation systems in

    ρomplex state societies・

    Harτis, aside froπ山is joint study with Wagley(1958), has developed such a

    conceptua正framework l1959 and 1967). He incorporated caste and minority in a

    single concept of‘‘ranked, endogamous descent groups’, and then血ade a distinction

    between caste and minority in terms of status acceptance. He maintained that‘‘

    rpeaking……in polar terms, high and Iow・ranKing castes do not compete for

    status, whereas mlnority and majority are Iocked三n a struggle for status. The

    members of low-ranking castes accept the status accorded them by th6 high-rallking

    castes;the members of the minority reject the status which the majority seeks to

    impose upon them”(1959:252). A class is for him a ranked, but neither endoga・

    mous nor descent, group. In his more recent discussion, he rejected the factor of                            Iр?唐モ?獅煤@because of its ideological nature which is basically a part of mobility

    I                   Table l Eight Logical Types of Stratified Groups

    lLogical types    Endogamy    Mobility    Con且ict

    ・        1            (十)         (十)        (十)

    2            (十)         (一)        (十)

    3            (十)         (一)        (一)

    4               (十)            (十)           (一)

    1 5                 (一)             (十)            (一)

    6                 (一)             (十)            (十)

      1V            (一)     一    (一)         (十)

    ’ 8      (一)     (一)    (一)r                                                                                               ’

    E                                       (Harri3 1967:307)

  • AMinority Group in Bra君il            6g

    1nto, and out of the stratified group under consideration.)To understand‘‘strati6εd

    groups躍in generaL he sets eight logica1 types of groups in terms of three inde-

    pendent varlables of endogamy, mobility, and con罰ict(this正ast is a revised

    factor of his early書‘status acceptance・・).

    T脈ese are logical types, being not necessar聾y consistent with any existing

    group. For example, an endogamous, immobi藍e, no-connict‘{caste,, is utopian. A

    孟‘垂浮窒?@type”of minority is found in Iogical type 3 in this tab!e, that is, a group

    with eadogamy present, mobllity absent, and connlct present.

    Yinger,s theoretization is somewhat si1hilar to the above and includes four

    variables, namely, af]簡ation by descent, endogamy, acceptance of status by lower

    groups(up to this point it is almost the三dentical with Harris「s discussion・in 1959〕,

    and institutbnal supporζfor differentlal treatment, The systems of caste, minority・

    majority, and class constitute three patterns of strati5cation characterized by

    ‘ψ8ア栩σ糟2’砂”ア〃幼844ゴヵ壱ノ翻’召’ゴ伽.M1nor晦groups“shade off on one side toward

    castes and on the other side toward classes鱒{1965:25)as are shown in the foHow・

    ing table:

    Table 2 Three Patterns of‘君Permanently1, Ra皿ked Diff6rentiation

    a     100          100          100           100

    c      100           ユ00、          90             80

    .伽・Lセ,  ,,,層 ,r曾響曹曾曹1■■■  ■9,■■ ,■9■9■曹響曽曾冒,,,,,層 ■r ,▼,早甲←L醇凸■■ ■1督1腎. 腎腎置層 rr,r ,中L山 邑幽■■邑. 巳・・..r. .曜 r・幽・,.・帽・騨,瞥,・,●暫幽■●●●唱・・層. 騨層 ,,■■ ●■曾-■■1響舶7 ←㌣凸唱 ,魎層i¶←ゆ職■●」 ■■■■

    Mi。。,ity. ・ 100   1°0   8°    70Malority   b  100     90     70      60Systems            c      90           80           60             50

    層暫暫.・層6.,●●匿r●●●■●幽●●幽」幽甲輌■●●噸・,昂,・」曝,騨騨騨・・層駒.,・L引亀・・層欄,■層響騨響騨・.,,r99■■噂,層,-層■,,や,L邑騙L.魎1■.・罫冒層腎専・層,・■●‘・…   ■..●●●.…   ■幽.,..噂・辱.魎●■●引●層,●●■■■r,●層●り凸山仙1■■

    a      80          70          50            40

    ’ClaSS       b      70         60         40           30Systems            c       60            50           30             20

    d      50          40          20            10

    (Yinger 1965:24)

    These two theoretical formulations by Harris and Yinger are characteri2ed by

    the points that caste, class, and minority systems are luxtaposed and compared as

    ranking systems with common denominators while’ オhe factor of“physical and/or

    cultural traits,”which has been most frequently pointed out by sociologists in

    de且ning minority groups, is here eliminated from their central discussions. To

    画Judge whether or not thεconcept of minority group can be apPropriately included

    as one of the stratif至ed systems and whether・or not三t三s sεill a meanLingful term

    謎t…Iimlnating・physical and/。, c。lt。,al f、。t。,s,・。n。 must res。rt t。 empi・i・a1

  • 70

    data. I shall not argue these points in general terms, but on!y wit聡τeference to

    the Japanese case in Bra2il.

    @                                    2

    @   1n exaπIining the Japanese situation量n Brazil I shall use,五rst of all, Wagiey・

    Harris,s formulation(1958}for the foHowing reasons:(1}it is.mo士e‘‘orthodoズ, and

    therefore useful in guiding to access圭o the new data;{2)it圭s llighly comparative;

    and(3)both authors are Latin Americanists and spec呈alists on BraEi難an soc1ety.

    Later I shail pay some consideration to Harr三s and Yinger’s viewpolnts.

    T士aditionally, the exis匙ence of minority groups i丑Bra2il has tended to be den三已d

    by Brazilia血socio正ogists and anthropologists on the basis that‘‘rac1al prejudice”is,

    if any, extremely weak;that the Bfa2ilian Negroes do not for阻groups;and that

    the foreign immigrants assim廷ate too qu量ckly to form minoritiesr The following is

    one of the typical statements made dy the Brazllian scholars on race relations:

    1且Bra2量I no「estriction existed as to sexual intε「course betwee口whites a皿d

    Negr㏄s, and co且sequent量y the Negroes in士hat country llever‘onsldered t11㎝・

    selves a§a皿inferior血1皿ority group. As a matter of f量ctl there is no re5triction,

    whatsQever, ba5εd oロacaste systeIn, nor is there limitation or di3crimip且tioa

    along racia1恥es・…・・hl Brazil we haΨe one of the purest racial de血ocracies in

    the Western Hemisphere〔Ramos 1941:521-522).

    Forelgn immigrants haマe entered mostly量n the souとhem part of Brazi工 In a

    word, the most inten5ive ilnmigratory currents have been dlrected to the cof垂ee

    plantations in Sao Paulo。 and the rest to the virgin forests in the three】範ost

    soutbern states. An author且tatlve scholar on the acculturation and assimilatio蹴of

    the foreign immigrants in、 general in these two ecologically and historicaUy dHferent

    areas is Elnilio Willems who wrote the following i且his overview paper on the

    subject entitled“Minority Suboultures in Bra2il”:

    Large sca1¢imm毫gration and ternporary 5egregatioI乳 of culturally di丘erent

    groups do not inevitably origi皿ate subcultures …n the sense proposed here. 1n

    fact, it would see血thaヒthe Iarge§t coロce就ratloh of im血1gra且ts, who oc¢urred

    in the state of Sao Paulo, did not lead to the formation of di5ti並ct minority

    5ubcultures……The develop鵬ent of minoritγsubcultures,……, has been 1三mited

    ・  almost entire匪y to the three 50uthemmo5t states of Bra2ih Pa士aロ百, Santa

    ・  Catarina, and Rio Grand已do Sul(Wi亘1ems 1958:878-91,                                                                        一

    I He also denied an existence of the Japaτ1ese subculture, in Sao Paulo(lbid. :

             四

    W78).        1                      .               もshe‘ごweakness,, or‘‘absence”of racial prejudice in Bra2il has been interpreted

    by.the Arnerican anthropologist昌studying Bra3三Iiall soclety・in terms ofl‘‘not 7ασ‘4」                                       」

    but吻s5・discrim童nation”on the basis of a tendency represented by a most frequently

    cited Brazilian say三ng ‘‘A rich Negro is.a white皿an,.and a poor white man・一

  • AMinority Group in Bra2i1               71

    is a Negro”{Pierson 1955:43940;Wagley et ah952:153-155, naming only a few).

    At the very begilning of the至r study, Wagley and Harris maintained thaヒ‘‘For

    znany groups, everyone seems to be in agree:nent that minority is the approprlate

    工abe1-the Negroes in the United States, the Japanese in Brazi1, the Puerto Ricans

    in New York, and塾undreds of others t丘rougkout the world.”(1958ξ3}. Thus it is

    assumed by t魚e specia隻三sts of mlnority study and at the same tlme of Bra211ian

    society that the Japanese量n Brazil are one of the most representative minority

    groups in the world. Let us start where Wagley and Harris did. Ut㍊izing a com・

    parative perspective, they established ave basic, unlversa至characteristics of minori・

    ties. I shall examine brie日y al互these aspects with regard to the Japanese」group in

    Brazi1.

                                                        ●     ●i1) 躍κ0アfガ8S{1ア8鋤or{∫伽ご:’8 S2g加召πゴs oプ巳σoηψ~召#s毎‘8 soαε‘1召3.

    Bra2iHs a comp玉ex state society. The Japanese imm量grants first arrived at the

    Bra211ian shore in 1908 immed五ately after a gentlemen’s agreement,, between t血e

    United States and Japan restri砒ed J鋤anes¢㎞migratlon to the United States・They

    三ncreased in nu1nber very qu1ckly三mmediately after the United States introduced a

    quota system for immigrants in.1924. The Japanese immlgra豆ts to Bra2U n㎜ber¢d

    188,615at the outbreak of World War II, and 242,171 by 1963 when the imml一

    gratory current virtually ceased. More than gO%of the血remained there・They and

    their descendants currently form a subordinate seg卑ent in Bra2il.

    (2) ハ4伽oγ琵‘θs尭808s力召cfピ2’カんン3∫‘α’oアσ麗」オ14r4’診プ廓’s説膚ξ‘海α78ゐ6Jd f”’0”召3f8B,躍

    bニリゴ苑¢db規f”{2π∫ε88},2伽’SO∫渉ゐ召50‘」6渉ン.                  ・

                           Ishe Japanese in Brazil have clearly de丘ned physicai traits as well as cultura1

    ones. By virtue of the relative absence of Amerindians in most of £he Bra2ilian

    te「ritory,戸母rticularly where the great6st malorit夕of the Japanese are found and

    a!so because of in almost complete absence of othe至Asian peoples until quite

    recentlyくe. g.,the Chinese since the red revolution in China and the Koreans

    since the late 196αs), the Japanese are apParent童y always‘‘visible’, for any Bra忽ilian・

                           .she southerh Bra2illans have been so much accustomed to the Japanese that today                                   邑

    Inany of the Chln、ese and the Koreans are phys1ca韮ly and culturaUy mixed up with

    and caUed‘‘the Japanese.,, From my personal experience throughとwelve years,

    residence, incIuding four years’fuIl・tlme fleld re8earches, and intensive as weI工as

    extensive trave王s throughout southern Bra2il, Ihave bee皿deepiy i期自pressed by the

    fact that any five or six year old child may easiIy recogni乞e and ident1fy me as a

    Japanese. Children either cal1皿e醐Hei, JapaneseP・without any ill feeHng or s1mply

    1nutter to the血selves‘’Japanese,’, due to their simple curiosity. The immlgaqts

    and their Bra2il-born descendants are indiscriminately called by the Brazilia皿s

    “Japan・・巳”Th…J・pan・・e・ace・ユs台peciHcally deslgn・t・d a・…伽・伽幽{・1ant

  • 72

    eyes).”Any foreign-born or Brazil・born Japanese demonstratiDg hls complete or

    successful cultural assi主nilation into the Brazilian pattern may be sometimes puUed

    back either by the Brazilians or by llis Japanese colleagues with such an expression

    as‘‘掘α3,……¢‘σ7απδoαノ那ぬ(But,……your face doesn’t help you),”This expres一

    sion frequently operates as an internal brake for the Brazil・born Japanese to become

    aone・hmdred percent Bra呂i塁ian. Many young Bra2ilian nisei as well as sansei told

    me that there would have been no problem for their assimilation and socio・economic

    opportunity if they had not had such a physical appearence.

    Although the Japanese are relatively quickly assimilating into the Bra211ian

    cultural pattern, they st量1正maintain many Japanese cultural traits which allow the

    Brazilians to identify them as‘‘different.”Those who assume a犀‘successfur’and‘‘

    窒≠垂堰早C, asslmilation and acculturation of the Japane8e in Brazil tend to point out

    only some most qui6kly changing cultural aspects as indicator8. Language is such

    an example most commonly cited by them. Even it is, however, still obviously

    maintained in some way or another by most of the Japanese fam三lies. The following

    table shows the Japanese Iang岨ge practiced in their family life in 1958 when a

    self・census of the Japanese community in Brazil was conducted at the occasion of

    the semicentennlal celebration of the Japanese重mmigration to Bra2il:

    Table 3 The Japallese上anguage Practiced in the Family Life, by BirthPlace of the Family・Head and工ocality of Residence(1958)         一

    M・i・1y J・脚es・潔羅溜憲i。,d欝轟ue、,

    1. Urban Area

    Immigrant       59.4%        32.9        7.9(Family-headl

    Brazi1・Born        30.4          40.1         29.5(Family・head}

    τ■...冒9.-曾゜...,.「...,9璽9..-....・■■-°-・噛・.・・.曝,,響,響・,.響.層騨國・匿引,・.… @ 幽.申」國■騨.・,騨,・幽.・幽邑画・...騨・.・・.」■.・’ムー.響,,■■邑・’,,,,曾■-9..,r,.曝・騨.騨匿,匿,,引引・」・...騨騨響騨匿・.引巳

    Tota1          壕4.9          36.4         18.7

    II. Rural Area

    Immigrant       75.5         20.9        3.6Brazi!・Bom        45・5           35.3          19.2

    層「.,騨・.,,..,..・・曜噌噛甲曝層騨■・..層・層・層,.「・.引,.・,… @ 」幽・暫・・圃・騨響騨曝雫謄騨一.■帽■・・」」幽」幽・幽’噸騨.・・..・.・・」凸甲甲,響肇骨層一・邑凸白や雫,.層.,.1畠曝,騨層・o・.・.・層騨雫・・齢…  噸騨..・曜・…  」」・凸・由山7_H,.

    Totaユ          60.5          28.1        11.4

    Note:工anguage spoken hy the family head to their children in th¢family iife.

    Source:Comis5五〇de Re¢ens巳amento da Co16nia Japonesa, Descriptive Part 1964:

    152.

                          」`・awh。1・・th・B・a・il-b。・n J・pan・・e cam・t・ad。pt P・・t・gue・e rel。tiv,1y

    qui(:kly and there is little doubt that Japanese as a spoken Ianguage in everyday

    life shall disapPear in a’few generations. This does not, however, mean that the

    Japanese do not have any‘‘d雌erent’cuItural traits,, altogether.

    Tlle point whether or Ilot these spec1al physical and cultural traits of the

    Japanese三n Bra2il are‘‘held in Jo”83f88鍛by the dominant segments of the sodety”

  • AMinorlty Group in Bra露i1            78

    constitutes one of the central issues of this paper. It will be, tllerefore, treated in

    a8eparate part below. This is the matter ofθ‡’εプπo’‘’αs5‘プ冨‘σf’ω山y the Brazilians,

    and not an翻εη辺J f4θ㍑ff’y prob正em of the Japanese themse匡ves.

    13} ル躍π0ア’距854アθε8’ノLfOκ5‘’0欝㍑,3’∫3占0μ”4’o留’〃8プiうy’乃8砂8‘’認〃己7”3 ω晦ゴ‘み

    漉ε’r鋭8初1}8アs3毒θ2劇6θπdうン訪θ⑫ε‘ゴ必4’5αうf’f’f召5ω痂cん訪858占rfπ81

    The Japanese in Brazil form a distinct group, that is,“a self-conscious unlt.,,

    The‘‘Japanes♂is not only a category externally classified by the symboiic system

    of the Brazi工ians, but also a‘‘group”formed on the basls of ethnic identity玉n

    terms of‘‘Japaneseness,, which usually does not contradict strongly with the fact

    that the Brazi1・born are Brazilians in their nationality and their loyalty. In their

    π復’foπ虚」’鹿漉ゴむ[,粗ost of the Brazil・born, especially the educated, are ideo且09三cally

    ‘Brazilians,, as they are taught oH…cial玉y and informaIIy by the Bra2il重an institutions

    as well as by their Bra2ilian neighbors and friends. In their group identi5cation,

    however, they are’‘Japanese,,, or better, as they Iike to be called,‘‘NipPo・Brazi1・

    ians”and‘‘nisei.”There are many who react to be called‘‘Japanese”because they

    think it oPPoses their identity as‘‘Bra2ilians四and/or also because they think this

    Iabel differentiates them somewhat negatively. But most of the Bra2i夏lans of冗on一

    Japanese origin continue calling them Japaロese.川Despite this, they do not react

    much when they are called‘’nisei.,, The university students and the educated white

    collar nisei tend to ident1fy themselves more with‘‘Bアσε‘’fぬ幽{Brazilianness)”@                                          ■whereas the non-educated, the less-educated, and the old middle class nisei more

    with“∫apaneseness”(See more details in, Maeyama工973:240-272). Desplte this

    generel tendency, when asked where they were in a Iine with two extremltles一

    one』 奄獅р奄モ≠狽奄獅〟e‘100%Brazilian,’and the other indicating‘‘100%卜Japanes♂一, most

    of the university student nisei, who are generally considered to represent wlthln

    the Japanese community the segrnent that identi丘es ltself least with“Japaneseness,”

    answered thet they were to be located exac亡1y in the』middle(亡hls research was

    conducted ma童nly by Ann Sutherland and Am色iia Hiroko Skimidu in the metropolitan

    S巨oPaulo region during 1966-1967, most of the results of which have not yet been

    published. A part of the data collected is found in, Corne1しlutaka, and Srnitb

    1968;Shimidu 1971’;1973:476-486).

    Seich6-no・Ie is a Japanese religious sect which had 15,630 followers and 553

    associations in 1966 throughout Brazil. Among them the unmarried Bra2i1・born

    youth maintained 130 associations with 4,500 memberships. The sect was a㎞ost IOO

    劣Japanese, and predominantly old middle class, at the time I conducted an intensive

    「esearch during 1966L1967(Maeyalna 1967). Japanese values and ethnic identity

    as Japanese together with its symbolic dramati諺ation in emperor worship characterige

    the sect. The Bra2il-born members have developed a peculiar ideology with respect

    to their relationshlp with Brazil and Japan. Bra311 is for them加一ゐo勧(mother

  • 74

    c6untry〕whereas Japan量s so・々o肋(ances廿al country)although the two co並cepts

    mean exactly the same thlng 1n Japan, that is,“father・1and.’,工n Selch6-no・Ie

    .r童tuals, the worship of the Japanese E憩peror, which had been a central pseudo・

    rellgious practice of the Japanese community in Bra2i1 before World War II, stil1

    p呈ays a crucial role. The young nisei members do not oblect to this worship, but

    they, as one of my informants expressed very well,‘‘forget the Emperor when

    they practice the rites at home individually.鱒

    The ideal image of the Japanese・Bra2ilians propagated by the“headquarters,’

    (Society for the D三ffusion of the Japanese Language in Bra鑑il)of the Japanese

    schools as well as by the Japanese Language Teachers Cooperative is訪θBプπ2’距α㎎s

    0ノルカ配ηθ5θorfgfπZぴみ0‘0撹アf加‘館σ0凄∫〃召砂’o漉8孤9”θ’ψη昭撹0∫Bハ鵯甜うン ””f麗8 0∫

    ’ゐθルメ》α㎎ε386曜伽アα1∫7α4”fo22.

    In the metropolitan city of S温o Paulo, there 1ive about 200,000 Japanese in

    the late 1970’s, more than two-thirds of whom’are Brazil-born. It is estimated

    that缶ey form about 400 nisei’as80ciations which tend to be largel夕8eparated

    among them in terms of social class, that is, between the new middle class and

    the old middle class. The old’iinmigrants usual正y form.their own assoc三ations

    outslde this framework which areロot. mostly class-oriented。 The youhg immigrants

    also do not participate i且the nisei associations, which are‘‘nise呈associations叩in

    its str三ct sense. The postwar young immlgrants are more inclined to form informaI

    soc三a星・networks and loosely」knit inforl加al groupings rather than voluntary associ一

    ations. The overall brganization of Sociedade Brasileira da Cultura Japonesa(Bra・

    2ilian Sodety of the Japanese Cultロre) represents symbolically and actually’the

    entife Japanese cornmunity in Brazil. The community at Iarge sends the圭r ethnic

                                                       げ窒?垂窒?唐?獅狽≠狽奄魔?刀@to the local and federal Bra2ilian governments. The hisei politicians

    are u8uaUy not concerned with the national problems a息such, but rather with the

    ‘oJ∂寵α{colony)issues within the national framework. In this way the Japanese in

    Bra2il form an ethhically as weH a忌racialIy oriented“community”as a s6炉‘o器‘ゴo粥

    麗”甜.                                 『

    The Japanese do not perhaps suffer any special disabilitles with regard to

    1natefial resources, but do Iacldo some extent access to some kinds of prestige

    and power. Today the Japanese group in Brazil I is characteristically’π1iddl6 class.

    By virtue of such’factors as the“丘t time’, of their arrivar in・Brazi1(e. g.,

    1ands were easily available during the decline of the coffee plantations), the eco・

    nomic prosperity 4ue to WOrld War II, their high value on hard working and close

    solidarity based on their ethnic organi鑑atio且s, the Japanεse immigrants’upwardmobility in the socio・economlc ladder has been relatively quick In the thirti母s,                              、

    nlore’ 狽?≠氏f90%of the Japanes61ived in the rufar area.・In 1937, the agriculturaI

    po$itions of’the rural Japanese population was a8 follows:35;5%small landholders;

    33.1%tenure farmers;11.9%sharecroPPers;and 1915%ω’o切5(rufal wage.laborers)

  • AMinority Group in Brazi1            75

    Table 4 Class Structure of the Japanese in Brazi互ian Sooiety

    :Noロー㎏r1cultura!Sector{王958}

    Class         Foreign・Born    Brazn・Bom     Tota璽

    New Middle Class     13%        25%     20%01d Midd!e Class      75        52      63

    Wage-workers       12        23     17

    Tota1             100%          100%      100%

    Number         32豊407        33,456     65,863

    Note:All the ma!es alld females IO years o工d and over. Kindred workers are

    classi五ed且ot as wage・workers, but as old middle class.

    Source:Computed from the data presented in, Comissao de Rece皿seamento da・

    Co16ロia Japone5a, Statistical Part 1964:124.

    {Comiss瓢o de Recehseamento da Col6nia Japonesa, Descriptive Part 1964:314). In

    1958,about twenty years Iater,45%of the㎞were Iiving 1n the cities. Of thetotal non-agricultural sector 83%were middle class, of whlch 20%were whlte                                                 7

    colIar~vorkers and 63、%were small commercial or industrial entrepreneurs.,

    As’seen above, the Japanese im工血igrants have risen in the Bra2i夏ian soeial

    1adder relatively quickly, but within a limited framework. No「Japanese葺eem to

    have been allowed to enter the Brazilian‘‘upper class、”Roughly speaking,‘督Japanese

    in the Brazilian upper class’, i8 unconceivable. The idea of{ソ加召η吻’プosゴ妙o館2s83

    (Japanese plantation masters)”does not today mget a strong reaction from the part

    of the Bra2ilians, the fact which may be accounted.for, not in亡erms of absence

    of disabilities of the Japanese peoPle, but in terms of the global socia互change

    through which the past traditionalプ加θπ虎f7001igarchy has lost most of their

    prestige, status, and power.                   ・

    (4) M伽拍召ノ3雇ρ切ση1‘,τoア∫砂f5珈2惣5,πf髭召{」ゐツロ7〃θo∫4{想c8撹記σ繊o海fsc4ρ配う’8

    0∫0撰’fα∫伽9S翼‘‘β8d伽99θπθアα∬0腐・8〃επ 勉 ‘ゐε,αむSεπ‘80ノ惣α4’砂0妙{2ア{瀞甜

    砂θ‘f認‘掘訪7α’or♪海ysfc配”fα銘s.                                                   「

    This point三s very clear. ApParent physical traits are always present. Only

    offsprings of intermarriage, which will be discussed in the next section, may

    become‘ざconfusing”for those who try to identify them in ethnic ter櫛s、 They are,

    however, not so numerous. Identl負cation of Japanese descent is enough for one to

    be冒judged to’belong to.the Japanese group. Even tぬose who reject the idea of

    their belonging t。 the Japanese c。㎜uni圃mit to be“nisei”and t。 bei皿g called

                                               1gJapanese.”Membership of o狂springs of interethnic marriage to the Japanese group

    is today voluntary, and they are, except in the cases of Black・Japanese uhion’s

    of飴prings, ordinarily welcomed. The・same d1d not hapPen up to the late 195αs・』

    Few mixed elements join ln practice the Japane8e group, however.

    There are some Brazilians of Ron・Japanese or三gin who P註rt量cipate in the昌acti-.

    vities of the Japanese・vo星untary associations.、 They are not rejected, sometimes

  • 76

    welcome, so long as they remain a sort ofご‘guest members.”Even after acqu辻ing

    full membership to a speci丘c association and participating more or Iess in all spheres

    of the activities, they may not go no畑a1正y beyond the Iimit of‘‘sympathi2ers.”

    None of theln come to identify themselves voluntarily 6r in some other wa】『(if any)

    as‘亭Japanese.’,

    (5} ハ売7τoノ∫ち7ρ召oゆ傭,の‘ゐo∫‘80プ”8‘召ss’砂,勘¢4‘02παr7yω髭ゐ伽‘ぬε970~ψ.

    The Japanese in Bra2il are a highly endogamous group三Endogamy is a rule.

    In the prewar period it used to be not only supported by norms, bu亡also lpain・

    ta量ned through sanction and ostracism by the Japanese local co加munity and kinship

    group. Up to the 1950,s intermarriage’used to be conceived as a sort of ethno一

    sulcide.,, Today ostracism because of‘‘violation’, of the endogamou寧rule is not

    usually enforced although many intermarried coupIes leave the locaI community,

    especially in the rural areas and small towns. Tlle sanctlon is today usually mail1・

    tained within the kinship group. Broadly speaking, intermarriage between an

    educated Japanese and an educated Bra2ilian, particularly when it hapPens i皿ab19

    city like S員o Paulo, tends to face a relatively weak reaction. The Japanese re皐ction

    Japanese and an uneducated,10wer・class, particularly colored Bra2ilian.

    Table 5 Change in Rate of Intereth且ic Marriage of the J丑panese

    in Brazil by se肛

                                                   印oeriod        Male       Female

    1908-1922             1.5%              0.4%

    1923-1927              4.3                 0.9

    1928-1932              2.O                 O.3

    1933-1937              2.0                0.2’

    1938-1942              2.3                0.3

    1943-1947              2、8                0.7

    1948-1952              4.7                 1.0

    1953-1958              6.1                 1.8

    1958-ig62             14.1                7.4

    I    Sourd}:Comiss且o d{…Recens巳amento da Co16nia Japonesa, Statistical Part   ’  1

    1964:356.

    As the above table shows, interethnic marriages had been insignificant untiI

    the end of the 1950’s. Harris suggests that when more than 50%of the m㎝bers

    Inarry within a glven group, the group三s endogamous(1967:308-9}. Until relatively

    recently, more than 95%of tLe Japanese used to marry w三thin the group. At the

    turn’from the丘fties-to the slxties, however, the situation cbanged radica11払This

    fact is frequently referred e量ther by sociologists or by the very group members as a

    defi nite-indicator of the recent radical ghanges in the general Japanese grouP

    str廿しtura’It is sald that the ass三milatiohai process-is.now in a‘‘rush.,, In fact, it

  • AMinority Group in Bra2i1               77

    is striking to observe that the rate of intermarriage among the Japanese 血ales

    suddenly jumped from 2.8%in the forties to 6%in the middle負fties and 14%in

    the early sixties. Although I cannot here discuss thls point in detaii, I would Iike

    to point out a danger in interpreting this particu量ar change in ternls of more general

    structural change. In part, it can be attributed to the changing Japanese emigration

    pattem. A number of slngle male adu里ts have migrated individually to Bra2il in

    the血fties, part重cularly during the second half of the揮fties, immediately after the

    postwar diplolnatic normalization between the two qountries, resulting in a radica夏

    mbalance in sex ratio with董n亡he Japanese group.

    Table 6 T血e Japane5e Immigration to Bra2il during 1951-1962

    Ag・  M・1・  F・m・1・  {M器購m。1,)

    1D・-29         14,446          7,248                r7,198

    Tota1     25,593      17,507          8,086

    Sour{:e:Comis3ao de… 鱒・,oP.cit.:398-401.                           P

    Forεxample, in accordance with a mutua正agreement made between two agri・

    cultural cooperatives, one in Japan and the other of the Nippo-Brazilian community,

    thbusands of Japanese male adults were systematically recruited from the Japanese

    rural areas and sent to Brazi1. In 1958, there were 88,604 females and 93,753 males

    in the 10-29 age group. There was doubtlessly a demographic pressure. It重s obvious

    that the三mmigrant youth.got nisei girls as their mating-partners and nisei boys in

    turn Bra211ian girls. This fact faiIs’to.exp!ain, however, a jump in intermarriage

    rate of the females:in bthe early sixties, This丘gure may be more closely related to

    astructural change. Although interエnarriage is certainly increasing, about 90%of

    the Japanese in Bra2il were marrying within the group at Ieast up to the sixties・

    If we consider the factthat a given l @Japanese is surrounded by IOO Bra2ilia皿s because

    the Japanese population constitutes only O.6% of the total population in Braz11

                            【狽??奄秩@in.marriage rate is extraordinar置ly high.

    A呂far as these f至ve characとeristics are concerned, the Japanese group in Bra2i1

    is certainly one of the moきt typical minorities. One point is, however, still left to

    be examined.

    @                                 3

    @                                               置

    @  It is a very complicated matter to discuss empirically whether or not the Japanese

    are given“low esteem”by the Bra乞ilians and in what way they receive“differentia1

    and unequa隻treatmel1ゼ’in their life in Bra2i1. Today many of the Japanese them・

    se夏ves deny existence of such a treatment;others admlt it. In the prewar period,

    most of them unanimously complained about unequal treatments、 The cliche about

  • 78

    the‘‘absence of rac董al prejudice in BraziP is dominant even among the Japa皿ese.

    Many of the Japanese recognize that those w勧o hold more ‘‘radal prejudice,, are

    the Japanese themselves, rather than the Brazi圭lans, t』e malorlty people.

    In this section, I shall deal only w圭th Brazilian attitudes in the face of the

    “Japanese problem”chieHy in the pre・World War旺period.. The prewar situation

    三s,in spite of many c豆a重ms to the contrary, not thoroughly different from today’s

    si加atio江In ady event, a diachronic approach is a1ways indispensable particularly

    ln dealing this kind of topic.(工intend to write a s6parate paper on the present

    s五tuation.)Here, I use mostly materials published by the Braz孟lians, therefore they

    are inevitably the elite’s opinions. Thus the Japanese problem is a Bra2ilian

    problem.

    There have been three major man童fested anti・Japanese movements on the nationa韮

    1evel in Bra露i玉since the first arriva童of the Japanese to Brazi1. In 1923, in response

    to, it was said, the American idea on emigration of the American BIack people之o

    the Amazon region in Brazil, Fidelis Reis, a member of the C伽ε毎40s D帥蛎σ面s

                                           凸iHouse of Representatives), issued project no.3910n the strict prohibition of the

    “black race,, and the r弓striction of the yellow race”to BraziL‘‘Yellow rac♂皿eant                                                        {

    in practice・the Japanese(Botelho 1925}. During several years following this projec重,

    there were many debates on the issue either in the Hou8e of Representatives or on                                                                      一

    ngwspapers.. This move粗ent was also directIy related to the restr三cting l磁mlgration

    Iaw established in 1924 in the United States. In this way it,was only partially an                                I

    anti・Japanese problem. In 1933「34, the restriction of foreign immigration was                                                                      ’

    di5cussed in the-na㌻ional constituent asse珈b王y and as a result the quota systeτn

    was adopted, after the United States, in the body of the constitution. The major                                                      一

    promoters of the restriction law were Miguel Couto, Artur Neiva, and Xav圭er de             I                                                                                                                                                                        I

    Oliveira. The center of the debates was Japanese immigratlon, the protection’of

    the na重ional Iaborers, and皿ational defense. This was explicitly an anti・Japanese

    movemen.t and characterized by the strong nationalis皿o茸the Get丘lio Vargas r色gime.                                 .

    In another national constituent assembly lleld in 1946 the Japanese三mmigration、wa呂

    again speci丘cally dlscussed.ヒroject no.3165 presented by Miguel Couto{the son

    of the chlef promoterρf the former restriction law in 193iジ34)and. Josε、Augusto                                                         帆

    stated,‘’Regard玉ess of age and birthplace, all Japanese im無igrants are prohibited

    from entering the country.”Only the president’s vote preve且ted the project(99 ayes

    and 99 nays)from being wr1tten lnto tke new national constitution{Rep丘blica dosEstados Unidos do Brasi11950371-76). Many voted against the project,且ot because                                    中

    of the Japanese immi8rants, but only because suoh a sentence doe$not fit thenational constitution・of.a democratic country. This hapPened lmmediately-after                                            【                                                     一昌

    some notorious iP・group factional terroris與(mainly by a secret society Shindo

    Remmei)was carried out among the Japanese communi之y. It must be said,. however,

    that・theヤoting also strong且y・reHected’the basic』Bra2ilian view8・of the Ja癖anese

  • AMinor董ty GrOup in Bra鑑il               7g

                                                    辱垂?盾垂撃?D

    Theロ10st systematic and wltolesale anti・Japanese movement was that of 1933一

    正934.Many publlc opinions, stereotypes,‘‘重heories,”etc. came out. I shall sketch

    below some of the repre呂entative Bra2ilian ideas, mainly frorn thls period, on the

    Japanese people.

    Miguel Couto, the principal and皿ost influential promot¢r of tbe movement,

    university professor of med圭cal sciences, president of the Brazilian Academy of

    Medical Sciences in Rio de Janeiro, and member of the House of Representatlves,

    was a.1so one of the good studen匙s of Japanese cu王tur{転In a conξerence held by the

    Brazilian Assoclation of Education, on July 2,1927, he gave a lecture entitled‘‘ムb

    Bグゆε〃561地π,η」Pプoう」82駕」磁‘’o鯉!’ノ1Ei4潔‘ロφ040」Pωo(1蔽Bra2il There is only

    one National Problem:The Educatlon of People),’and later published it in a booklet

    form. In it he said:

    ……why don’t we follow the model of the great S岨Rising Empiτe~Iinvoke

    that mode1, in homage to the g韮oriou5, e盟traordinary and ad面rable people,

    which gave t・七 狽??@w。rld, fr。眼he c。n伽es。f Asia, the m・3t c。脚1εtε1e580n

    of wisdom with regard to the use of government,……And for paying the homage

    nobody五ts better thaロthe one who procla1ms untiringly the irreπ1edlabl已disaster

    to which.Brazihs devoted when th巳,,姻rI鱈σapanese ships・軸…且otεof the trans・

    1ator), in their uninterrupted goi血g and com量皿9, haveΨoided aU thelr cargoe3          ‘

    iロto the Nippo・Bra2i!ian territories(Couto工927:8).

    In hls speech at a meeting of the national constituent assembly on February

    16,1934,he s亡ated:

    王fyou are’ロotせautious enough in time and in eΨery way』, Br鞍zil shaU tum,

    with1n a small portion of time, to a Jap呂nεs已possession。・-Here 5hall be

    Occidenta王Shn Empire, a5 is a!ready decided Hlere among the people of Sロn

    kislng. They arrive here and e5tab1三sh quickly thε1r domination:now, as you

    ㎞ow, the masters are coming, who are your master5(Rep丘bllca dos Estados

    Unidos do Brasi1工935:.80).             ,

                                                                 Ige was qui垂e aware of. the underdeveloped conditions of Bra諾i1.’Japan was for

    him in some way a“developed”oountry particularly bec環use of its successful insti一

    tutionalization of education among tbe ofdinary people. Hls prlmary worry and

    fear was doubtlessly that uneducated Brazllian ooムoolos(countrymen or hicks)were

    greatly且egatively handicapPed in competing with the culturally equipPed Japanese

    hnmigrants for assuring廿1eir三ivelihood. He intended to stop the Japanese immi一

    grants from conllng i皿great nunlbers and to educate the BraEIUa醜¢8δoo’05 after the

    Japanese national experience in view of br玉nging about the駐ational development of

    Brazi1. In this way h皇s. anti“Japaロese. act量vities were a l strategy for h三s overa11

    pro三ect of茸atio職五develoP血ent. This is why he was献stubbomly,”as the Japanese

    folks understand, anti唖Japaiese and extreme三y nation嘩istic. .

    Artur Neiva,was one of the負rst and most active anti・Japanese ideologlsts..Like

  • 80

    Miguel Couto, his knowledge on Japan and the Japanese immigrants in Bra2il was

    not super負cial. For some time he l童ved三n Japan and later he hapPened to work

    for the Japanese imエnigrants in Brazi1. Besides being a professional scholar,, he had

    abu且dant行r呂t-hand experiences on・Japan and the immigrants. He remarked at a

    meeting of the natlonal constituent assembly on February 3,1934:

    Dlrecting the serΨice of prophy・1axis against malaria, I was able to proΨe

    perfectly in what conditions the Japaneseぬave arrived, and to co蓋1ate their

    capacity of work aロd of resistence、 and their e缶cieロcア, in comparison to those

    of our humble and despisedノε‘α{hiok……note of the translator)・…・・

    The Japanesεperil is皿ot in the question of the super三〇rity or inferiority

    of the race-because I don’t have such a prejudice-but in the superiority

    of organi2ation. The”功δε3{slightly despised designation of the Japanese-note

    of the translator)are the miracle men of the organization, whereas we are the

                                                    ’垂窒盾р奄№凵@of disorganization(R已p丘blica dos Estados U11i⑳s do Bras…11935:vo1.7,

    337).

    Celso Vie量ra continued writing for some decades in favor of the restriction of

    foreign immigration, particularly of the Japallese.正n his wel1.cited book沌sヵ8‘’os

    40βノ㏄fJ(1936), he remarked:                 一

    The Japane5e worker offers the model of hard working,.patient, silent,

    honest, aロd cheap ilnmigrants. What else would Sao Paulo丑i茸e to get P

    Certainly, nObody loses his sleep丑nd tranquility bef。re the Japa肥se

    groupings, which are dispεr5ed in t亭e immensurableΨa5tness of Brazil……How

    can we Bra2ilianize the Japanese and their offspring5?C7三e圭ra 1936:35).

                                                           ”vho does not admire in.this‘o’㈱the discipli且ed and hard working spirit?

                                                      1Pf we isolate him as worker or farmer,11e is the ideaI type, wbo would never

    reb・1・gai・・t the meanness・f・alary and th・甲・1ght。f・burden”(lbid・:26)・

    In these sentences, we can see the typical attitudes of the rullng class people

    in Bra2il in respect to what they expected fro皿the immigrants, substitutes for

    former slave laborers・The Japanese are here conceived as the ideal employees or

    servants in the eyes of the power hOlders, but not t』e‘‘ideal human.”He was

    nevertheless against the Japanese量mmigration because of their inabllity for assimi・

    Iation and because of the cultural, psychologica1, soc三al,’and physical distances

    (lbid.:38).

    Mario de Sampaio Ferraz, in his widely read book entitledα麗2αプθム肋cゴo撒Jf忽ア

    (工938),discussed the points that despite their admirable and intelllgent nature the

    Japanese are not adaptable and do not五t to the racial and ethnic milieu in Bra猛i1

    because of the distanoe separatlng the two peoPles, that the problem is not of

    superiority or.inferiority but of race(he admits that the J包panese磁ay be in some

    respect superior even to Europeans), and that due to the laok of edudation, orgaτ1i・

    ・atl。n, and。the・i・・tituti。ns,“the s。・s。f the c。unt・y”are n。t able t。。。mp。t,

    with the culturally armed foreign i加migrants such as the Japanese量n th6 process

  • AMinority Group in Bra2il                ・臼1

    of the natural selectibn(Ferraz 1938:三43一工50). He cites a fact that the Bra窪ilia捻

    governエnent gives free lands to the natlonals who in tum sell them at once to the

    foreign imπ1igrants(lbid.:150).

    Xavier de Oliveira’s polnt was the JapaPese militaris凱and hnper量alism.‘‘The

    next Manchuria圭n South Amerlca will be Brazi1”is hls famous phrase.

    As seen above, these promoters of the anti・Japa豆ese move1nent were ser三6usly

    concerned with the national problems. They did not talk about the君‘量ow esteem”

    of the Japanese people, but rather their p。sitive, eminent characters. All of th㎝

    admitted that the national peasants and workers were not able to compete with

    the Japanese immigrants.

    互am quite aware of the fact that these ‘‘of五c三al’, att圭tudes do not necessari匪y

    coincide with the national leaders, persona1 fee王ings and that they are not those of

    the ordinary men in everyday Iife. But these facts have, I think, still some value

    in considering the nature of the Japanese minority group in Brazil and the Brazman

    attitudes toward it. In a highly relative sease,∫apan is a developed,, country and

    Brazil is an‘‘underdeveloped,’country・In the prewar・period when more than 90%

    of the∫apanese were llving in the rura匪area,甜Abra2ilian董zat董on”meant virしually

    for the Japanese‘‘acaboclizat圭on,,(creolization in a devolutional sense. C“うo‘10 is

    here understood as hick). The term nisel,, was liable・to carry a sense’of‘‘spoilt

    Japanese”at且east to the foreign・born Japanese. The Bra乞il-born Japanese were

    viewed by others and frequently by themselves as‘‘backward”in’compafison to

    the newly arrived’「immigrants. This was not so much due to their ethnocentrism.

    It was partly due to the‘‘developed”and.‘‘uhderdeveloped”cOnditions. To marry a                                                    ■

    Bragilian peasant boy or girl meant for the Japanese to‘君marry down.”

    To look at this point, we may dist董nguish two major gro⑫s of the Bra2ま1五ans,

    that is, the‘‘classes”and,the‘‘masses”(Leeds 1965:397). The oligarc卜io‘℃lasses”

    are very di匠erent from the‘‘masses,,(or the‘‘10wer people,りin their symbolic and

                                                     ,  .唐盾モ奄≠戟@attltudes in general and in those toward the Japa註ese」minority group in

    particular. For example, the‘‘classes}, may look down upon the Japanese, and the{‘

    Pnasses”may give some‘‘high esteefn押to them. But this is not always the case.

    There are many reversed cases. The BraziHan national pattern is highly’di僅u5ed

    in both sectors. Moreover, the fact that the“aristocratic”co匠ee planters invarlably

    100ked down upon the・Japanese’can hardly be lnterpreted primarily量n terlns of ●                                                                                                                                                                                                                              L

    高高盾窒奄狽凵|malor正ty relations. The anti・Japanese ideologists clted above belong person一

    ally to the oligarchies,‘but they discuss the topic with relat三〇n to the‘‘masses”

    and to the nation at Iarge. Although Harris, neglecting the fa6tor of‘‘physical・or

    cultural tralts,’, classl5ed the Bra2i!lan‘‘classes”(not in LeedS, sense)as minorlty

    9「oups, I canhot se自arate successfully tlle Bra2i1…ans into divided groups in’contra・

    dlstinctio皿to the Japanese minority group. The conoeptual’oPPositlon between the

    ‘‘

    ara2il…a皿s,, and the ‘‘Japanesげ・is so strong that despite the strong di鉦erentiation

  • 82

    the“Brazilians”are one三n the Japanese eyes、 we must take into account the factor

    of“nation”to understand this point. Today most of the∫apanese in Brazll mailltain

    their national identity and loyalty to Brazil, rather than to Japan. This interplay

    of the national and group identifications constitutes ai30ne of the central issues of

    疏inority・majority relations. The∫apanese in Brazil are so strongly culturally and

    ‘‘

    窒≠モ奄≠撃激Wde魚ned by the Brazilians and by tllemselves that I cannot, as far as the

    Japanese minority is concerned, eliminate the factor of‘‘speclal cultural and or

    physlcal traits,, from heuristically de丘ning mlnorlty group. Once it is neglected,

    there is no reason for me to apProach the Japanese in Brazil in terms of‘‘minority

          押№窒盾浮吹E

    @                                   4

    @  Wagley and Harris did not distin窪uish the term“minorlty”froln.“ethnic group.”

    They chose the term minority simp!y because of‘‘its wider internationa王currencゾ’

    (1958:4).If one distinguishes lninority as“strat脆ed group,’from ethnlc group as

    ’‘獅盾氏|stratified group,,, he probably classifies the∫apanese 童n Brazil as an ethnic

    groupl I cannot take this viewpolnt, however, because non-strat三丘ed ethnic group

    1s also sublect to exploitation by the dominant, oyerprivileged group. To my mind,

    it is clear that minority-malority relations are those of dominant group・v圭s・註一vis

    dom量nated group三n・terms of power distribution. Minority group should be de5ned

    primarily in terms of power. Power is, however, di伍cult to measure, and it is

    d三f五cult to observe’,(Kah11957:10). I understand sociologists tend to put 三t 三n                    馳

    brackets strategically・It is interesting to note that many Brazilians see thg power                                    9

    of the Japanese nation 1n the immigrants who have tended, in turn, to regard

    themselves as々‘別fπ {abandoned peoPle or subjects) by their Ioyal nation.’In this

    way a tiny group of abandoned people’, was in some sense‘づthreatening”to a

    huge country. The factor of institutional呂upPort proposed by Yinger is for me not

    acentral issue, because its lack is so genera正ized in Lat1n American systerns, for

    example, even in many slave systems・ConHict as a variable(Harr三s 1967)does

    not help much in de且ning minority, because it is universal in any hulnan relations.

    Iam not convinced by the thesis of looking at systems of caste, class, and minor圭ty

    as a contlnuum. I think they do not have enough colnmon denomlnators to be

    treated i算acontinuum・・Minority group seems not to be always strat爺ed三n                                                              一g‘唐浮垂?虫O〇r叩and“infer玉or・”or Iow and high・ranking、 By minority-majority relations

    Iunderstand tentatlvely those between dominant group and dominated group in

    terms of power distribution within a framework of a nation, both of which are

    endogamous groups sylnbollcaHy identined by the田embers and classified by others

    as such in terms of cultuごal and/or physical differences.

  • AMinority Group ln Bra露i1            88

    」                                    .

    @ Bibliograplly

    Botelho,01iΨeira

    1925 乃η”露i8ア“fδoノのoπ召5α, Rio de J…凱dro:Co】rnm量ss五〇de Finan穿as↓da Camara dos                                                                            .

    Deputados.                              一冒

    Comiss巨o de Recenseamento da Co16nia Japonesa                     ・

    1964 丁肋ノψ朗郎ε」1加,3ま8ノ副’f躍Br爾f1,2vols., Tokyo:The University of Tokyo Press.

    Corne11,」. B., Sugiyama Iutaka,&R. J. Smith

    1968 苗38’Bfα‘”3ゲd’甜3∫”εof‘’ハ酬:Bf42三1, Austin:T章e UniYersity d正Texas, mimεogr.

    Couto, Migue1

    1927 Nbヱヲプ侭ε」36・肱2’,πPプoゐ伽,鵡ハ兀砿’o”認:’ゑE6rκ々φσdo Pωo, Rio de Jane…ro:Jornal                                                                L

                      .р潤@Commercio.

    Ferra2, Mario de Sampaio

    1938 Cノ認群σハ砺‘∫o栩~々のド,S査o Paulo:Roth5child.                                           、

    Harris, Marvin1959 ’‘Caste, Class, and Minority,.”εoα’αJ Fbκお,37:3, pp.248-54.                         ㍉                                                               ¶

    1967 ‘‘The C且assification’of Strati丘ed Groups.”i皿εoo’d S’鐸κ’群¢, S’デ冨解‘副諭,,副d

    ハ伽f互r砂,ed. by Anthony Leeds, Washington:Pan American Union, pp.298-324.

    Kahl, Joseph A.             」

    1957 丁肋ノ三,,昭ア’‘朗α躍5ε5’ノ’‘‘’ε伊β,N. York:Rinehart&Company.      ’

                                                    .                                                                                         ,

    P967 ‘‘Caste, C1“ss, and Slavery:The Taxonomic Problem,”in C儒’o副、配鷹8’ω”ψ畔㎡’”o

    〆1砂デαπみ{理},eds. by Anthony de Reuck&Julie Knight, Boston:Uttle, Brown&Co.,

    ’    pp.5-16.

    Leeds, Anthony

    1965 ‘‘Brazilian Careers and Social Structure,,’in Co3’f{貯,ψoノ群ンα‘”置‘r63副εθo∫犀ゴε3

    qr工頭”.4耀爾‘ロ, eds. by D。 B. Heat11&R. N. Adams, N. York:Random Hou5e,

    PP.379-404.                                              櫓  幽                                                              ’

    Maeyama, Takashi

    1967 01ガ3‘8γ側’直ε!1」配禮1‘8乙’々o’E5’故ノ048 乙砺;畠 3{煎{z 」嗣‘8ゴ03ピzルρoπ融ロαπ 55ρP齪40, S.

    Paulo:Escola de Sociologia e Polf亡ica de S. Paulo, mimqogr.          .

    1972 夏‘Ancestor, Emperor, and I血migrant:Religlon and Group Identification of the

    ∫a脚ese in Rural Bra2il,”海伽ゴq!乃㍑・五”群’‘側ε’f’4f侭&1伽’8助bf/3ジ14:                                             .

    2, pp. 151-182.

    1973“Religl巨o, Parentesoo, e as Clas5e5 M6dias dos JaponEses no Brasil Urba皿o,”in

    113餌’”塵f’岬如β乃庇8ア卿δ0603ノの催欝お切Bノ硲f’,eds. by. H. Saito&T. Maeyama,

    Sao Paulo:Vo2es e Editora da Universidade de S且o PauIo, pp.2{O-272,

    Myrda1, Gunner

    1964肋』”1{げまα蹴D鑓伽,,1ロ,N. York:McGraw・H刊1(First publlshed in 1944).

    Pierson, Doゴald

                .@                                                        7P942 .ハた8アσ硲f”研砿f’,Ch{cago:The University of Chicago Press.

    1955 ‘“Race Relations in Portuguese America,1, in 1~麗θ況ε’㎡’伽5伽Wbr’ぜP傑ミ加‘’面o, ed.

  • ’84

    by A. W. Lind, Ho皿01u1u;University of Hawaii Press, pp.433-462.

    Ramos, Arthur

    1941 ‘‘The Negro{n Brazi王,’, Tみβノb㎜」ρゾ飽gro E49κ己だoπ, 10:3, PP.515-23.

    1947盈’oゴ師o∂』”’ノψo’08三ロβ榔f’a’惚、2Ψ01s.. Rio de Jane量ro:Casa dos Estudantes

    do Bras三1.

    Rep丘blioa do5 Estado5 U且idos do Brasil

    1935/1950 」4襯3血ゑ33伽配6σハπ40fσ癬Coπ5’伽‘”’ε, Rめde Janeiro:Imprensa NaciO服1.、

    Schermerhqm, R, A.                     .                            ’

    ,  1949 丁加3ε0躍P8{ψ’8, Boston:D. C. Heath.

                                             .       ’rh1πnidu, Am61韮a H.                    . 、 1                                                                                                                                                                                  .                                 冒                                        F

    「 1971 丁血σ幽3f,π∫’4”oπo/Bア儒”f朗一迄1}醐おβ〔南旬召プ3f’コ5f忽{灘’3, Gai!1esville:、U皿iversヨty・of

                                                                     L

    1973 ‘‘Assimnag巨o do5 Estudantes Universit直rios Nis5eis em Sao Paulo.’l in滋33∫,,;惚f冴oε

    1凶’88ア“fε70405ノ¢ρoπおa}”oβプ幽脚”, op. cit., pp.475-486.  .                 ,

    Vi已ira, Celso                                 ,

    1936 鋤8‘’0340B海3∫’, Rio de Janeiro:ANoite.

    Wagley, Charles and Marvln Harris

    1958妬耀f舩f鬼伽1>謂肺1’♂,N. York:C。1umbia University孕ress.  .,

    W融91ey, cnarles et al                      ..,

    P952  From Caste to Class ln North Brazn,”ln」磁‘β碍昭α螂f,言1壷‘ダ屡Bプ砿”, ed. by幽                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          .

    @ C.Wag1ey, Paris:UNESCO,.pp,.142-156.        ,  ..                                F

                      ドveber, Max