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TUGAS JURNAL FAAL
Disusun Oleh:Khairita Maranti (1400013127)Dinda Khairunnisa (1400013323)Anggita Puspitasari (1400013367)
FAKULTAS PSIKOLOGI UNIVERSITAS AHMAD DAHLAN
YOGYAKARTA 2015
Momentary Assessment of Contextual Influences on Affective Response During
Physical Activity
Genevieve Fridlund Dunton, Yue Liao, Stephen Intille, Jimi Huh, Adam Leventhal
AUTHOR AFFILIATIONS
Genevieve Fridlund
Dunton
Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern
California
Yue LiaoDepartment of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern
California
Stephen IntilleColleges of Computer and Information Science and Health
Sciences, Northeastern University
Jimi HuhDepartment of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern
California
Adam LeventhalDepartment of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern
California
CITATION
Dunton, G. F., Liao, Y., Intille, S., Huh, J., & Leventhal, A. (2015). Momentary
assessment of contextual influences on affective response during physical activity. Health
Psychology, 34(12), 1145-1153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/hea0000223
Abstract
Objective: Higher positive and lower negative affective response during physical activity
may reinforce motivation to engage in future activity. However, affective response during
physical activity is typically examined under controlled laboratory conditions. This
research used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to examine social and physical
contextual influences on momentary affective response during physical activity in
naturalistic settings. Method:Participants included 116 adults (mean age = 40.3 years,
73% female) who completed 8 randomly prompted EMA surveys per day for 4 days
across 3 semiannual waves. EMA surveys measured current activity level, social context,
and physical context. Participants also rated their current positive and negative affect.
Multilevel models assessed whether momentary physical activity level moderated
differences in affective response across contexts controlling for day of the week, time of
day, and activity intensity (measured by accelerometer). Results:The Activity Level ×
Alone interaction was significant for predicting positive affect (β = −0.302,SE =
0.133, p = .024). Greater positive affect during physical activity was reported when with
other people (vs. alone). The Activity Level × Outdoors interaction was significant for
predicting negative affect (β = −0.206, SE = 0.097, p = .034). Lower negative affect
during physical activity was reported outdoors (vs. indoors). Conclusions: Being with
other people may enhance positive affective response during physical activity, and being
outdoors may dampen negative affective response during physical activity.
KEYWORDS:
positive affect, negative affect, social context, physical context, ecological momentary
assessment
Physical inactivity has been declared a global public health problem by the World Health
Organization (2008). Approximately 65% of U.S. adults report a combination of
moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity totaling at least 150 min per week
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010), yet objective evidence from
accelerometers indicates that this rate may be as low as 5% (Troiano et al., 2008). The
public health significance of the problem is underscored by evidence showing that low
physical activity increases risk of many serious health conditions, including coronary
heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancers (Lee et al., 2012). Identifying
modifiable correlates and determinants of physical activity is critical for the development
of effective programs and policies.
To address the problem of physical inactivity, much research attention has been directed
toward understanding cognitive, social, and environmental influences on this behavior
(Bauman et al., 2012). However, many of these variables (e.g., attitudes, intentions,
outcome expectancies, social support, recreational facilities) have been found to have
only modest associations with physical activity in adults (Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, &
Brown, 2002). More recent models of physical activity engagement suggest that the affect
experienced during physical activity may trigger key processes underlying the reinforcing
properties of the behavior. This work is based on theories of hedonic motivation
(Higgins, 2006) and operant conditioning (Skinner, 1953) on the role of affect in
behavioral decision making. Behaviors that generate desirable affective states (i.e., high
positive affect, low negative affect) have a greater likelihood of being performed in the
future (Loewenstein, 2000). Positive affective states experienced during health-relevant
behaviors may increase appetitive motivation (Updegraff, Gable, & Taylor, 2004). In
contrast, negative affect experienced during health behaviors may trigger a motivational
state of behavioral avoidance (Leone, Perugini, & Bagozzi, 2005). Along these lines, a
small but growing number of studies have shown that experiencing a greater reward
response (e.g., positive affect) and lower aversive response (e.g., negative affect) during
bouts of exercise predicts greater current and future physical activity participation
(Magnan, Kwan, & Bryan, 2013; Williams et al., 2008; Williams, Dunsiger, Jennings, &
Marcus, 2012).
Studies on affective responses during physical activity are typically conducted in
controlled laboratory settings where participants perform a standardized exercise task
such as riding a stationary cycle or running on a treadmill for a specific intensity for a
prescribed duration (Rose & Parfitt, 2007). This body of work has yielded the dual-mode
model of affective responses to exercise (Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2005),
suggesting that individuals experience homogeneous pleasure responses at low-intensity
physical activity and homogenous displeasure responses at high-intensity physical
activity. However, there is considerable variability in positive and negative affective
response at moderate-intensity levels (Ekkekakis, Parfitt, & Petruzzello, 2011). In these
situations, contextual features of the physical activity setting may enhance or diminish the
affective response.
Two core contextual dimensions that may play a particularly important role in modulating
mechanisms involved in affective response are the physical and social features of a
setting. Attention restoration theory (Kaplan, 1995) suggests that outdoor and natural
settings offer engaging stimuli that can restore attentional fatigue and bolster
concentration, leading to positive affective responses. Supporting this hypothesis, studies
have shown that exercising outdoors is associated with greater feelings of revitalization
and positive engagement; decreases in tension, confusion, anger, and depression; and
increased energy as compared with indoor exercise (Thompson Coon et al., 2011). A
greater positive affective response may also occur when the physical activity facilitates
opportunities for social interaction (i.e., exercising with others). Plante, Gustafson,
Brecht, Imberi, and Sanchez (2011) found that exercising with a friend is more enjoyable
and offers more stress reduction benefits than exercising alone. However, these lines of
research typically use retrospective measures of affective state, which may be prone to
errors and biases (Sato & Kawahara, 2011), and examine structured activity bouts under
experimental conditions instead of self-selected activities in free-living settings.
These methodological limitations may be addressed through real-time data capture
strategies such as ecological momentary assessment (EMA) or experience sampling
methods (Shiffman, Stone, & Hufford, 2008). EMA may reduce recall errors and biases
that threaten retrospective self-report, and EMA methods enhance ecological validity by
measuring affect and behaviors in the settings where they naturally occur (Schwarz,
2007). This strategy makes it possible to examine concurrent exposures and events
(Dunton & Atienza, 2009). To date, a small but growing number of studies have applied
EMA methodologies to examine affective responses to physical activity in adults
(Bossmann, Kanning, Koudela-Hamila, Hey, & Ebner-Priemer, 2013; Ebner-Priemer,
Koudela, Mutz, & Kanning, 2012; Kanning, Ebner-Priemer, & Brand, 2012; Kanning,
Ebner-Priemer, & Schlicht, 2013; Schlicht, Ebner-Priemer, & Kanning, 2013;Wichers et
al., 2012). EMA has also been used to test the effects of social and physical contexts on
adults’ concurrent activity levels (Liao, Intille, & Dunton, 2015). To date, there is only
one known published study capitalizing on EMA methodology to investigate how
affective responses to physical activity differ by context (Kanning, 2012). However, that
research examined the effect of activity level and context on subsequent (instead of
concurrent) affective states. It also operationalized context as the purpose of the behavior
(i.e., for work, transport, chores, leisure) and did not specifically assess where (e.g.,
indoors, outdoors) or with whom (e.g., alone, with others) activities were taking place.
The current study moves beyond prior work in this area by using EMA to examine
whether affective responses during physical activity differ across specific social and
physical contexts. The primary objective was to determine whether momentary physical
activity level (i.e., being physically active at the time of assessment) moderated
differences in affective response across contexts. Building on preliminary evidence that
exercising with people may be more enjoyable than exercising alone (Plante et al., 2011),
we hypothesized that individuals would experience higher positive affect (and lower
negative affect) when engaging in physical activity with someone as compared with being
alone. We also expected that individuals would report higher positive affect (and lower
negative affect) when physical activity was performed outdoors as compared with
indoors, expanding from initial studies on potential psychologically restorative benefits of
outdoor physical activity (Thompson Coon et al., 2011).
Method
Participants and Recruitment
Participants included healthy adults living in and around Chino, California (a suburban
community located about 35 miles east of downtown Los Angeles). The current study
analyzed data from a longitudinal study called Project MOBILE (Measuring Our
Behaviors in Living Environments), which investigated the effects of environmental and
intrapersonal factors on health behavior decision-making processes. Recruitment
occurred through a number of channels, including posters placed at community locations,
letters sent to places of residence, and references from other research studies. Inclusion
criteria consisted of the following: (a) age 25 years or older, (b) residence in Chino or a
surrounding community, and (c) ability to answer electronic EMA surveys while at work.
Participants were excluded who (a) did not speak and read fluently in English, (b) had an
annual household income greater than $210,000, (c) regularly performed more than 150
min per week of exercise or physical activity, and (d) had physical limitations making
them unable to exercise. High-active and high-income individuals were excluded because
the goal of the larger study was to examine how neighborhood environmental features
promote physical activity initiation in individuals at elevated risk for obesity (i.e., low-
active and low-to-moderate income). Individuals who met the eligibility criteria were
scheduled for a data collection appointment at a local community site or their home. This
research was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University
of Southern California.
Study Design
Each participant completed three data collection waves of EMA (each separated by 6
months). No data collection took place from late July to August and during January
because of the extreme temperatures and weather in the study sites, which can alter
physical activity patterns.
Procedure
EMA data were collected through a mobile phone (HTC Shadow, T-Mobile U.S.A.,
Bellevue, WA) with a custom version of the MyExperience software installed (Froehlich,
Chen, Consolvo, Harrison, & Landay, 2007). The software was programmed to display
electronic question sequences and response choices on the mobile phone screen. Each
wave of data collection lasted 4 days (Saturday–Tuesday). Eight EMA surveys were
prompted per day between the hours of 6:30 a.m. and 10 p.m. Each EMA survey was
prompted at a random time within eight preprogrammed windows to ensure adequate
spacing across the day. Upon receiving a phone signal, participants were instructed to
stop their current activity and complete a short electronic EMA question sequence. This
process required 2–3 min. If a signal occurred during an incompatible activity (e.g.,
sleeping or bathing), participants were instructed to ignore it. If no entry was made, the
phone emitted up to three reminder signals at 5-min intervals. After this point, the
electronic EMA survey became inaccessible until the next recording opportunity.
Participants were asked to wear a waist-worn accelerometer during waking hours across
the 4 monitoring days of each wave. Paper questionnaires and anthropometric
assessments were conducted at an in-person session at the beginning of each wave. All
items were administered in English. Participants were compensated up to $50 for each
wave of the study based on their compliance with the EMA procedures.
Measures
Activity level
During each EMA question sequence, participants were asked to indicate their current
activity level, “What were you DOING right before the beep went off [Choose your main
activity]?” with response options “reading/computer,” “watching TV/movies,”
“eating/drinking,” “physical activity/exercising,” and “other.” They were instructed to
indicate “physical activity/exercising” for any activity that raised their heart rate and
made them breath harder. If “physical activity/exercising” was selected, the participant
received the follow-up question, “What type of PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/EXERCISE?” If
a participant responded “other” to the initial question, he or she received the follow-up
question, “What was this OTHER activity?” with response options “talking on the
phone,” “cooking/chores,” “riding in a car,” “childcare/helping children,” and “something
else.” If he or she indicated “something else,” the question “Were you (sitting, standing,
walking, jogging/running)?” was shown. Responses indicating “physical
activity/exercising” and “jogging/running” were coded as physical activity. All other
responses were coded as not physical activity. These EMA-reported physical activity
items have been validated again accelerometer measures (Dunton, Liao, Kawabata, &
Intille, 2012).
Social and physical context
The EMA question sequence also asked participants to indicate their current physical and
social context. Participants were asked to answer either “yes” or “no” to indicate whether
they were alone. If not alone, they received a series of follow-up questions requiring
“yes” or “no” responses to indicate whether they were with their “spouse,” “child(ren),”
“other family members,” “friend(s),” “coworkers,” “other types of acquaintances,” or
people they did not know. Responses to these items were used to create a summary
variable for social context (alone vs. not alone). Participants were also asked, “WHERE
were you just before the beep went off?” with response options, “home (indoors),” “home
(outdoors), “work (indoors),” “outdoors (not at home),” “car/van/truck, and “other.” If
“outdoors (not at home)” was selected, the participant received the follow-up question,
“WHERE were you OUTDOORS just before the beep went off?” Responses to these
items were used to create a summary item for physical context (outdoors vs. indoors). To
limit the length of each EMA survey, a randomly programmed 60% of the EMA prompts
asked the questions about social and physical context.
Positive and negative affect
The EMA affect items covered the two fundamental dimensions of affect posited by the
circumplex model: valence (ranging from pleasure to displeasure) and arousal (ranging
from activation to deactivation; Posner, Russell, & Peterson, 2005). To assess positive
affect, items were selected to represent activated (happy, cheerful) and deactivated (calm
or relaxed) pleasure (three items total, Cronbach’s alpha = .85). Negative affect items
represented combinations of activated (nervous or anxious, stressed) and deactivated (sad
or depressed, frustrated or angry) displeasure (four items total, Cronbach’s alpha = .84).
Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which each affective state was felt just
before the auditory EMA prompt. Response options included “not at all,” “a little,”
“moderately,” “quite a bit,” and “extremely.” To limit potential participant burden, a
randomly programmed 60% of the total EMA prompts included the affect items. Thus,
the likelihood of receiving a context and affect question together in the same EMA survey
was .60 × .60 = .36.
Activity intensity
The Actigraph GT2M model activity monitor (firmware v06.02.00; Pensacola, FL)
provided an objective measure of physical activity intensity to be included as a covariate.
The device was worn on the right hip attached to an adjustable belt. Actigraphs were not
worn when sleeping, bathing, or swimming. A 30-s epoch was used. The moderate-to-
vigorous physical activity (MVPA) threshold was 2,020 counts per minute (equivalent to
3 metabolic equivalents [METs]), consistent with studies using national surveillance data
(Troiano et al., 2008). Activity intensity was operationalized by the minutes of MVPA
occurring in the 30 min surrounding each EMA prompt (i.e., 15 min before and 15 min
after). EMA entries with a total of zero activity counts in the 30 min surrounding each
EMA prompt were considered accelerometer nonwear and excluded from analyses.
Body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference
At Wave 1, research staff measured height and weight using an electronically calibrated
digital scale (Tanita WB-110A) and professional stadiometer (PE-AIM-101) to the
nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively. BMI was calculated (kg/m2). Waist
circumference (in cm) was measured.
Demographic and time variables
Participants’ age, sex, ethnicity, race, and annual household income were assessed
through a self-report paper-and pencil questionnaire at Wave 1. Each EMA survey was
also coded for whether it occurred on a weekend day or weekday and the time of day that
it occurred (i.e., morning [6:30–11:59 a.m.], afternoon [12–5:59 p.m.], or evening [6–10
p.m.]).
Data Analyses
Descriptive statistics for demographic characteristics were calculated with individual
participant as the unit of analysis (Level 2); all other descriptive statistics use occasions
(i.e., EMA prompts) as the unit of analysis (Level 1). Data were analyzed with multilevel
modeling in HLM (Version 7) using the HLM2 procedure. Multilevel models adjust the
standard errors for clustering of EMA prompts (Level 1) within people (Level 2; Bryk &
Raudenbush, 1992). A series of multilevel logistic regression models were run to examine
whether any demographic or temporal variables were associated with EMA compliance,
operationalized as a binary outcome (0 = unanswered prompt and 1 = answered prompt).
Multilevel models also tested whether positive and negative affect were associated with
participant age, sex, ethnicity, BMI, waist circumference, number of EMA-reported bouts
of physical activity, day of the week, time of day, and data collection wave to determine
whether any of these variables should be included as model covariates.
Multilevel models tested whether momentary activity level moderated the association of
being alone (vs. with other people) and being outdoors (vs. indoors) with concurrent
affective state. Random intercepts models were estimated. Between-subjects and within-
subject versions (i.e., partitioning the variance) of the main effects were generated
(Hedeker, Mermelstein, & Demirtas, 2012). The between-subjects version represents the
individual mean deviation from the grand mean, and the within-subject version represents
deviation from one’s own mean at any given prompt (Curran & Bauer, 2011). Similarly,
the between-subjects and within-subject variation terms for binary predictors were
created using grand mean-centering (i.e., subtracting by the group mean proportion) and
person mean-centering (i.e., subtracting by the individual mean proportion) methods,
respectively. Interaction terms were created by multiplying the within-subject person-
mean centered values for the predictor variables (i.e., Positive Affect × Alone and
Positive Affect × Outdoors). Multilevel models entered the activity level by context
interaction terms together with its constituent main effects in Level 1.
All models controlled for within-subject and between-subjects variation in activity
intensity (i.e., MVPA minutes measured by accelerometer in the ±15 min surrounding the
EMA prompt). Data were collapsed across all three data collection waves. Models testing
the effects on positive and negative affect were run separately. Robust standard errors
were generated because the distribution of responses for negative affect was positively
skewed (skewness statistic = 2.089, SE = 0.040). HLM 7 calculates robust standard errors
using the Huber/White or sandwich estimator (White, 1982) to obtain corrected tests and
confidence intervals when there are nonnormally distributed outcome data. Equations 1
and 2 show the general form of the multilevel models tested, where i indicates individual
and t indicates occasion or time (i.e., EMA prompt).
Level 1 model (Equation 1)
Level 2 model (Equation 2)
Results
Participant Characteristics
A total of 116 adults participated in the study. Of these individuals, 90 (78%) had three
waves of data, 11 (9%) had two waves of data, and 15 (13%) had one wave of data.
Demographic characteristics for the sample are shown in Table 1.
Participants were mainly female (72%) and overweight or obese (61%). Individuals
ranged in age from 27 to 73 years, with an average age of 40.5 years (SD = 9.5). The
sample was 30% Hispanic/Latino. Twenty-four percent had an annual household income
less than $40,000. Approximately 5% participants engaged in >150 min per week of
MVPA during all three data collection waves according to the accelerometer data. The
number of waves of data available was unrelated to participants’ age, sex, ethnicity,
income, BMI, and waist circumference.
EMA Compliance
On average, participants answered 83% (range = 46–100) of EMA prompts, yielding
7,910 Level 1 observations (M = 68.19, SD = 22.20, range = 10–96 per participant). EMA
compliance rates were higher during the third wave of data collection (87%) than the first
wave (82%; β = 0.323, SE = 0.113, p = .006). EMA compliance also differed by day of
the week and time of day, with participants exhibiting higher EMA compliance on
weekdays (85%) than weekend days (82%; β = 0.201, SE = 0.079, p = .013) and in the
afternoon (85%) than the morning (82%; β = 0.251, SE = 0.080, p = .003). Individuals
with greater BMI score (β = −0.027, SE = 0.012, p = .020) or waist circumference (β =
−0.010, SE = 0.005, p = .036) had significantly lower EMA compliance. However, EMA
compliance rates did not differ by age, sex, ethnicity, or annual household income.
Accelerometers were not worn during 1,572 of the answered EMA prompts, leaving a
Level 1 sample size of 6,338 observations. After taking into account planned EMA item
skip patterns, between 2,068 and 2,281 Level 1 observations remained for each analysis.
Descriptive Statistics
Overall, participants reported a nonphysical activity in 91.3% and a physical activity in
8.7% of EMA surveys. The breakdown of nonphysical activity was as follows: 18.1%
reading/computer, 17.4% watching TV/movies, 12.0% eating/drinking, 9.9% riding in a
car, 9.1% cooking/chores, 6.0% talking/on the phone, 4.6% childcare/helping children,
22.9% other. In total, 108 participants had at least one EMA-reported instance of physical
activity during the three waves of data collection. Across these individuals, there were a
total of 549 instances of physical activity (M = 5.2, SD = 4.2, range = 1–18 per
participant), which consisted of walking (55%); running, jogging, or using cardiovascular
equipment (7%); weight lifting or strength training (6%); bicycling (3%); and other
(29%). For EMA prompts when physical activity was reported, 37% occurred alone, 40%
occurred with one’s children present (with or without other adults), 8% occurred with
one’s spouse present (without children but with or without other adults), and 15%
occurred with other adults (without one’s children or spouse). When physical activity was
reported, 62% of EMA prompts indicated being outdoors. Specific locations for outdoor
physical activity were as follows: 22% at home outdoors, 14% at a park or trail, and 26%
in other outdoor locations. Given the small numbers that remained in each response
category after breaking down EMA-reported physical activity by type of social company,
type of outdoor location, and type of physical activity/exercise, it was not possible to run
further statistical tests to examine differences in affective response across these
categories. On average, participants engaged in 0.75 min (SD = 2.13, range = 0–30) of
MVPA in the ±15-min window surrounding each EMA prompt and a total of 22.24 min
(SD = 14.43, range = 4.39–96.20) of MVPA per day. This daily level of physical activity
is similar to the average recorded for adults using accelerometers national surveillance
studies (Troiano et al., 2008).
Across all EMA reports (i.e., both physical activity and nonphysical activity), the average
ratings for positive and negative affect were 3.06 (SD = 0.98) and 1.44 (SD = 0.64) on a
5-point response scale, respectively. Neither positive affect nor negative affect was
associated with participant age, sex, ethnicity, BMI, waist circumference, number of
EMA-reported bouts of physical activity, or data collection wave. Positive affect was
significantly higher on weekend days as compared with weekdays (β = 0.290, SE =
0.036, p < .001), and in the afternoon (β = 0.083, SE = 0.035, p = .021) and evening (β =
0.123, SE = 0.039, p = .001) as compared with in the morning. Negative affect was lower
in the evening as compared with in the morning (β = −0.069, SE = 0.025, p = .007).
Therefore, day of the week and time of day were entered as Level 1 covariates in all
subsequent models.
Social Contextual Influences on Affective Response During Physical Activity
Table 2
shows that results of the multilevel models testing whether momentary activity level
moderated the association of being alone (vs. with other people) and being outdoors (vs.
indoors) with concurrent affective state. Results indicated a statistically significant
interaction for Activity Level × Alone for predicting positive affect (β = −0.302, SE =
0.133, p = .024). Examination of the simple effects showed that greater positive affect
during physical activity was reported when with other people (vs. alone; see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Plot of the Activity Level × Alone interaction for predicting positive affect
based on the unstandardized regression coefficients for the within-subjects main effects
and interaction terms generated from the multilevel model. There were 2,210 Level 1
observations (n = 72 physical activity/alone, n = 123 physical activity/not alone, n = 782
not physical activity/alone, n= 1,233 not physical activity/not alone).
The Activity Level × Alone interaction was not significant for negative affect.
Physical Contextual Influences on Affective Response During Physical Activity
The results of multilevel models examining whether momentary activity level moderated
the differences in affective states while outdoors (vs. indoors) are displayed in Table 3.
Individuals reported greater positive affect when outdoors than when indoors (β =
0.265, SE = 0.044, p < .001; main effects data not shown). However, being physically
active did not moderate differences in positive affect while outdoors versus indoors, as
indicated by the nonsignificant coefficient for the Activity Level × Outdoors interaction.
However, the Activity Level × Outdoors interaction was significant for predicting
negative affect (β = −0.206, SE = 0.097, p = .034). Examination of the simple effects
showed that lower negative affect during physical activity was reported outdoors (vs.
indoors; see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Plot of the Activity Level × Outdoors interaction for predicting negative affect
based on the unstandardized regression coefficients for the within-subjects main effects
and interaction terms generated from the multilevel model. There were 2,092 Level 1
observations (n = 111 physical activity/outdoors, n = 62 physical activity/not
outdoors, n = 252 not physical activity/outdoors, n = 1,667 not physical activity/not
outdoors).
Discussion
The current study is the first known attempt to use a real-time data capture strategy to
examine how being alone and outdoors are associated with one’s affective response
during physical activity in naturalistic settings encountered in everyday life. Results
indicated that higher positive affect was reported when engaging in physical activity with
other people as compared with being alone. Also, higher negative affect was reported
when engaging in physical activity indoors as compared with outdoors. Thus, variability
in affective response during physical activity appeared to be related to where and with
whom the activity was performed.
These findings shed light on the relevance of social context to mood-enhancing effects of
engaging in physical activity. Results showed that positive affective benefits of physical
activity were greater when the behavior was performed in the presence of other people as
compared with being alone. These findings fall in line with a large body of evidence
linking social connectedness and support to affective well-being (Okun & Keith, 1998).
The nonsignificant coefficient for the between-subjects effect of being alone on positive
affect suggests that the observed results are not explained by a tendency for individuals
with lower positive affect than average to spend more time alone. Understanding the
mechanisms linking social company to augmented positive affective response during
physical activity is an important area for future work. Approximately half of the physical
activity reported through EMA in the current study consisted of walking, of which equal
proportions were performed with others and alone. One explanation is that the positive
social interactions such as social support, empathy, companionship, or entertaining
conversations occurring while walking can boost positive affect, as has been shown in
related literature (Vranceanu, Gallo, & Bogart, 2009). Alternatively, group-oriented
physical activities such as classes and team sports may heighten positive affective
response by providing greater challenge, or more opportunities for skill-building,
cooperation, or feeling of success and accomplishment (Chow & Feltz, 2008).
Results from the current study also provide evidence that individuals experienced indoor
physical activity as more unpleasant than physical activity performed outdoors. These
findings are consistent with work on the restorative effects of nature and natural
surroundings from the environmental psychology literature.(Berman, Jonides, & Kaplan,
2008). Natural environments, including being outside in one’s own yard or garden, may
provide a sense of escape that can promote less effortful brain functioning and reduced
stress (Hartig, Böök, Garvill, Olsson, & Gärling, 1996). Results from the current study
are in line with a recent systematic review, which found that across several studies,
physical activity performed in indoor settings was associated with greater tension, anger,
and depression than physical activity performed in outdoor settings (Thompson Coon et
al., 2011). However, many of the studies included in this review had methodological
concerns such as a lack of ecological validity and recall biases. The current study lends
increased credibility to these findings through improvements in design and assessment
including the capture of free-living activity bouts and objective activity monitoring.
Despite the consistent evidence supporting the notion that outdoors settings can have
beneficial effects on affective response during physical activity, a potential alternative
explanation that warrants further investigation is whether certain types of physical
activities that are inherently less unpleasant to some people (e.g., bicycling, team sports)
need to be performed outdoors by necessity.
Despite the use of EMA and objective physical activity monitoring, the current study had
limitations. The use of affect measures consisting of three to four items is not preferable,
yet it is often necessary in EMA research to keep electronic surveys reasonably short to
limit potential participant burden. Also, the negative affect items used (i.e., stressed,
frustrated or angry, nervous or anxious, sad or depressed) may not fully capture
unpleasant feelings experienced during physical activity such as discomfort, pain,
boredom, or fatigue. In addition, the EMA-reported physical activity item captured
activities that increased breathing and heart rate. Thus, it is not entirely known how
affective responses during light-intensity physical activity (e.g., slow walking) differ
across contexts. Furthermore, results reported elsewhere (Dunton et al., 2012) have
indicated that, for this sample, unanswered EMA prompts had greater MVPA (±15 min)
than answered EMA prompts (p = .029) for underweight/normal-weight participants,
indicating that activity level might influence the likelihood of responding for some
individuals. If this pattern of missing data had not existed, more instances of physical
activity may have been reported for underweight/normal-weight participants. However,
because affect scores were unrelated to BMI, we would not expect the results to be
meaningfully different. Also, contextual exposure, behavior, and affect were measured
concurrently. Therefore, reverse causational effects, such as being in a more positive
mood leading an individual to seek out companions for physical activity, cannot be fully
ruled out. However, the within-subject design reduces concerns about between-subjects
confounding effects such as individuals with greater trait-level positive affect having
more social companions than individuals with lower trait-level positive affect. Lastly,
participants were mainly low-active women recruited from suburban communities with
primarily detached single-family housing. Results may not generalize to men, highly
physically active individuals, or more dense urban outdoor environments with fewer
natural features and less greenspace (e.g., yards, parks).
Overall, the current findings suggest that being with other people is associated with
enhanced positive affective response during physical activity, and being outdoors is
associated with a dampened negative affective response during physical activity.
Identifying the conditions that optimize pleasant and diminish unpleasant responses to
physical activity may have important policy and programmatic implications, given the
reinforcing properties of these affective experiences. If physical activity is more
affectively rewarding when performed with other people and less affectively aversive
when performed outdoors, then motivation to engage in future physical activity may be
reinforced by encouraging and providing opportunities for adults to be physically active
in these settings. Examples of these types of interventions and initiatives may include
parks-based exercise programming, classes, and equipment for adults; offering personal
fitness training in outdoor locations; and using social media sites to create meet-up
physical activity events to connect individuals. Future work is needed to understand
whether individuals who perform more physical activity in the company of other people
or in outdoor locations are more likely to sustain regular patterns of physical activity over
the long term.
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Support for this research was provided by American Cancer Society Grants 118283-
MRSGT-10-012-01-CPPB and 5R01CA123243. We thank Jennifer Beaudin of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology for programming the EMA protocols used in this
study and making modifications to the MyExperience tool. We also would like to
acknowledge Keito Kawabata of the University of Southern California for his assistance
with participant recruitment and data collection.
Portions of this paper were presented at the 2013 American Public Health Association
Annual Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, November 2013.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Genevieve Fridlund
Dunton, Departments of Preventive Medicine and Psychology, University of Southern
California, 2001 North Soto Street, Third Floor, Room 302E, MC 9239, Los Angeles, CA
90033-9045
Email: [email protected]
Genevieve Fridlund Dunton , Yue Liao , Stephen Intille , Jimi Huh , Adam Leventhal
afiliasi penulis
Genevieve Fridlund Dunton Departemen Kedokteran Pencegahan , University of
Southern California
Yue Liao Departemen Kedokteran Pencegahan , University of Southern California
Stephen Intille Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Kesehatan Ilmu Komputer dan Informasi dan ,
Northeastern University
Jimi Huh Departemen Kedokteran Pencegahan , University of Southern California
Adam Leventhal Departemen Kedokteran Pencegahan , University of Southern California
KUTIPAN
Dunton , GF , Liao , Y. , Intille , S. , Huh , J. , & Leventhal , A. ( 2015 ) . Penilaian sesaat
pengaruh kontekstual pada respon afektif selama aktivitas fisik . Psikologi kesehatan , 34
( 12 ) , 1145-1153 . http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/hea0000223
ABASTRAK
Objective:Higher positive and lower negative affective response during physical activity
may reinforce motivation to engage in future activity
Tujuan : respon afektif Tinggi positif dan negatif yang lebih rendah selama aktivitas fisik
dapat memperkuat motivasi untuk terlibat dalam aktivitas masa depan.
Bauman, A. E., Reis, R. S., Sallis, J. F., Wells, J. C., Loos, R. J., & Martin, B. W.(2012).
Correlates of physical activity: Why are some people physically active and others not?
[Review]. The Lancet, 380, 258–271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60735-1
However, affective response during physical activity is typically examined under
controlled laboratory conditions.
Namun, respon afektif selama aktivitas fisik biasanya diperiksa di bawah kondisi
laboratorium yang terkontrol.
Bauman, A. E., Reis, R. S., Sallis, J. F., Wells, J. C., Loos, R. J., & Martin, B. W.(2012).
Correlates of physical activity: Why are some people physically active and others not?
[Review]. The Lancet, 380, 258–271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60735-1
This research used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to examine social and
physical contextual influences on momentary affective response during physical activity
in naturalistic settings.
Penelitian ini menggunakan penilaian sesaat ekologi ( EMA ) untuk memeriksa pengaruh
kontekstual sosial dan fisik pada respon afektif sesaat selama aktivitas fisik dalam
pengaturan naturalistik .Bauman, A. E., Reis, R. S., Sallis, J. F., Wells, J. C., Loos, R. J., & Martin, B. W.(2012).
Correlates of physical activity: Why are some people physically active and others not?
[Review]. The Lancet, 380, 258–271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60735-1
Method:Participants included 116 adults (mean age = 40.3 years, 73% female) who
completed 8 randomly prompted EMA surveys per day for 4 days across 3 semiannual
waves
Metode : Peserta termasuk 116 orang dewasa ( usia rata-rata = 40,3 tahun , 73 %
perempuan ) yang menyelesaikan 8 acak diminta survei EMA per hari selama 4 hari di 3
gelombang setengah tahunan
EMA surveys measured current activity level, social context, and physical context.
Participants also rated their current positive and negative affect.
Survei EMA diukur tingkat saat aktivitas , konteks sosial , dan konteks fisik . Peserta juga
dinilai positif mereka saat ini dan negatif mempengaruhi .
Bauman, A. E., Reis, R. S., Sallis, J. F., Wells, J. C., Loos, R. J., & Martin, B. W.(2012).
Correlates of physical activity: Why are some people physically active and others not?
[Review]. The Lancet, 380, 258–271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60735-1
Multilevel models assessed whether momentary physical activity level moderated
differences in affective response across contexts controlling for day of the week, time of
day, and activity intensity (measured by accelerometer).
Model multilevel menilai apakah tingkat aktivitas fisik sesaat moderator perbedaan dalam
respon afektif di konteks mengendalikan hari dalam seminggu , waktu hari , dan
intensitas aktivitas ( diukur dengan accelerometer ) .
Ekkekakis, P., Hall, E. E., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2005). Variation and homogeneity in
affective responses to physical activity of varying intensities: An alternative perspective
on dose–response based on evolutionary considerations [Review].Journal of Sports
Sciences, 23, 477–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410400021492
Results:The Activity Level × Alone interaction was significant for predicting positive
affect (β = −0.302,SE = 0.133, p = .024). Greater positive affect during physical activity
was reported when with other people (vs. alone).
Hasil: Tingkat Aktivitas × interaksi Sendiri signifikan untuk memprediksi pengaruh
positif ( β = -0,302 , SE = 0,133 , p = 0,024 ) . Positif yang lebih besar mempengaruhi
selama aktivitas fisik dilaporkan ketika dengan orang lain ( vs sendiri ) .
Kanning, M. (2012). Using objective, real-time measures to investigate the effect of
actual physical activity on affective states in everyday life differentiating the contexts of
working and leisure time in a sample with students. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 602.
The Activity Level × Outdoors interaction was significant for predicting negative affect
(β = −0.206, SE = 0.097, p = .034). Lower negative affect during physical activity was
reported outdoors (vs. indoors).
Kegiatan Tingkat × Outdoors interaksi signifikan untuk memprediksi dampak negatif ( β
= -0,206 , SE = 0,097 , p = 0,034 ) . Lebih rendah negatif mempengaruhi selama aktivitas
fisik dilaporkan luar ( vs di dalam ruangan ) .
Magnan, R. E., Kwan, B. M., & Bryan, A. D. (2013). Effects of current physical activity
on affective response to exercise: Physical and social–cognitive mechanisms.Psychology
& Health, 28, 418–433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2012.733704
Conclusions: Being with other people may enhance positive affective response during
physical activity, and being outdoors may dampen negative affective response during
physical activity.
Kesimpulan : Menjadi dengan orang lain dapat meningkatkan respon afektif positif
selama aktivitas fisik , dan berada di luar ruangan dapat meredam respon afektif negatif
selama aktivitas fisik .
Magnan, R. E., Kwan, B. M., & Bryan, A. D. (2013). Effects of current physical activity
on affective response to exercise: Physical and social–cognitive mechanisms.Psychology
& Health, 28, 418–433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2012.733704
KEYWORDS:
positive affect, negative affect, social context, physical context, ecological momentary
assessment
KATA KUNCI :
mempengaruhi positif , negatif mempengaruhi , konteks sosial , konteks fisik , penilaian
sesaat ekologi
Physical inactivity has been declared a global public health problem by the World Health
Organization (2008). Approximately 65% of U.S. adults report a combination of
moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity totaling at least 150 min per week
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010), yet objective evidence from
accelerometers indicates that this rate may be as low as 5% (Troiano et al., 2008).
Aktivitas fisik telah dinyatakan sebagai masalah kesehatan masyarakat global oleh
Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia (2008 ) . Sekitar 65 % orang dewasa AS melaporkan
kombinasi aktivitas fisik moderat dan kuat intensitas total setidaknya 150 menit per
minggu ( Pusat Pengendalian dan Pencegahan Penyakit , 2010) , namun bukti objektif
dari accelerometers mengindikasikan bahwa tingkat ini mungkin serendah 5 % ( Troiano
et al . , 2008) .
Lee, I. M., Shiroma, E. J., Lobelo, F., Puska, P., Blair, S. N., & Katzmarzyk, P. T.(2012).
Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: An
analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. The Lancet, 380, 219–
229.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9
The public health significance of the problem is underscored by evidence showing that
low physical activity increases risk of many serious health conditions, including coronary
heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancers (Lee et al., 2012).
Pentingnya kesehatan masyarakat dari masalah ini ditegaskan oleh bukti yang
menunjukkan bahwa aktivitas fisik yang rendah meningkatkan risiko banyak kondisi
kesehatan yang serius , termasuk penyakit jantung koroner , diabetes tipe 2 , dan
payudara dan kanker usus besar ( Lee et al . , 2012) .
World Health Organization. (2009). 2008–2013 action plan for the global strategy for the
prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases: Prevent and control
cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes. Geneva,
Switzerland: Author.
Identifying modifiable correlates and determinants of physical activity is critical for the
development of effective programs and policies.
To address the problem of physical inactivity, much research attention has been directed
toward understanding cognitive, social, and environmental influences on this behavior
(Bauman et al., 2012).
Mengidentifikasi berkorelasi dimodifikasi dan faktor-faktor penentu aktivitas fisik sangat
penting untuk pengembangan program dan kebijakan yang efektif .
Untuk mengatasi masalah kurangnya aktivitas fisik , banyak penelitian perhatian telah
diarahkan menuju pemahaman kognitif , sosial , dan pengaruh lingkungan terhadap
perilaku ini ( Bauman et al . , 2012) .
Thompson Coon, J., Boddy, K., Stein, K., Whear, R., Barton, J., & Depledge, M. H.
(2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a
greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A
systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1761–
1772.http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es102947t
However, many of these variables (e.g., attitudes, intentions, outcome expectancies,
social support, recreational facilities) have been found to have only modest associations
with physical activity in adults (Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, & Brown, 2002).
Namun, banyak dari variabel-variabel ini ( misalnya , sikap, niat , harapan hasil ,
dukungan sosial , fasilitas rekreasi ) telah ditemukan hanya memiliki asosiasi sederhana
dengan aktivitas fisik pada orang dewasa ( Trost , Owen , Bauman , Sallis , & Brown ,
2002) .
Schlicht, W., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Kanning, M. (2013). Ecological momentary
assessment and intervention in physical activity and well-being: Affective reactions,
social–cognitive factors, and behaviors as determinants of physical activity and
exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00916
More recent models of physical activity engagement suggest that the affect experienced
during physical activity may trigger key processes underlying the reinforcing properties
of the behavior.
Model yang lebih baru dari keterlibatan aktivitas fisik menunjukkan bahwa
mempengaruhi alami selama aktivitas fisik dapat memicu proses kunci yang mendasari
sifat memperkuat perilaku .
Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., & Kaplan, S. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting
with nature. Psychological Science, 19, 1207–1212.http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9280.2008.02225.x
This work is based on theories of hedonic motivation (Higgins, 2006) and operant
conditioning (Skinner, 1953) on the role of affect in behavioral decision making.
Behaviors that generate desirable affective states (i.e., high positive affect, low negative
affect) have a greater likelihood of being performed in the future (Loewenstein, 2000).
Karya ini didasarkan pada teori-teori motivasi hedonis ( Higgins , 2006) dan
pengkondisian operan ( Skinner , 1953) tentang peran mempengaruhi dalam pengambilan
keputusan perilaku . Perilaku yang menghasilkan negara afektif diinginkan ( yaitu ,
mempengaruhi tinggi positif, negatif rendah mempengaruhi ) memiliki kemungkinan
lebih besar dari yang dilakukan di masa depan ( Loewenstein , 2000) .
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). State indicator report on physical
activity, 2010. Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Positive affective states experienced during health-relevant behaviors may increase
appetitive motivation (Updegraff, Gable, & Taylor, 2004). In contrast, negative affect
experienced during health behaviors may trigger a motivational state of behavioral
avoidance (Leone, Perugini, & Bagozzi, 2005).
Negara afektif positif yang dialami selama perilaku kesehatan yang relevan dapat
meningkatkan motivasi appetitive ( Updegraff , Gable , & Taylor , 2004) . Sebaliknya ,
negatif mempengaruhi alami selama perilaku kesehatan dapat memicu keadaan motivasi
penghindaran perilaku ( Leone , Perugini , & Bagozzi , 2005) .
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). State indicator report on physical
activity, 2010. Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Along these lines, a small but growing number of studies have shown that experiencing a
greater reward response (e.g., positive affect) and lower aversive response (e.g., negative
affect) during bouts of exercise predicts greater current and future physical activity
participation (Magnan, Kwan, & Bryan, 2013; Williams et al., 2008; Williams, Dunsiger,
Jennings, & Marcus, 2012).
Sepanjang jalur tersebut , sejumlah kecil namun tumbuh dari penelitian telah
menunjukkan bahwa mengalami respon yang lebih besar pahala ( mempengaruhi
misalnya , positif ) dan respon permusuhan yang lebih rendah ( misalnya , dampak negatif
) selama serangan latihan memprediksi partisipasi aktivitas fisik yang lebih besar saat ini
dan masa depan ( Magnan , Kwan, & Bryan , 2013 ; . Williams et al , 2008 ; Williams ,
Dunsiger , Jennings , & Marcus , 2012 ) .
Dunton, G. F., & Atienza, A. A. (2009). The need for time-intensive information in
healthful eating and physical activity research: A timely topic. Journal of the American
Dietetic Association, 109, 30–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2008.10.019
Studies on affective responses during physical activity are typically conducted in
controlled laboratory settings where participants perform a standardized exercise task
such as riding a stationary cycle or running on a treadmill for a specific intensity for a
prescribed duration (Rose & Parfitt, 2007).
Studi tentang tanggapan afektif selama aktivitas fisik biasanya dilakukan dalam
pengaturan laboratorium yang terkendali di mana peserta melakukan tugas latihan standar
seperti mengendarai siklus stasioner atau berlari di treadmill untuk intensitas tertentu
untuk jangka waktu yang ditentukan ( Rose & Parfitt , 2007) .
Wichers, M., Peeters, F., Rutten, B. P., Jacobs, N., Derom, C., Thiery, E., . . . van
Os, J. (2012). A time-lagged momentary assessment study on daily life physical activity
and affect. Health Psychology, 31, 135–144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025688
This body of work has yielded the dual-mode model of affective responses to exercise
(Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2005), suggesting that individuals experience
homogeneous pleasure responses at low-intensity physical activity and homogenous
displeasure responses at high-intensity physical activity.
Ini tubuh bekerja telah menghasilkan model dual-mode tanggapan afektif untuk latihan
( Ekkekakis , Hall, & Petruzzello , 2005) , menunjukkan bahwa individu mengalami
respon kesenangan homogen di aktivitas fisik intensitas rendah dan tanggapan
ketidaksenangan homogen di aktivitas fisik intensitas tinggi .
Williams, D. M., Dunsiger, S., Jennings, E. G., & Marcus, B. H. (2012). Does affective
valence during and immediately following a 10-min walk predict concurrent and future
physical activity? Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 44, 43–
51.http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12160-012-9362-9
However, there is considerable variability in positive and negative affective response at
moderate-intensity levels (Ekkekakis, Parfitt, & Petruzzello, 2011). In these situations,
contextual features of the physical activity setting may enhance or diminish the affective
response.
Namun, ada variabilitas yang cukup besar dalam respon afektif positif dan negatif pada
tingkat intensitas sedang ( Ekkekakis , Parfitt , & Petruzzello , 2011) . Dalam situasi ini ,
fitur kontekstual dari pengaturan aktivitas fisik dapat meningkatkan atau mengurangi
respon afektif .
Williams, D. M., Dunsiger, S., Ciccolo, J. T., Lewis, B. A., Albrecht, A. E., &Marcus, B.
H. (2008). Acute affective response to a moderate-intensity exercise stimulus predicts
physical activity participation 6 and 12 months later. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9,
231–245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.04.002
Two core contextual dimensions that may play a particularly important role in modulating
mechanisms involved in affective response are the physical and social features of a
setting.
Dua dimensi kontekstual inti yang mungkin memainkan peran yang sangat penting dalam
modulasi mekanisme yang terlibat dalam respon afektif adalah fitur fisik dan sosial dari
pengaturan .
Schlicht, W., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Kanning, M. (2013). Ecological momentary
assessment and intervention in physical activity and well-being: Affective reactions,
social–cognitive factors, and behaviors as determinants of physical activity and
exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00916
Attention restoration theory (Kaplan, 1995) suggests that outdoor and natural settings
offer engaging stimuli that can restore attentional fatigue and bolster concentration,
leading to positive affective responses.
Teori restorasi perhatian ( Kaplan , 1995) menunjukkan bahwa pengaturan luar ruangan
dan alam menawarkan rangsangan menarik yang dapat mengembalikan atensi kelelahan
dan meningkatkan konsentrasi, menyebabkan respon afektif yang positif .
Hartig, T., Böök, A., Garvill, J., Olsson, T., & Gärling, T. (1996). Environmental
influences on psychological restoration. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 37, 378–
393. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.1996.tb00670.x
Supporting this hypothesis, studies have shown that exercising outdoors is associated
with greater feelings of revitalization and positive engagement; decreases in tension,
confusion, anger, and depression; and increased energy as compared with indoor exercise
(Thompson Coon et al., 2011).
Mendukung hipotesis ini , penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa berolahraga di luar
ruangan dikaitkan dengan perasaan yang lebih besar dari revitalisasi dan keterlibatan
positif ; penurunan ketegangan , kebingungan , kemarahan , dan depresi ; dan
peningkatan energi dibandingkan dengan olahraga dalam ruangan ( Thompson Coon et al.
, 2011) .
Ekkekakis, P., Parfitt, G., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2011). The pleasure and displeasure
people feel when they exercise at different intensities: Decennial update and progress
towards a tripartite rationale for exercise intensity prescription [Review].Sports
Medicine, 41, 641–671. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11590680-000000000-00000
A greater positive affective response may also occur when the physical activity facilitates
opportunities for social interaction (i.e., exercising with others). Plante, Gustafson,
Brecht, Imberi, and Sanchez (2011) found that exercising with a friend is more enjoyable
and offers more stress reduction benefits than exercising alone.
Sebuah respon afektif positif yang lebih besar juga dapat terjadi ketika aktivitas fisik
memfasilitasi kesempatan untuk interaksi sosial ( yaitu , berolahraga dengan orang lain ) .
Plante , Gustafson , Brecht , Imberi , dan Sanchez ( 2011) menemukan bahwa berolahraga
dengan teman lebih menyenangkan dan menawarkan lebih manfaat pengurangan stres
daripada berolahraga saja .
Schlicht, W., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Kanning, M. (2013). Ecological momentary
assessment and intervention in physical activity and well-being: Affective reactions,
social–cognitive factors, and behaviors as determinants of physical activity and
exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00916
However, these lines of research typically use retrospective measures of affective state,
which may be prone to errors and biases (Sato & Kawahara, 2011), and examine
structured activity bouts under experimental conditions instead of self-selected activities
in free-living settings.
Namun , garis-garis ini penelitian biasanya menggunakan langkah-langkah retrospektif
negara afektif , yang mungkin rentan terhadap kesalahan dan bias ( Sato & Kawahara ,
2011) , dan memeriksa serangan kegiatan terstruktur di bawah kondisi percobaan bukan
kegiatan yang dipilih sendiri dalam pengaturan hidup bebas .
Chow, G. M., & Feltz, D. L. (2008). Exploring the relationships between collective
efficacy, perceptions of success, and team attributions. Journal of Sports Sciences,26,
1179–1189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410802101827
These methodological limitations may be addressed through real-time data capture
strategies such as ecological momentary assessment (EMA) or experience sampling
methods (Shiffman, Stone, & Hufford, 2008).
Ini keterbatasan metodologis dapat diatasi melalui real-time strategi data capture seperti
penilaian ekologi sesaat ( EMA ) atau metode pengalaman sampling ( Shiffman , Batu , &
Hufford , 2008) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
EMA may reduce recall errors and biases that threaten retrospective self-report, and EMA
methods enhance ecological validity by measuring affect and behaviors in the settings
where they naturally occur (Schwarz, 2007).
EMA dapat mengurangi kesalahan recall dan bias yang mengancam laporan diri
retrospektif , dan metode EMA meningkatkan validitas ekologi dengan mengukur
mempengaruhi dan perilaku dalam pengaturan di mana mereka secara alamiah terjadi
( Schwarz , 2007) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
This strategy makes it possible to examine concurrent exposures and events (Dunton &
Atienza, 2009). To date, a small but growing number of studies have applied EMA
methodologies to examine affective responses to physical activity in adults (Bossmann,
Kanning, Koudela-Hamila, Hey, & Ebner-Priemer, 2013; Ebner-Priemer, Koudela, Mutz,
& Kanning, 2012; Kanning, Ebner-Priemer, & Brand, 2012; Kanning, Ebner-Priemer, &
Schlicht, 2013; Schlicht, Ebner-Priemer, & Kanning, 2013;Wichers et al., 2012).
Strategi ini memungkinkan untuk memeriksa eksposur bersamaan dan peristiwa ( Dunton
& Atienza , 2009) . Sampai saat ini , sejumlah kecil namun tumbuh dari penelitian telah
diterapkan metodologi EMA untuk memeriksa respon afektif untuk aktivitas fisik pada
orang dewasa ( Bossmann , Kanning , Koudela - Hamila , Hey , & Ebner - Priemer , 2013
; Ebner - Priemer , Koudela , Mutz , & Kanning , 2012; Kanning , Ebner - Priemer , &
Brand, 2012; Kanning , Ebner - Priemer , & Schlicht , 2013 ; Schlicht , Ebner - Priemer ,
& Kanning , 2013 ; . Wichers et al , 2012) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
EMA has also been used to test the effects of social and physical contexts on adults’
concurrent activity levels (Liao, Intille, & Dunton, 2015). To date, there is only one
known published study capitalizing on EMA methodology to investigate how affective
responses to physical activity differ by context (Kanning, 2012).
EMA juga telah digunakan untuk menguji efek dari konteks sosial dan fisik pada orang
dewasa ' tingkat aktivitas bersamaan ( Liao , Intille , & Dunton , 2015 ) . Sampai saat ini ,
hanya ada satu yang dikenal penelitian yang diterbitkan memanfaatkan metodologi EMA
untuk menyelidiki bagaimana tanggapan afektif untuk aktivitas fisik berbeda dengan
konteks ( Kanning , 2012) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
However, that research examined the effect of activity level and context on subsequent
(instead of concurrent) affective states. It also operationalized context as the purpose of
the behavior (i.e., for work, transport, chores, leisure) and did not specifically assess
where (e.g., indoors, outdoors) or with whom (e.g., alone, with others) activities were
taking place.
Namun, penelitian yang meneliti efek dari tingkat aktivitas dan konteks pada berikutnya
(bukan bersamaan ) negara afektif . Hal ini juga dioperasionalkan konteks sebagai tujuan
perilaku (yaitu , untuk bekerja , transportasi , pekerjaan , rekreasi ) dan tidak menilai
secara khusus di mana ( misalnya , di dalam ruangan , luar ruangan ) atau dengan siapa
( misalnya , sendirian , dengan orang lain ) kegiatan yang berlangsung .
Thompson Coon, J., Boddy, K., Stein, K., Whear, R., Barton, J., & Depledge, M. H.
(2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a
greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A
systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1761–
1772.http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es102947t
The current study moves beyond prior work in this area by using EMA to examine
whether affective responses during physical activity differ across specific social and
physical contexts. The primary objective was to determine whether momentary physical
activity level (i.e., being physically active at the time of assessment) moderated
differences in affective response across contexts.
Studi saat ini bergerak di luar pekerjaan sebelumnya di daerah ini dengan menggunakan
EMA untuk menguji apakah respon afektif selama aktivitas fisik berbeda di seluruh
konteks sosial dan fisik tertentu . Tujuan utama adalah untuk menentukan apakah tingkat
aktivitas fisik sesaat ( yaitu , aktif secara fisik pada saat penilaian ) dimoderasi perbedaan
dalam respon afektif di konteks .
Wichers, M., Peeters, F., Rutten, B. P., Jacobs, N., Derom, C., Thiery, E., . . . van
Os, J. (2012). A time-lagged momentary assessment study on daily life physical activity
and affect. Health Psychology, 31, 135–144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025688
Building on preliminary evidence that exercising with people may be more enjoyable
than exercising alone (Plante et al., 2011), we hypothesized that individuals would
experience higher positive affect (and lower negative affect) when engaging in physical
activity with someone as compared with being alone.
Membangun bukti-bukti awal yang berolahraga dengan orang-orang mungkin lebih
menyenangkan daripada berolahraga saja ( Plante et al . , 2011) , kita hipotesis bahwa
individu akan mengalami berdampak positif yang lebih tinggi ( dan rendah negatif
mempengaruhi ) ketika terlibat dalam aktivitas fisik dengan seseorang dibandingkan
dengan menjadi sendirian.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). State indicator report on physical
activity, 2010. Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
We also expected that individuals would report higher positive affect (and lower negative
affect) when physical activity was performed outdoors as compared with indoors,
expanding from initial studies on potential psychologically restorative benefits of outdoor
physical activity (Thompson Coon et al., 2011).
Kami juga diharapkan bahwa individu akan melaporkan berdampak positif yang lebih
tinggi ( dan rendah negatif mempengaruhi ) ketika aktivitas fisik dilakukan di luar
ruangan dibandingkan dengan di dalam ruangan , memperluas dari studi awal tentang
potensi manfaat psikologis restoratif aktivitas fisik di luar ruangan ( Thompson Coon et al
. , 2011) .
Kanning, M. (2012). Using objective, real-time measures to investigate the effect of
actual physical activity on affective states in everyday life differentiating the contexts of
working and leisure time in a sample with students. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 602
Method
Participants and Recruitment
Metode
Peserta dan Rekrutmen
Participants included healthy adults living in and around Chino, California (a suburban
community located about 35 miles east of downtown Los Angeles). Peserta termasuk
orang dewasa sehat yang tinggal di dalam dan sekitar Chino , California ( sebuah
komunitas pinggiran kota yang terletak sekitar 35 mil sebelah timur pusat kota Los
Angeles ) .
The current study analyzed data from a longitudinal study called Project MOBILE
(Measuring Our Behaviors in Living Environments), which investigated the effects of
environmental and intrapersonal factors on health behavior decision-making processes.
Penelitian ini menganalisis data dari studi longitudinal disebut Project MOBILE
( Mengukur Perilaku kami di Living Lingkungan ) , yang meneliti efek dari faktor
lingkungan dan intrapersonal pada perilaku kesehatan - proses pengambilan keputusan
Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2011). The disaggregation of within-person and between-
person effects in longitudinal models of change. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 583–
619. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100356
Recruitment occurred through a number of channels, including posters placed at
community locations, letters sent to places of residence, and references from other
research studies. Inclusion criteria consisted of the following: (a) age 25 years or older,
(b) residence in Chino or a surrounding community, and (c) ability to answer electronic
EMA surveys while at work.
Rekrutmen terjadi melalui sejumlah saluran , termasuk poster ditempatkan di lokasi
masyarakat , surat yang dikirim ke tempat-tempat tinggal , dan referensi dari studi
penelitian lainnya . Kriteria inklusi adalah sebagai berikut : ( a) usia 25 tahun atau lebih
tua , ( b ) tinggal di Chino atau masyarakat sekitar , dan ( c ) kemampuan untuk
menjawab survei EMA elektronik di tempat kerja .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Participants were excluded who (a) did not speak and read fluently in English, (b) had an
annual household income greater than $210,000, (c) regularly performed more than 150
min per week of exercise or physical activity, and (d) had physical limitations making
them unable to exercise.
Peserta dikeluarkan yang ( a) tidak berbicara dan membaca dengan lancar dalam bahasa
Inggris , ( b ) memiliki pendapatan tahunan rumah tangga lebih besar dari $ 210.000 ,
( c ) secara teratur dilakukan lebih dari 150 menit per minggu latihan atau aktivitas fisik ,
dan ( d ) memiliki keterbatasan fisik membuat mereka tidak mampu untuk berolahraga.
Williams, D. M., Dunsiger, S., Ciccolo, J. T., Lewis, B. A., Albrecht, A. E., &Marcus, B.
H. (2008). Acute affective response to a moderate-intensity exercise stimulus predicts
physical activity participation 6 and 12 months later. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9,
231–245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.04.002
High-active and high-income individuals were excluded because the goal of the larger
study was to examine how neighborhood environmental features promote physical
activity initiation in individuals at elevated risk for obesity (i.e., low-active and low-to-
moderate income).
Individu tinggi - aktif dan berpenghasilan tinggi dikeluarkan karena tujuan dari penelitian
yang lebih besar adalah untuk mengkaji bagaimana fitur lingkungan lingkungan
mempromosikan inisiasi aktivitas fisik pada individu yang berisiko tinggi untuk obesitas
(yaitu , rendah - aktif dan rendah sampai sedang pendapatan ) .
World Health Organization. (2009). 2008–2013 action plan for the global strategy for the
prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases: Prevent and control
cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes. Geneva,
Switzerland: Author.
Individuals who met the eligibility criteria were scheduled for a data collection
appointment at a local community site or their home. This research was reviewed and
approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Southern California.
Individu yang memenuhi kriteria kelayakan dijadwalkan untuk janji pengumpulan data di
sebuah situs komunitas lokal atau rumah mereka . Penelitian ini ditinjau dan disetujui
oleh Institutional Review Board di University of Southern California .Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data
analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Study Design
Each participant completed three data collection waves of EMA (each separated by 6
months). No data collection took place from late July to August and during January
because of the extreme temperatures and weather in the study sites, which can alter
physical activity patterns.
Studi Desain
Setiap peserta menyelesaikan tiga gelombang pengumpulan data EMA ( masing-masing
dipisahkan oleh 6 bulan ) . Tidak ada pengumpulan data berlangsung dari akhir Juli
hingga Agustus dan selama Januari karena suhu ekstrim dan cuaca di lokasi penelitian ,
yang dapat mengubah pola aktivitas fisik .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Procedure
EMA data were collected through a mobile phone (HTC Shadow, T-Mobile U.S.A.,
Bellevue, WA) with a custom version of the MyExperience software installed (Froehlich,
Chen, Consolvo, Harrison, & Landay, 2007).
Prosedur
Data EMA dikumpulkan melalui ponsel ( HTC Shadow, T - Mobile USA , Bellevue ,
WA ) dengan versi kustom dari perangkat lunak MyExperience diinstal ( Froehlich ,
Chen , Consolvo , Harrison , & Landay , 2007) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
The software was programmed to display electronic question sequences and response
choices on the mobile phone screen. Each wave of data collection lasted 4 days
(Saturday–Tuesday).
Perangkat lunak ini diprogram untuk menampilkan urutan pertanyaan elektronik dan
pilihan respon di layar ponsel . Setiap gelombang pengumpulan data berlangsung 4 hari
(Sabtu - Selasa) .
Froehlich, J., Chen, M., Consolvo, S., Harrison, B., & Landay, J. (2007,
June).MyExperience: A system for in situ tracing and capturing of user feedback on
mobile phones. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on
Mobile Systems, Applications and Services, New York, NY.
Eight EMA surveys were prompted per day between the hours of 6:30 a.m. and 10 p.m.
Each EMA survey was prompted at a random time within eight preprogrammed windows
to ensure adequate spacing across the day. Upon receiving a phone signal, participants
were instructed to stop their current activity and complete a short electronic EMA
question sequence.
Delapan survei EMA yang diminta per hari antara jam 06:30 dan 10:00 Setiap survei
EMA diminta pada waktu acak dalam delapan jendela diprogram untuk memastikan jarak
yang memadai di seluruh hari. Setelah menerima sinyal telepon , peserta diminta untuk
menghentikan kegiatan mereka saat ini dan menyelesaikan urutan pertanyaan EMA
elektronik singkat .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
This process required 2–3 min. If a signal occurred during an incompatible activity (e.g.,
sleeping or bathing), participants were instructed to ignore it. If no entry was made, the
phone emitted up to three reminder signals at 5-min intervals..
Proses ini diperlukan 2-3 menit . Jika sinyal terjadi selama kegiatan yang tidak
kompatibel ( misalnya , tidur atau mandi ) , peserta diminta untuk mengabaikannya . Jika
tidak ada entri dibuat , telepon dipancarkan hingga tiga sinyal pengingat pada 5 - menit
interval .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
After this point, the electronic EMA survey became inaccessible until the next recording
opportunity. Participants were asked to wear a waist-worn accelerometer during waking
hours across the 4 monitoring days of each wave
Setelah titik ini , survei EMA elektronik menjadi tidak dapat diakses sampai kesempatan
rekaman berikutnya . Peserta diminta untuk memakai accelerometer pinggang dipakai
selama bangun jam melintasi 4 hari pemantauan setiap gelombang.
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Paper questionnaires and anthropometric assessments were conducted at an in-person
session at the beginning of each wave. All items were administered in English.
Kuesioner kertas dan penilaian antropometri dilakukan pada sesi di-orang pada awal
setiap gelombang . Semua item yang diberikan dalam bahasa Inggris . Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data
analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Participants were compensated up to $50 for each wave of the study based on their
compliance with the EMA procedures.
Peserta kompensasi sampai $ 50 untuk setiap gelombang studi berdasarkan kepatuhan
mereka dengan prosedur EMA .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Measures
Activity level
During each EMA question sequence, participants were asked to indicate their current
activity level, “What were you DOING right before the beep went off [Choose your main
activity]?” with response options “reading/computer,” “watching TV/movies,”
“eating/drinking,” “physical activity/exercising,” and “other.
tindakan
Tingkat aktifitas
Selama setiap urutan pertanyaan EMA , peserta diminta untuk menunjukkan tingkat
aktivitas mereka saat ini , " Apa yang kamu MELAKUKAN tepat sebelum bunyi bip
pergi [ Pilih aktivitas utama Anda ] ? " Dengan pilihan jawaban " membaca / komputer , "
" menonton TV / film , " " makan / minum , " " aktivitas / berolahraga fisik , " dan "
lainnya .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
” They were instructed to indicate “physical activity/exercising” for any activity that
raised their heart rate and made them breath harder" Mereka diperintahkan untuk
menunjukkan " aktivitas fisik / berolahraga " untuk setiap kegiatan yang mengangkat
denyut jantung mereka dan membuat mereka lebih sulit napas .
Williams, D. M., Dunsiger, S., Ciccolo, J. T., Lewis, B. A., Albrecht, A. E., &Marcus, B.
H. (2008). Acute affective response to a moderate-intensity exercise stimulus predicts
physical activity participation 6 and 12 months later. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9,
231–245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.04.002
. If “physical activity/exercising” was selected, the participant received the follow-up
question, “What type of PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/EXERCISE?” If a participant
responded “other” to the initial question, he or she received the follow-up question,
“What was this OTHER activity?” with response options “talking on the phone,”
“cooking/chores,” “riding in a car,” “childcare/helping children,” and “something else.
Jika " aktivitas fisik / berolahraga " terpilih , peserta menerima pertanyaan tindak lanjut ,
jika peserta menjawab " lain" untuk pertanyaan awal " jenis FISIK KEGIATAN /
LATIHAN ? Apa " , ia menerima pertanyaan lanjutan , " Apa kegiatan lAINNYA ini? "
dengan pilihan jawaban " berbicara di telepon , " " memasak / tugas , " " naik mobil , " "
anak / membantu anak-anak , " dan " sesuatu yang lain .
Schlicht, W., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Kanning, M. (2013). Ecological momentary
assessment and intervention in physical activity and well-being: Affective reactions,
social–cognitive factors, and behaviors as determinants of physical activity and
exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00916
.” If he or she indicated “something else,” the question “Were you (sitting, standing,
walking, jogging/running)?” was shownThese .
" Jika ia menunjukkan " sesuatu yang lain , " pertanyaan" Apakah Anda ( duduk , berdiri ,
berjalan , jogging / berjalan ) ? " Ditunjukkan .
Schlicht, W., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Kanning, M. (2013). Ecological momentary
assessment and intervention in physical activity and well-being: Affective reactions,
social–cognitive factors, and behaviors as determinants of physical activity and
exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00916
Responses indicating “physical activity/exercising” and “jogging/running” were coded
as physical activity. All other responses were coded as not physical activity.
Tanggapan menunjukkan " aktivitas fisik / berolahraga " dan " joging / menjalankan "
diberi kode aktivitas fisik . Semua tanggapan lain diberi kode aktivitas fisik tidak .
Magnan, R. E., Kwan, B. M., & Bryan, A. D. (2013). Effects of current physical activity
on affective response to exercise: Physical and social–cognitive mechanisms.Psychology
& Health, 28, 418–433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2012.733704
EMA-reported physical activity items have been validated again accelerometer measures
(Dunton, Liao, Kawabata, & Intille, 2012).
EMA - melaporkan item kegiatan fisik ini telah divalidasi langkah lagi accelerometer
( Dunton , Liao , Kawabata , & Intille , 2012) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Social and physical context
The EMA question sequence also asked participants to indicate their current physical and
social context.
Konteks sosial dan fisik
Urutan pertanyaan EMA juga meminta peserta untuk menunjukkan konteks fisik dan
sosial mereka saat ini .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Participants were asked to answer either “yes” or “no” to indicate whether they were
alone.
Peserta diminta untuk menjawab baik " ya" atau "tidak " untuk menunjukkan apakah
mereka sendirian .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
If not alone, they received a series of follow-up questions requiring “yes” or “no”
responses to indicate whether they were with their “spouse,” “child(ren),” “other family
members,” “friend(s),” “coworkers,” “other types of acquaintances,” or people they did
not know.
Jika tidak sendirian , mereka menerima serangkaian pertanyaan tindak lanjut yang
membutuhkan " ya" atau "tidak " tanggapan untuk menunjukkan apakah mereka dengan "
pasangan , " mereka " anak ( ren ) , " " anggota keluarga yang lain , " " teman ( s ) , " "
rekan kerja , " " jenis lain kenalan , " atau orang-orang yang mereka tidak tahu .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Responses to these items were used to create a summary variable for social context (alone
vs. not alone). Participants were also asked, “WHERE were you just before the beep went
off?” with response options, “home (indoors),” “home (outdoors), “work (indoors),”
“outdoors (not at home),” “car/van/truck, and “other.
Tanggapan untuk item ini digunakan untuk membuat variabel ringkasan untuk konteks
sosial ( sendiri vs tidak sendirian ) . Peserta juga diminta , " MANA yang Anda sebelum
bunyi bip pergi ? " Dengan pilihan respon , " rumah ( dalam ruangan ) , " " rumah ( di
luar ruangan) , " bekerja ( dalam ruangan ) , " " di luar ( tidak di rumah ) , " " mobil /
van / truk , dan " lainnya .Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data
analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
” If “outdoors (not at home)” was selected, the participant received the follow-up
question, “WHERE were you OUTDOORS just before the beep went off?” Responses to
these items were used to create a summary item for physical context (outdoors vs.
indoors).
" Jika " di luar ruangan ( tidak di rumah ) " terpilih , peserta menerima pertanyaan tindak
lanjut , " MANA yang Anda OUTDOORS sebelum bunyi bip pergi ? " Tanggapan untuk
item ini digunakan untuk membuat item ringkasan untuk konteks fisik ( luar vs di dalam
ruangan ) .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
To limit the length of each EMA survey, a randomly programmed 60% of the EMA
prompts asked the questions about social and physical context.
Untuk membatasi panjang setiap survei EMA , secara acak diprogram 60 % dari
petunjuk EMA ditanya pertanyaan tentang konteks sosial dan fisik .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Positive and negative affect
The EMA affect items covered the two fundamental dimensions of affect posited by the
circumplex model: valence (ranging from pleasure to displeasure) and arousal (ranging
from activation to deactivation; Posner, Russell, & Peterson, 2005). Positif dan negatif
mempengaruhi
EMA yang mempengaruhi item tertutup dua dimensi fundamental mempengaruhi
mengemukakan oleh circumplex Model : valensi ( mulai dari kesenangan untuk
ketidaksenangan ) dan gairah ( mulai dari aktivasi untuk penonaktifan ; Posner , Russell ,
& Peterson , 2005) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
To assess positive affect, items were selected to represent activated (happy, cheerful) and
deactivated (calm or relaxed) pleasure (three items total, Cronbach’s alpha = .85).
Untuk menilai positif mempengaruhi , item dipilih untuk mewakili diaktifkan ( senang ,
ceria ) dan dinonaktifkan ( tenang atau santai ) kesenangan ( tiga item total, alpha
Cronbach = 0,85 ) .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Negative affect items represented combinations of activated (nervous or anxious,
stressed) and deactivated (sad or depressed, frustrated or angry) displeasure (four items
total, Cronbach’s alpha = .84).
Negatif mempengaruhi item diwakili kombinasi diaktifkan ( gugup atau cemas , stres )
dan dinonaktifkan ( sedih atau depresi , frustrasi atau marah ) ketidaksenangan ( empat
item total, alpha Cronbach = 0,84 ) .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models:
Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which each affective state was felt just
before the auditory EMA prompt. Response options included “not at all,” “a little,”
“moderately,” “quite a bit,” and “extremely.
Peserta diminta untuk menunjukkan sejauh mana setiap negara afektif dirasakan sebelum
EMA cepat pendengaran . Pilihan respon termasuk " tidak sama sekali, " " sedikit, " "
cukup , " " sedikit , " dan " sangat .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
” To limit potential participant burden, a randomly programmed 60% of the total EMA
prompts included the affect items. Thus, the likelihood of receiving a context and affect
question together in the same EMA survey was .60 × .60 = .36.
" Untuk membatasi beban peserta potensial, secara acak diprogram 60 % dari total
petunjuknya EMA termasuk mempengaruhi item . Dengan demikian , kemungkinan
menerima konteks dan mempengaruhi pertanyaan bersama-sama dalam survei EMA yang
sama adalah 0,60 × 0,60 = 0,36 .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Activity intensity
The Actigraph GT2M model activity monitor (firmware v06.02.00; Pensacola, FL)
provided an objective measure of physical activity intensity to be included as a covariate.
The device was worn on the right hip attached to an adjustable belt.
intensitas aktivitas The Actigraph GT2M aktivitas model monitor ( firmware v06.02.00 ;
Pensacola , FL ) memberikan ukuran yang obyektif dari intensitas aktivitas fisik untuk
dimasukkan sebagai kovariat . Perangkat ini dipakai di pinggul kanan melekat pada sabuk
disesuaikan .
Magnan, R. E., Kwan, B. M., & Bryan, A. D. (2013). Effects of current physical activity
on affective response to exercise: Physical and social–cognitive mechanisms.Psychology
& Health, 28, 418–433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2012.733704
Actigraphs were not worn when sleeping, bathing, or swimming. A 30-s epoch was used.
The moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) threshold was 2,020 counts per
minute (equivalent to 3 metabolic equivalents [METs]), consistent with studies using
national surveillance data (Troiano et al., 2008).
Actigraphs tidak dipakai ketika tidur , mandi , atau berenang . A 30 - s zaman digunakan .
Aktivitas fisik ( MVPA ) ambang batas moderat - untuk - kuat adalah 2020 hitungan per
menit ( setara dengan 3 setara metabolik [ MET ] ) , konsisten dengan penelitian
menggunakan data surveilans nasional ( Troiano et al . , 2008)
Magnan, R. E., Kwan, B. M., & Bryan, A. D. (2013). Effects of current physical activity
on affective response to exercise: Physical and social–cognitive mechanisms.Psychology
& Health, 28, 418–433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2012.733704
Activity intensity was operationalized by the minutes of MVPA occurring in the 30 min
surrounding each EMA prompt (i.e., 15 min before and 15 min after)..
Intensitas aktivitas yang dioperasionalkan oleh menit dari MVPA terjadi di 30 menit
sekitarnya setiap EMA prompt ( yaitu , 15 menit sebelum dan 15 menit setelah ) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
EMA entries with a total of zero activity counts in the 30 min surrounding each EMA
prompt were considered accelerometer nonwear and excluded from analyses.
Entri EMA dengan total nol jumlah aktivitas dalam 30 menit sekitarnya setiap EMA
cepat dianggap accelerometer nonwear dan dikeluarkan dari analisis .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference
At Wave 1, research staff measured height and weight using an electronically calibrated
digital scale (Tanita WB-110A) and professional stadiometer (PE-AIM-101) to the
nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively. BMI was calculated (kg/m2). Waist
circumference (in cm) was measured.
Indeks massa tubuh ( BMI ) dan lingkar pinggang
Pada Gelombang 1 , staf peneliti mengukur tinggi dan berat badan menggunakan skala
elektronik dikalibrasi digital ( Tanita WB - 110A ) dan stadiometer profesional ( PE -
AIM - 101 ) hingga 0,1 kg dan 0,1 cm , masing-masing. BMI dihitung ( kg / m2 ) .
Lingkar pinggang ( dalam cm ) diukur .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Demographic and time variables
Participants’ age, sex, ethnicity, race, and annual household income were assessed
through a self-report paper-and pencil questionnaire at Wave 1.
Variabel demografis dan waktu
Usia peserta , jenis kelamin, suku, ras , dan pendapatan rumah tangga tahunan dinilai
melalui laporan diri kertas dan pensil kuesioner pada Gelombang 1 .Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data
analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Each EMA survey was also coded for whether it occurred on a weekend day or weekday
and the time of day that it occurred (i.e., morning [6:30–11:59 a.m.], afternoon [12–5:59
p.m.], or evening [6–10 p.m.]).
Setiap survei EMA juga kode untuk apakah itu terjadi pada hari akhir pekan atau hari
kerja dan waktu hari itu terjadi ( yaitu , pagi [ 6 : 30-11 : 59 am ] , sore [ 05/12 : 59 pm ] ,
atau malam [ 10/06 pm ] ) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Data Analyses
Descriptive statistics for demographic characteristics were calculated with individual
participant as the unit of analysis (Level 2); all other descriptive statistics use occasions
(i.e., EMA prompts) as the unit of analysis (Level 1).
Analisis Data
Statistik deskriptif untuk karakteristik demografi dihitung dengan peserta individu
sebagai unit analisis ( Level 2 ) ; semua statistik deskriptif lainnya menggunakan
kesempatan ( yaitu , EMA meminta ) sebagai unit analisis ( Level 1 ) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Data were analyzed with multilevel modeling in HLM (Version 7) using the HLM2
procedure. Multilevel models adjust the standard errors for clustering of EMA prompts
(Level 1) within people (Level 2; Bryk & Raudenbush, 1992).
Data dianalisis dengan pemodelan multilevel di PLH ( Versi 7 ) menggunakan prosedur
HLM2 . Model multilevel menyesuaikan kesalahan standar untuk pengelompokan
petunjuknya EMA ( Level 1 ) dalam orang ( Level 2 ; Bryk & Raudenbush , 1992) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
A series of multilevel logistic regression models were run to examine whether any
demographic or temporal variables were associated with EMA compliance,
operationalized as a binary outcome (0 = unanswered prompt and 1 = answered prompt).
Serangkaian model regresi logistik multilevel dijalankan untuk menguji apakah variabel
demografis atau temporal yang berhubungan dengan kepatuhan EMA , dioperasionalkan
sebagai hasil biner ( 0 = cepat terjawab dan 1 = menjawab prompt) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Multilevel models also tested whether positive and negative affect were associated with
participant age, sex, ethnicity, BMI, waist circumference, number of EMA-reported bouts
of physical activity, day of the week, time of day, and data collection wave to determine
whether any of these variables should be included as model covariates.
Model multilevel juga menguji apakah positif dan negatif mempengaruhi dikaitkan
dengan usia peserta , jenis kelamin, etnis , BMI , lingkar pinggang , jumlah serangan
EMA - melaporkan aktivitas fisik , hari dalam seminggu , waktu hari , dan gelombang
pengumpulan data untuk menentukan apakah variabel tersebut harus dimasukkan sebagai
model kovariat .
Dunton, G. F., Liao, Y., Kawabata, K., & Intille, S. (2012). Momentary assessment of
adults’ physical activity and sedentary behavior: Feasibility and validity. Frontiers in
Psychology, 3, 260. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00260
Multilevel models tested whether momentary activity level moderated the association of
being alone (vs. with other people) and being outdoors (vs. indoors) with concurrent
affective state. Random intercepts models were estimated.
Model multilevel menguji apakah tingkat aktivitas sesaat dikelola asosiasi sendirian ( vs
dengan orang lain ) dan berada di luar ruangan ( vs di dalam ruangan ) dengan negara
afektif bersamaan . Acak penyadapan model diperkirakan .
Kanning, M., Ebner-Priemer, U., & Brand, R. (2012). Autonomous regulation mode
moderates the effect of actual physical activity on affective states: An ambulant
assessment approach to the role of self-determination. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 34, 260–269.
Between-subjects and within-subject versions (i.e., partitioning the variance) of the main
effects were generated (Hedeker, Mermelstein, & Demirtas, 2012). Antara - subyek dan
dalam subjek versi ( yaitu , partisi varians ) dari efek utama yang dihasilkan ( Hedeker ,
Mermelstein , & Demirtas , 2012) .
Chow, G. M., & Feltz, D. L. (2008). Exploring the relationships between collective
efficacy, perceptions of success, and team attributions. Journal of Sports Sciences,26,
1179–1189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410802101827
The between-subjects version represents the individual mean deviation from the grand
mean, and the within-subject version represents deviation from one’s own mean at any
given prompt (Curran & Bauer, 2011).
Antara - subyek versi mewakili deviasi mean individu dari mean , dan versi dalam
subyek merupakan penyimpangan dari seseorang berarti sendiri setiap cepat diberikan
( Curran & Bauer , 2011) .
Chow, G. M., & Feltz, D. L. (2008). Exploring the relationships between collective
efficacy, perceptions of success, and team attributions. Journal of Sports Sciences,26,
1179–1189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410802101827
Similarly, the between-subjects and within-subject variation terms for binary predictors
were created using grand mean-centering (i.e., subtracting by the group mean proportion)
and person mean-centering (i.e., subtracting by the individual mean proportion) methods,
respectively.
Demikian pula, antara - subyek dan dalam subjek hal variasi untuk prediktor biner yang
dibuat menggunakan mean - centering ( yaitu , mengurangi oleh kelompok berarti
proporsi ) dan orang berarti - centering ( yaitu , mengurangkan dengan proporsi rata-rata
individu ) metode , masing-masing .Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data
analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Interaction terms were created by multiplying the within-subject person-mean centered
values for the predictor variables (i.e., Positive Affect × Alone and Positive Affect ×
Outdoors). Istilah interaksi diciptakan dengan mengalikan dalam - subjek orang - rata
nilai berpusat untuk variabel prediktor ( yaitu , Positif Mempengaruhi × Sendiri dan
Positif Mempengaruhi × Outdoors ) .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Multilevel models entered the activity level by context interaction terms together with its
constituent main effects in Level 1.
Model multilevel memasuki tingkat aktivitas dengan konteks istilah interaksi bersama
dengan efek utama konstituen di Level 1.Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data
analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
All models controlled for within-subject and between-subjects variation in activity
intensity (i.e., MVPA minutes measured by accelerometer in the ±15 min surrounding the
EMA prompt). Data were collapsed across all three data collection waves.
Semua model dikendalikan untuk dalam - subjek dan antara subjek - variasi dalam
intensitas kegiatan ( yaitu , MVPA menit diukur dengan accelerometer di ± 15 menit
mengelilingi EMA prompt) . Data runtuh di semua tiga gelombang pengumpulan data .
Chow, G. M., & Feltz, D. L. (2008). Exploring the relationships between collective
efficacy, perceptions of success, and team attributions. Journal of Sports Sciences,26,
1179–1189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410802101827
Models testing the effects on positive and negative affect were run separately. Robust
standard errors were generated because the distribution of responses for negative affect
was positively skewed (skewness statistic = 2.089, SE = 0.040).
Model menguji efek positif dan negatif mempengaruhi dijalankan secara terpisah .
Kesalahan standar yang kuat yang dihasilkan karena distribusi tanggapan untuk negatif
mempengaruhi adalah positif miring ( kemiringan statistik = 2,089 , SE = 0,040 ) .
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative
framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–
182.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2
HLM 7 calculates robust standard errors using the Huber/White or sandwich estimator
(White, 1982) to obtain corrected tests and confidence intervals when there are
nonnormally distributed outcome data.
HLM 7 menghitung kesalahan standar kuat menggunakan Huber / Putih atau sandwich
estimator ( Putih , 1982) untuk mendapatkan tes dikoreksi dan interval kepercayaan
ketika ada nonnormally didistribusikan data hasil .
Posner, J., Russell, J. A., & Peterson, B. S. (2005). The circumplex model of affect: An
integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and
psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 715–
734.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579405050340
Equations 1 and 2 show the general form of the multilevel models tested,
where i indicates individual and t indicates occasion or time (i.e., EMA prompt).
Persamaan 1 dan 2 menunjukkan bentuk umum dari model multilevel diuji , di mana saya
menunjukkan individu dan t menunjukkan kesempatan atau waktu ( yaitu , EMA prompt)
Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological momentary
assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 1–
32.http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415
.
Level 1 model (Equation 1)
Level 1 Model ( Persamaan 1 )
Level 2 model (Equation 2)
Level 2 Model ( Persamaan 2 )
Results
Participant Characteristics
A total of 116 adults participated in the study. Of these individuals, 90 (78%) had three
waves of data, 11 (9%) had two waves of data, and 15 (13%) had one wave of data.
Demographic characteristics for the sample are shown in Table 1.
hasil
Karakteristik peserta
Sebanyak 116 orang dewasa berpartisipasi dalam studi . Dari individu-individu , 90 ( 78
% ) memiliki tiga gelombang data , 11 ( 9 % ) memiliki dua gelombang data , dan 15 ( 13
% ) memiliki satu gelombang data . Karakteristik demografi untuk sampel ditunjukkan
pada Tabel 1 .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Participants were mainly female (72%) and overweight or obese (61%). Individuals
ranged in age from 27 to 73 years, with an average age of 40.5 years (SD = 9.5). The
sample was 30% Hispanic/Latino.
Peserta terutama perempuan ( 72 % ) dan kelebihan berat badan atau obesitas ( 61 % ) .
Individu berkisar di usia 27-73 tahun , dengan usia rata-rata 40,5 tahun ( SD = 9,5 ) .
Sampel adalah 30 % Hispanik / Latino .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Twenty-four percent had an annual household income less than $40,000. Approximately
5% participants engaged in >150 min per week of MVPA during all three data collection
waves according to the accelerometer data.
Dua puluh empat persen memiliki pendapatan rumah tangga tahunan kurang dari $
40.000 . Sekitar 5 % peserta terlibat dalam > 150 menit per minggu MVPA selama tiga
gelombang pengumpulan data sesuai dengan data accelerometer .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
The number of waves of data available was unrelated to participants’ age, sex, ethnicity,
income, BMI, and waist circumference.
Jumlah gelombang data yang tersedia tidak berhubungan dengan usia, jenis kelamin ,
etnis , pendapatan , BMI , dan lingkar pinggang peserta .Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data
analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
EMA Compliance
On average, participants answered 83% (range = 46–100) of EMA prompts, yielding
7,910 Level 1 observations (M = 68.19, SD = 22.20, range = 10–96 per participant). EMA
Kepatuhan Rata-rata , peserta menjawab 83 % ( kisaran 46-100 = ) dari EMA
petunjuknya , menghasilkan 7.910 Level 1 pengamatan ( M = 68,19 , SD = 22,20 ,
kisaran = 10-96 per peserta ) .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
EMA compliance rates were higher during the third wave of data collection (87%) than
the first wave (82%; β = 0.323, SE = 0.113, p = .006).
Tingkat kepatuhan EMA lebih tinggi selama gelombang ketiga pengumpulan data ( 87
% ) dari gelombang pertama ( 82 % ; β = 0,323 , SE = 0,113 , p = 0,006 ) .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
EMA compliance also differed by day of the week and time of day, with participants
exhibiting higher EMA compliance on weekdays (85%) than weekend days (82%; β =
0.201, SE = 0.079, p = .013) and in the afternoon (85%) than the morning (82%; β =
0.251, SE = 0.080, p = .003).
Kepatuhan EMA juga berbeda dengan hari minggu dan waktu hari , dengan peserta
menunjukkan kepatuhan EMA lebih tinggi pada hari kerja ( 85 % ) dari hari akhir pekan (
82 % ; β = 0,201 , SE = 0,079 , p = 0,013 ) dan di sore hari ( 85 % ) dari pagi hari ( 82 % ;
β = 0,251 , SE = 0,080 , p = 0,003 ) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Individuals with greater BMI score (β = −0.027, SE = 0.012, p = .020) or waist
circumference (β = −0.010, SE = 0.005, p = .036) had significantly lower EMA
compliance. However, EMA compliance rates did not differ by age, sex, ethnicity, or
annual household income.
Individu dengan besar nilai BMI ( β = -0,027 , SE = 0,012 , p = 0,020 ) atau lingkar
pinggang ( β = -0,010 , SE = 0,005 , p = 0,036 ) memiliki kepatuhan EMA signifikan
lebih rendah . Namun, tingkat kepatuhan EMA tidak berbeda dengan usia, jenis kelamin ,
etnis , atau pendapatan rumah tangga tahunan .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Accelerometers were not worn during 1,572 of the answered EMA prompts, leaving a
Level 1 sample size of 6,338 observations. After taking into account planned EMA item
skip patterns, between 2,068 and 2,281 Level 1 observations remained for each analysis.
Accelerometers tidak dipakai selama 1572 dari petunjuk EMA menjawab , meninggalkan
Level 1 ukuran sampel dari 6.338 pengamatan . Setelah memperhitungkan direncanakan
EMA barang melewatkan pola , antara 2068 dan 2281 Level 1 pengamatan tetap untuk
setiap analisis .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Descriptive Statistics
Overall, participants reported a nonphysical activity in 91.3% and a physical activity in
8.7% of EMA surveys. The breakdown of nonphysical activity was as follows: 18.1%
reading/computer, 17.4% watching TV/movies, 12.0% eating/drinking, 9.9% riding in a
car, 9.1% cooking/chores, 6.0% talking/on the phone, 4.6% childcare/helping children,
22.9% other.
Statistik deskriptif
Secara keseluruhan , peserta melaporkan kegiatan nonfisik di 91,3 % dan aktivitas fisik di
8,7 % dari survei EMA . Rincian kegiatan nonfisik adalah sebagai berikut : 18,1 %
membaca / komputer , 17,4 % menonton TV / film , 12,0 % makan / minum , 9,9 % naik
di mobil , 9,1 % memasak / tugas , 6,0 % berbicara / di telepon , 4.6 % anak / membantu
anak-anak , 22,9 % lainnya .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
In total, 108 participants had at least one EMA-reported instance of physical activity
during the three waves of data collection. Across these individuals, there were a total of
549 instances of physical activity (M = 5.2, SD = 4.2, range = 1–18 per participant),
which consisted of walking (55%); running, jogging, or using cardiovascular equipment
(7%); weight lifting or strength training (6%); bicycling (3%); and other (29%).
Secara total , 108 peserta memiliki setidaknya satu contoh EMA - melaporkan aktivitas
fisik selama tiga gelombang pengumpulan data . Di -orang , ada total 549 kasus aktivitas
fisik ( M = 5.2 , SD = 4,2 , kisaran = 1-18 per peserta ) , yang terdiri dari berjalan ( 55 % )
; lari, jogging , atau menggunakan peralatan kardiovaskular ( 7 % ) ; angkat berat atau
latihan kekuatan ( 6 % ) ; bersepeda ( 3 % ) ; dan lainnya ( 29 % ) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
For EMA prompts when physical activity was reported, 37% occurred alone, 40%
occurred with one’s children present (with or without other adults), 8% occurred with
one’s spouse present (without children but with or without other adults), and 15%
occurred with other adults (without one’s children or spouse).
Untuk EMA meminta ketika aktivitas fisik dilaporkan , 37 % terjadi saja , 40 % terjadi
dengan anak-anak seseorang hadir ( dengan atau tanpa orang dewasa lainnya ) , 8 %
terjadi dengan pasangan kita saat ini ( tanpa anak-anak tetapi dengan atau tanpa orang
dewasa lainnya ) , dan 15 % terjadi dengan orang dewasa lainnya ( tanpa anak-anak satu
atau pasangan ) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
When physical activity was reported, 62% of EMA prompts indicated being outdoors.
Ketika aktivitas fisik dilaporkan , 62 % dari EMA petunjuknya ditunjukkan berada di luar
ruangan .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Specific locations for outdoor physical activity were as follows: 22% at home outdoors,
14% at a park or trail, and 26% in other outdoor locations.
Lokasi tertentu untuk kegiatan fisik di luar ruangan adalah sebagai berikut : 22 % di luar
rumah , 14 % di sebuah taman atau jejak , dan 26 % di lokasi outdoor lainnya .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Given the small numbers that remained in each response category after breaking down
EMA-reported physical activity by type of social company, type of outdoor location, and
type of physical activity/exercise, it was not possible to run further statistical tests to
examine differences in affective response across these categories.
Mengingat jumlah kecil yang tersisa di setiap kategori respon setelah mogok aktivitas
fisik EMA - dilaporkan oleh jenis perusahaan sosial , jenis lokasi outdoor, dan jenis
aktivitas fisik / olahraga , itu tidak mungkin untuk menjalankan tes lebih lanjut statistik
untuk menguji perbedaan tanggapan afektif di kategori ini .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
On average, participants engaged in 0.75 min (SD = 2.13, range = 0–30) of MVPA in the
±15-min window surrounding each EMA prompt and a total of 22.24 min (SD = 14.43,
range = 4.39–96.20) of MVPA per day.
Rata-rata , peserta terlibat dalam 0.75 min ( SD = 2,13 , rentang = 0-30 ) dari MVPA di
jendela ± 15 - menit sekitarnya setiap cepat EMA dan total 22,24 menit ( SD = 14,43 ,
kisaran 4,39-96,20 = ) dari MVPA per hari .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
This daily level of physical activity is similar to the average recorded for adults using
accelerometers national surveillance studies (Troiano et al., 2008).
Tingkat ini setiap hari aktivitas fisik mirip dengan rata-rata tercatat untuk orang dewasa
menggunakan accelerometers penelitian surveilans nasional ( Troiano et al . , 2008) .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Across all EMA reports (i.e., both physical activity and nonphysical activity), the average
ratings for positive and negative affect were 3.06 (SD = 0.98) and 1.44 (SD = 0.64) on a
5-point response scale, respectively.
Di semua laporan EMA (yaitu , baik aktivitas fisik dan aktivitas nonfisik ) , peringkat
rata-rata untuk positif dan negatif mempengaruhi adalah 3,06 ( SD = 0,98 ) dan 1,44 ( SD
= 0,64 ) pada skala respon 5 - titik , masing-masing.
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Neither positive affect nor negative affect was associated with participant age, sex,
ethnicity, BMI, waist circumference, number of EMA-reported bouts of physical activity,
or data collection wave.
Baik berdampak positif maupun negatif mempengaruhi dikaitkan dengan usia peserta ,
jenis kelamin, etnis , BMI , lingkar pinggang , jumlah serangan EMA - melaporkan
aktivitas fisik , atau gelombang pengumpulan data .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Positive affect was significantly higher on weekend days as compared with weekdays (β
= 0.290, SE = 0.036, p < .001), and in the afternoon (β = 0.083, SE = 0.035, p = .021) and
evening (β = 0.123, SE = 0.039, p = .001) as compared with in the morning.
Positif mempengaruhi secara signifikan lebih tinggi pada hari-hari akhir pekan
dibandingkan dengan hari kerja ( β = 0,290 , SE = 0,036 , p < 0,001 ) , dan pada sore hari
( β = 0,083 , SE = 0,035 , p = 0,021 ) dan sore ( β = 0,123 , SE = 0,039 , p = 0,001 )
dibandingkan dengan di pagi hari .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Negative affect was lower in the evening as compared with in the morning (β =
−0.069, SE = 0.025, p = .007). Therefore, day of the week and time of day were entered
as Level 1 covariates in all subsequent models.
Negatif mempengaruhi lebih rendah pada malam hari dibandingkan dengan di pagi hari
( β = -0,069 , SE = 0,025 , p = 0,007 ) . Oleh karena itu , hari minggu dan waktu hari itu
dimasukkan sebagai Level 1 kovariat dalam semua model berikutnya .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Social Contextual Influences on Affective Response During Physical Activity
Table 2
Pengaruh kontekstual sosial pada Affective Response Selama Aktivitas Fisik
shows that results of the multilevel models testing whether momentary activity level
moderated the association of being alone (vs. with other people) and being outdoors (vs.
indoors) with concurrent affective state.
menunjukkan bahwa hasil pengujian model multilevel apakah tingkat aktivitas sesaat
dikelola asosiasi sendirian ( vs dengan orang lain ) dan berada di luar ruangan ( vs di
dalam ruangan ) dengan negara afektif bersamaan .
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). State indicator report on physical
activity, 2010. Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Results indicated a statistically significant interaction for Activity Level × Alone for
predicting positive affect (β = −0.302, SE = 0.133, p = .024).
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan interaksi yang signifikan secara statistik untuk Kegiatan
Tingkat × Sendiri untuk memprediksi mempengaruhi positif ( β = -0,302 , SE = 0,133 , p
= 0,024 ) .
Pemeriksaan efek sederhana menunjukkan bahwa positif yang lebih besar mempengaruhi
selama aktivitas fisik dilaporkan ketika dengan orang lain ( vs sendiri ; lihat Gambar 1 ) .
Examination of the simple effects showed that greater positive affect during physical
activity was reported when with other people (vs. alone; see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Plot of the Activity Level × Alone interaction for predicting positive affect
based on the unstandardized regression coefficients for the within-subjects main effects
and interaction terms generated from the multilevel model.
Gambar 1. Plot Tingkat Kegiatan × interaksi Sendiri untuk memprediksi positif
mempengaruhi berdasarkan koefisien regresi unstandardixed untuk dalam - pelajaran efek
utama dan istilah interaksi yang dihasilkan dari model multilevel .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
There were 2,210 Level 1 observations (n = 72 physical activity/alone, n = 123 physical
activity/not alone, n = 782 not physical activity/alone, n= 1,233 not physical activity/not
alone).
Ada 2.210 Level 1 pengamatan ( n = 72 aktivitas fisik / saja , n = 123 aktivitas fisik /
tidak sendirian , n = 782 aktivitas fisik tidak / saja , n = 1.233 aktivitas fisik tidak / tidak
sendirian ) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
The Activity Level × Alone interaction was not significant for negative affect.
Kegiatan Tingkat × interaksi Sendiri tidak signifikan untuk mempengaruhi negatif .
Physical Contextual Influences on Affective Response During Physical Activity
The results of multilevel models examining whether momentary activity level moderated
the differences in affective states while outdoors (vs. indoors) are displayed in Table 3.
Pengaruh Kontekstual fisik pada Affective Response Selama Aktivitas Fisik
Hasil model multilevel memeriksa apakah tingkat aktivitas sesaat moderator perbedaan di
negara-negara afektif sedangkan di luar ruangan ( vs ruangan ) ditampilkan pada Tabel 3 .
Individuals reported greater positive affect when outdoors than when indoors (β =
0.265, SE = 0.044, p < .001; main effects data not shown).
Individu dilaporkan positif yang lebih besar mempengaruhi ketika di luar rumah daripada
ketika di dalam ruangan ( β = 0,265 , SE = 0,044 , p < 0,001 ; Data efek utama tidak
ditampilkan ) .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
However, being physically active did not moderate differences in positive affect while
outdoors versus indoors, as indicated by the nonsignificant coefficient for the Activity
Level × Outdoors interaction.
Namun, menjadi aktif secara fisik tidak perbedaan moderat positif mempengaruhi
sementara di luar ruangan dibandingkan , seperti yang ditunjukkan oleh koefisien tidak
signifikan untuk Kegiatan Tingkat × Outdoors interaksi.
Kanning, M. (2012). Using objective, real-time measures to investigate the effect of
actual physical activity on affective states in everyday life differentiating the contexts of
working and leisure time in a sample with students. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 602.
However, the Activity Level × Outdoors interaction was significant for predicting
negative affect (β = −0.206, SE = 0.097, p = .034). Examination of the simple effects
showed that lower negative affect during physical activity was reported outdoors (vs.
indoors; see Figure 2).
Namun, Tingkat Aktivitas × Outdoors interaksi signifikan untuk memprediksi dampak
negatif ( β = -0,206 , SE = 0,097 , p = 0,034 ) . Pemeriksaan efek sederhana menunjukkan
bahwa negatif yang lebih rendah mempengaruhi selama aktivitas fisik dilaporkan luar ( vs
di dalam ruangan ; lihat Gambar 2 ) .
Kanning, M. K., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Schlicht, W. M. (2013). How to investigate
within-subject associations between physical activity and momentary affective states in
everyday life: A position statement based on a literature overview. Frontiers in
Psychology, 4, 187. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00187
Figure 2. Plot of the Activity Level × Outdoors interaction for predicting negative affect
based on the unstandardized regression coefficients for the within-subjects main effects
and interaction terms generated from the multilevel model.
Gambar 2. Plot Kegiatan Tingkat × Outdoors interaksi untuk memprediksi negatif
mempengaruhi berdasarkan koefisien regresi unstandardixed untuk dalam - pelajaran efek
utama dan istilah interaksi yang dihasilkan dari model multilevel .
Okun, M. A., & Keith, V. M. (1998). Effects of positive and negative social exchanges
with various sources on depressive symptoms in younger and older adults.The Journals of
Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,53, P4–
P20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/53B.1.P4
There were 2,092 Level 1 observations (n = 111 physical activity/outdoors, n = 62
physical activity/not outdoors, n = 252 not physical activity/outdoors, n = 1,667 not
physical activity/not outdoors).
Ada 2.092 Level 1 pengamatan ( n = 111 aktivitas fisik / di luar ruangan, n = 62 aktivitas
fisik / tidak di luar ruangan, n = 252 aktivitas fisik tidak / luar , n = 1.667 aktivitas fisik
tidak / bukan di luar ruangan ) .
Thompson Coon, J., Boddy, K., Stein, K., Whear, R., Barton, J., & Depledge, M. H.
(2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a
greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A
systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1761–
1772.http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es102947t
Discussion
The current study is the first known attempt to use a real-time data capture strategy to
examine how being alone and outdoors are associated with one’s affective response
during physical activity in naturalistic settings encountered in everyday life.
Diskusi
Penelitian saat ini adalah upaya pertama diketahui menggunakan real- time strategy data
capture untuk memeriksa bagaimana sendirian dan di luar ruangan yang berhubungan
dengan respon seseorang afektif selama aktivitas fisik dalam pengaturan naturalistik
ditemui dalam kehidupan sehari-hari .
Thompson Coon, J., Boddy, K., Stein, K., Whear, R., Barton, J., & Depledge, M. H.
(2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a
greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A
systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1761–
1772.http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es102947t
Results indicated that higher positive affect was reported when engaging in physical
activity with other people as compared with being alone.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa positif lebih tinggi mempengaruhi dilaporkan ketika
terlibat dalam aktivitas fisik dengan orang lain dibandingkan dengan sendirian .
Wichers, M., Peeters, F., Rutten, B. P., Jacobs, N., Derom, C., Thiery, E., . . . van
Os, J. (2012). A time-lagged momentary assessment study on daily life physical activity
and affect. Health Psychology, 31, 135–144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025688
Also, higher negative affect was reported when engaging in physical activity indoors as
compared with outdoors. Thus, variability in affective response during physical activity
appeared to be related to where and with whom the activity was performed.
Juga , lebih tinggi negatif mempengaruhi dilaporkan ketika terlibat dalam aktivitas fisik
di dalam ruangan dibandingkan dengan di luar ruangan . Dengan demikian , variabilitas
respon afektif selama aktivitas fisik tampaknya berkaitan dengan di mana dan dengan
siapa kegiatan itu dilakukan .
Thompson Coon, J., Boddy, K., Stein, K., Whear, R., Barton, J., & Depledge, M. H.
(2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a
greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A
systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1761–
1772.http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es102947t
These findings shed light on the relevance of social context to mood-enhancing effects of
engaging in physical activity.
Temuan ini menjelaskan relevansi konteks sosial untuk efek meningkatkan suasana hati
terlibat dalam aktivitas fisik .
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York, NY: Free Press.
Results showed that positive affective benefits of physical activity were greater when the
behavior was performed in the presence of other people as compared with being alone.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa manfaat afektif positif dari aktivitas fisik yang lebih
besar ketika perilaku itu dilakukan di hadapan orang lain dibandingkan dengan sendirian .
Sato, H., & Kawahara, J. (2011). Selective bias in retrospective self-reports of negative
mood states. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 24, 359–
367.http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2010.543132
These findings fall in line with a large body of evidence linking social connectedness and
support to affective well-being (Okun & Keith, 1998).
Temuan ini jatuh sejalan dengan tubuh besar bukti yang mengaitkan hubungan sosial dan
dukungan untuk afektif kesejahteraan ( Okun & Keith , 1998) .
Schlicht, W., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Kanning, M. (2013). Ecological momentary
assessment and intervention in physical activity and well-being: Affective reactions,
social–cognitive factors, and behaviors as determinants of physical activity and
exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00916
The nonsignificant coefficient for the between-subjects effect of being alone on positive
affect suggests that the observed results are not explained by a tendency for individuals
with lower positive affect than average to spend more time alone.
Koefisien tidak signifikan untuk antara subyek - efek sendirian di mempengaruhi positif
menunjukkan bahwa hasil pengamatan tidak dijelaskan oleh kecenderungan individu
dengan rendah berdampak positif daripada rata-rata menghabiskan lebih banyak waktu
sendirian .
Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological momentary
assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 1–
32.http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415
Understanding the mechanisms linking social company to augmented positive affective
response during physical activity is an important area for future work.
Memahami mekanisme yang menghubungkan perusahaan sosial untuk augmented respon
afektif positif selama aktivitas fisik merupakan area yang penting untuk pekerjaan di
masa depan .
Higgins, E. T. (2006). Value from hedonic experience and engagement.Psychological
Review, 113, 439–460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.3.439
Approximately half of the physical activity reported through EMA in the current study
consisted of walking, of which equal proportions were performed with others and alone.
Sekitar setengah dari aktivitas fisik dilaporkan melalui EMA dalam penelitian ini terdiri
dari berjalan , yang proporsi yang sama dilakukan dengan orang lain dan sendirian .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
One explanation is that the positive social interactions such as social support, empathy,
companionship, or entertaining conversations occurring while walking can boost positive
affect, as has been shown in related literature (Vranceanu, Gallo, & Bogart, 2009).
Salah satu penjelasan adalah bahwa interaksi sosial yang positif seperti dukungan sosial ,
empati , persahabatan , atau percakapan menghibur terjadi saat berjalan dapat
meningkatkan berdampak positif , seperti yang telah ditunjukkan dalam literatur terkait
( Vranceanu , Gallo , & Bogart , 2009) .
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative
framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–
182.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2
Alternatively, group-oriented physical activities such as classes and team sports may
heighten positive affective response by providing greater challenge, or more opportunities
for skill-building, cooperation, or feeling of success and accomplishment (Chow & Feltz,
2008).
Atau , kegiatan fisik kelompok yang berorientasi seperti kelas dan tim olahraga dapat
meningkatkan respon afektif yang positif dengan memberikan tantangan yang lebih besar,
atau lebih banyak kesempatan untuk membangun keterampilan , kerjasama , atau
perasaan keberhasilan dan prestasi ( Chow & Feltz , 2008) .
Schlicht, W., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Kanning, M. (2013). Ecological momentary
assessment and intervention in physical activity and well-being: Affective reactions,
social–cognitive factors, and behaviors as determinants of physical activity and
exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00916
Results from the current study also provide evidence that individuals experienced indoor
physical activity as more unpleasant than physical activity performed outdoors.
Hasil dari penelitian ini juga memberikan bukti bahwa individu mengalami aktivitas fisik
dalam ruangan karena lebih menyenangkan daripada aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan di luar
ruangan .
Thompson Coon, J., Boddy, K., Stein, K., Whear, R., Barton, J., & Depledge, M. H.
(2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a
greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A
systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1761–
1772.http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es102947t
These findings are consistent with work on the restorative effects of nature and natural
surroundings from the environmental psychology literature.(Berman, Jonides, & Kaplan,
2008).
Temuan ini konsisten dengan pekerjaan pada efek restoratif alam dan alam sekitarnya
dari psikologi sastra lingkungan . ( Berman , Jonides , & Kaplan , 2008) .
Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., & Kaplan, S. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting
with nature. Psychological Science, 19, 1207–1212.http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9280.2008.02225.x
Natural environments, including being outside in one’s own yard or garden, may provide
a sense of escape that can promote less effortful brain functioning and reduced stress
(Hartig, Böök, Garvill, Olsson, & Gärling, 1996).
Lingkungan alam , termasuk berada di luar di halaman sendiri atau taman , dapat
memberikan rasa melarikan diri yang dapat mempromosikan fungsi otak kurang effortful
dan mengurangi stres ( Hartig , buku , Garvill , Olsson , & Gärling , 1996) .
Ebner-Priemer, U. W., Koudela, S., Mutz, G., & Kanning, M. (2012). Interactive
multimodal ambulatory monitoring to investigate the association between physical
activity and affect. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 596.
Results from the current study are in line with a recent systematic review, which found
that across several studies, physical activity performed in indoor settings was associated
with greater tension, anger, and depression than physical activity performed in outdoor
settings (Thompson Coon et al., 2011).
Hasil dari penelitian ini sejalan dengan tinjauan sistematis terbaru , yang menemukan
bahwa di beberapa penelitian , aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan dalam pengaturan ruangan
dikaitkan dengan ketegangan yang lebih besar , kemarahan , dan depresi dari aktivitas
fisik yang dilakukan dalam pengaturan luar ruangan ( Thompson Coon et al . 2011 ) .
Updegraff, J. A., Gable, S. L., & Taylor, S. E. (2004). What makes experiences
satisfying? The interaction of approach-avoidance motivations and emotions in well-
being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 496–
504.http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.3.496
However, many of the studies included in this review had methodological concerns such
as a lack of ecological validity and recall biases.
Namun, banyak dari penelitian yang termasuk dalam ulasan ini memiliki keprihatinan
metodologis seperti kurangnya validitas ekologi dan mengingat bias .
Vranceanu, A. M., Gallo, L. C., & Bogart, L. M. (2009). Depressive symptoms and
momentary affect: The role of social interaction variables. Depression and Anxiety,26,
464–470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20384
The current study lends increased credibility to these findings through improvements in
design and assessment including the capture of free-living activity bouts and objective
activity monitoring.
Studi saat meminjamkan meningkat kredibilitas temuan ini melalui perbaikan dalam
desain dan penilaian termasuk penangkapan hidup bebas serangan kegiatan dan
pemantauan aktivitas objektif.
Higgins, E. T. (2006). Value from hedonic experience and engagement.Psychological
Review, 113, 439–460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.3.439
Despite the consistent evidence supporting the notion that outdoors settings can have
beneficial effects on affective response during physical activity, a potential alternative
explanation that warrants further investigation is whether certain types of physical
activities that are inherently less unpleasant to some people (e.g., bicycling, team sports)
need to be performed outdoors by necessity.
Meskipun bukti yang konsisten mendukung gagasan bahwa pengaturan di luar ruangan
dapat memiliki efek menguntungkan pada respon afektif selama aktivitas fisik ,
penjelasan alternatif potensial yang menjamin penyelidikan lebih lanjut adalah apakah
jenis tertentu kegiatan fisik yang secara inheren kurang menyenangkan bagi sebagian
orang ( misalnya , bersepeda, tim olahraga ) perlu dilakukan di luar ruangan dengan
kebutuhan .
Schlicht, W., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Kanning, M. (2013). Ecological momentary
assessment and intervention in physical activity and well-being: Affective reactions,
social–cognitive factors, and behaviors as determinants of physical activity and
exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 916. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00916
Despite the use of EMA and objective physical activity monitoring, the current study had
limitations.
Meskipun penggunaan EMA dan pemantauan aktivitas fisik obyektif , penelitian ini
memiliki keterbatasan .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
The use of affect measures consisting of three to four items is not preferable, yet it is
often necessary in EMA research to keep electronic surveys reasonably short to limit
potential participant burden.
Penggunaan mempengaruhi langkah-langkah yang terdiri dari 3-4 item tidak disukai ,
namun seringkali diperlukan dalam penelitian EMA untuk menjaga survei elektronik
yang cukup singkat untuk membatasi beban peserta potensial .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Also, the negative affect items used (i.e., stressed, frustrated or angry, nervous or anxious,
sad or depressed) may not fully capture unpleasant feelings experienced during physical
activity such as discomfort, pain, boredom, or fatigue.
Juga , negatif mempengaruhi item yang digunakan ( yaitu , stres , frustasi atau marah ,
gugup atau cemas , sedih atau depresi ) mungkin tidak sepenuhnya menangkap perasaan
menyenangkan yang dialami selama aktivitas fisik seperti ketidaknyamanan , nyeri ,
kebosanan , atau kelelahan .
Sato, H., & Kawahara, J. (2011). Selective bias in retrospective self-reports of negative
mood states. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 24, 359–
367.http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2010.543132
In addition, the EMA-reported physical activity item captured activities that increased
breathing and heart rate.
Selain itu, item aktivitas fisik EMA - dilaporkan ditangkap kegiatan yang meningkatkan
pernapasan dan denyut jantung .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
Thus, it is not entirely known how affective responses during light-intensity physical
activity (e.g., slow walking) differ across contexts.
Oleh karena itu, tidak sepenuhnya diketahui bagaimana tanggapan afektif selama aktivitas
fisik ringan - intensitas ( misalnya , lambat berjalan ) berbeda di seluruh konteks .
Kanning, M. (2012). Using objective, real-time measures to investigate the effect of
actual physical activity on affective states in everyday life differentiating the contexts of
working and leisure time in a sample with students. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 602.
Furthermore, results reported elsewhere (Dunton et al., 2012) have indicated that, for this
sample, unanswered EMA prompts had greater MVPA (±15 min) than answered EMA
prompts (p = .029) for underweight/normal-weight participants, indicating that activity
level might influence the likelihood of responding for some individuals.
Selanjutnya , hasil yang dilaporkan di tempat lain ( Dunton et al. , 2012) telah
menunjukkan bahwa , untuk sampel ini , petunjuk EMA terjawab memiliki MVPA lebih
besar ( ± 15 menit ) dari menjawab petunjuknya EMA ( p = 0,029 ) bagi peserta
underweight / berat badan normal , menunjukkan bahwa tingkat aktivitas mungkin
mempengaruhi kemungkinan merespons untuk beberapa individu .
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., & Demirtas, H. (2012). Modeling between- and within-
subject variance in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data using mixed-effects
location scale models. Statistics in Medicine, 31, 3328–3336.
If this pattern of missing data had not existed, more instances of physical activity may
have been reported for underweight/normal-weight participants. However, because affect
scores were unrelated to BMI, we would not expect the results to be meaningfully
different.
Jika pola ini dari data yang hilang tidak ada , lebih banyak contoh aktivitas fisik mungkin
telah dilaporkan untuk peserta underweight / berat badan normal . Namun, karena
mempengaruhi nilai yang berhubungan dengan BMI , kita tidak akan mengharapkan hasil
menjadi bermakna berbeda .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Also, contextual exposure, behavior, and affect were measured concurrently.
Juga , paparan kontekstual , perilaku , dan mempengaruhi diukur secara bersamaan .
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and
data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Therefore, reverse causational effects, such as being in a more positive mood leading an
individual to seek out companions for physical activity, cannot be fully ruled out.
Oleh karena itu , membalikkan efek causational , seperti berada dalam suasana hati yang
lebih positif mengarah individu untuk mencari teman untuk aktivitas fisik , tidak dapat
sepenuhnya dikesampingkan .
Bauman, A. E., Reis, R. S., Sallis, J. F., Wells, J. C., Loos, R. J., & Martin, B. W.(2012).
Correlates of physical activity: Why are some people physically active and others not?
[Review]. The Lancet, 380, 258–271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60735-1
However, the within-subject design reduces concerns about between-subjects
confounding effects such as individuals with greater trait-level positive affect having
more social companions than individuals with lower trait-level positive affect.
Namun, desain dalam subyek mengurangi kekhawatiran tentang antara - subyek
membingungkan efek seperti individu dengan lebih sifat -level positif mempengaruhi
memiliki sahabat lebih sosial daripada individu dengan rendah sifat - tingkat
mempengaruhi positif .
Chow, G. M., & Feltz, D. L. (2008). Exploring the relationships between collective
efficacy, perceptions of success, and team attributions. Journal of Sports Sciences,26,
1179–1189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410802101827
Lastly, participants were mainly low-active women recruite from suburban communities
with primarily detached single-family housing.
Terakhir, peserta perempuan terutama rendah - aktif direkrut dari masyarakat pinggiran
kota dengan terutama terpisah perumahan keluarga tunggal .
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). State indicator report on physical
activity, 2010. Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Results may not generalize to men, highly physically active individuals, or more dense
urban outdoor environments with fewer natural features and less greenspace (e.g., yards,
parks).
Hasilnya mungkin tidak menggeneralisasi untuk pria , individu yang sangat aktif secara
fisik , atau lingkungan luar kota lebih padat dengan fitur alami yang lebih sedikit dan
kurang greenspace ( misalnya , pekarangan , taman ) .
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). State indicator report on physical
activity, 2010. Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Overall, the current findings suggest that being with other people is associated with
enhanced positive affective response during physical activity, and being outdoors is
associated with a dampened negative affective response during physical activity.
Secara keseluruhan, temuan saat ini menunjukkan bahwa menjadi dengan orang lain
dikaitkan dengan peningkatan respon afektif positif selama aktivitas fisik , dan yang luar
dikaitkan dengan respon afektif negatif dibasahi selama aktivitas fisik .
Ebner-Priemer, U. W., Koudela, S., Mutz, G., & Kanning, M. (2012). Interactive
multimodal ambulatory monitoring to investigate the association between physical
activity and affect. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 596.
Identifying the conditions that optimize pleasant and diminish unpleasant responses to
physical activity may have important policy and programmatic implications, given the
reinforcing properties of these affective experiences.
Mengidentifikasi kondisi yang mengoptimalkan menyenangkan dan mengurangi respon
menyenangkan untuk aktivitas fisik mungkin memiliki kebijakan yang penting dan
implikasi program , mengingat sifat memperkuat dari pengalaman-pengalaman afektif .
Kanning, M. (2012). Using objective, real-time measures to investigate the effect of
actual physical activity on affective states in everyday life differentiating the contexts of
working and leisure time in a sample with students. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 602.
If physical activity is more affectively rewarding when performed with other people and
less affectively aversive when performed outdoors, then motivation to engage in future
physical activity may be reinforced by encouraging and providing opportunities for adults
to be physically active in these settings.
Jika aktivitas fisik lebih afektif menguntungkan bila dilakukan dengan orang lain dan
kurang afektif permusuhan bila dilakukan di luar ruangan , maka motivasi untuk terlibat
dalam aktivitas fisik yang akan datang dapat diperkuat dengan mendorong dan
memberikan kesempatan bagi orang dewasa secara fisik aktif dalam pengaturan ini .
Kanning, M. K., Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Schlicht, W. M. (2013). How to investigate
within-subject associations between physical activity and momentary affective states in
everyday life: A position statement based on a literature overview. Frontiers in
Psychology, 4, 187. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00187
Examples of these types of interventions and initiatives may include parks-based exercise
programming, classes, and equipment for adults; offering personal fitness training in
outdoor locations; and using social media sites to create meet-up physical activity events
to connect individuals.
Contoh jenis intervensi dan inisiatif mungkin termasuk pemrograman taman berbasis
olahraga , kelas , dan peralatan untuk orang dewasa ; menawarkan pelatihan kebugaran
pribadi di lokasi outdoor ; dan menggunakan situs media sosial untuk menciptakan
bertemu- up peristiwa aktivitas fisik untuk menghubungkan individu .
Liao, Y., Intille, S. S., & Dunton, G. F. (2015). Using ecological momentary assessment
to understand where and with whom adults’ physical and sedentary activity
occur. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 51–61.
Future work is needed to understand whether individuals who perform more physical
activity in the company of other people or in outdoor locations are more likely to sustain
regular patterns of physical activity over the long term.
Pekerjaan di masa depan diperlukan untuk memahami apakah individu yang melakukan
aktivitas fisik lebih banyak di perusahaan orang lain atau di lokasi outdoor lebih mungkin
untuk mempertahankan pola teratur aktivitas fisik dalam jangka panjang .
Wichers, M., Peeters, F., Rutten, B. P., Jacobs, N., Derom, C., Thiery, E., . . . van
Os, J. (2012). A time-lagged momentary assessment study on daily life physical activity
and affect. Health Psychology, 31, 135–144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025688
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Support for this research was provided by American Cancer Society Grants 118283-
MRSGT-10-012-01-CPPB and 5R01CA123243. We thank Jennifer Beaudin of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology for programming the EMA protocols used in this
study and making modifications to the MyExperience tool. We also would like to
acknowledge Keito Kawabata of the University of Southern California for his assistance
with participant recruitment and data collection.
Dukungan untuk penelitian ini disediakan oleh American Cancer Society Grants 118.283
- MRSGT - 10-012-01 - CPPB dan 5R01CA123243 . Kami berterima kasih kepada
Jennifer Beaudin dari Massachusetts Institute of Technology untuk pemrograman
protokol EMA yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini dan membuat modifikasi pada alat
MyExperience . Kami juga ingin mengakui Keito Kawabata dari University of Southern
California untuk bantuan dengan perekrutan peserta dan pengumpulan data .
Portions of this paper were presented at the 2013 American Public Health Association
Annual Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, November 2013.
Bagian dari makalah ini dipresentasikan pada pertemuan 2013 Amerika Public Health
Association Tahunan , Boston , Massachusetts , November 2013 .
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Genevieve Fridlund
Dunton, Departments of Preventive Medicine and Psychology, University of Southern
California, 2001 North Soto Street, Third Floor, Room 302E, MC 9239, Los Angeles, CA
90033-9045
Email: [email protected]
Korespondensi mengenai artikel ini harus ditujukan kepada Genevieve Fridlund Dunton ,
Departemen Preventive Medicine dan Psikologi , University of Southern California ,
2001 Utara Soto Street, Third Floor , Room 302E , MC 9239 , Los Angeles , CA 90033-
9045
Email : [email protected]