term paper mpob vishal

8/14/2019 Term Paper Mpob Vishal

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TERM Paper

OF

TOPIC - A review on therole of per ception inwor ld life sati sfactionandcommi tment.

Submitted to Submitted by

Mr. Rajan Girdhar Vishal kumar jaiswal

Lect of MGT Sec 326

LSB(LPU) Roll no 38(G2)


2/23

Regd no 10812543

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I,Vishal kumar jaiswal student of MBA 1st SEM, roll no.38, Section -326, is

very thankful to my Sir, Mr. Rajan Girdhar for giving me term paper on the

review on the role of perception in world life satisfaction and commitment .

I enjoyed immensely while preparing this term-paper. I have come to know

about many things and learn a lot. I would like to thank my parents for their

financial support. I would also like to thank my friends for their

encouragement and support.

I am grateful to the library for providing me with necessary materials. I

would like acknowledge everyone who helps me without any hesitation.


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PERFACE

As MBA degree equal attention practical as well as the theoretical aspect ofthe business, various problems are to be dealt within these course that is why

research programs are there to give deep as well as through knowledge of

the subject.

I have attempted to live up these requisites while perparing this term paper.

It is part of professional course. With the help of term paper we can able to

understand the deep knowledge about the specific topic assign to us.

During my term paper work I observed some of the aspect of the role of

perception in world life satisfaction and commitment and gather informationregarded it.

My term paper entiteld THE ROLE OF PERCEPTION IN WORLD LIFE

SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT, Critically review with evidence.It

is hope that this report meets the given expectation and various requirements

of the research.


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CONTENTS

1. PERCEPTION

2. The Role of Perception3. Public perception on social welfare

4. Perception and reality

5. Types of Perception

6. Employee Perception on CommitmentOriented Work Systems

7 . The Importance of Equity Perception and JobSatisfaction in Predicting Employee Intent to

Stay at Television Stations8. Role Perception as Predictor of Editors' Jobs

Satisfaction

9. How Does Perception Affect The Organisational Process?10.Job Satisfaction

11.Models of job Satisfaction

12.Job Satisfaction and emotions

13.Commitment

14.Authentic Commitment

15.How To Practice Commitment16.Perception as the Bridge Between Nature

and Life-World


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PERCEPTION

Perception is the process by which organisms interpret and organize

sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. Sensation

usually refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation

of sensory receptors in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, or skin. Perception, on

the other hand, better describes one's ultimate experience of the world and

typically involves further processing of sensory input. In practice, sensation

and perception are virtually impossible to separate, because they are part of

one continuous process.

Thus, perception in humans describes the process whereby sensory

stimulation is translated into organized experience. That experience, or

percept, is the joint product of the stimulation and of the process itself.Relations found between various types of stimulation (e.g., light waves and

sound waves) and their associated percepts suggest inferences that can be

made about the properties of the perceptual process; theories of perceiving

then can be developed on the basis of these inferences. Because the

perceptual process is not itself public or directly observable (except to the

perceiver himself, whose percepts are given directly in experience), the

validity of perceptual theories can be checked only indirectly.

Historically, systematic thought about perceiving was the province of

philosophy. Philosophical interest in perception stems largely from

questions about the sources and validity of what is called human knowledge

(epistemology). Epistemologists ask whether a real, physical world exists

independently of human experience and, if so, how its properties can be

learned and how the truth or accuracy of that experience can be determined.

They also ask whether there are innate ideas or whether all experience

originates through contact with the physical world, mediated by the sense

organs.

As a scientific enterprise, however, the investigation of perception has

especially developed as part of the larger discipline of psychology. For

the most part, psychology bypasses the questions about perceiving raised byphilosophy in favour of problems that can be handled by its special methods.

The remnants of such philosophical questions, however, do remain;

researchers are still concerned, for example, with the relative contributions

of innate and learned factors to the perceptual process.


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Such fundamental philosophical assertions as the existence of a physical

world, however, are taken for granted among most scientific students of

perceiving. Typically, researchers in perception simply accept the apparent

physical world particularly as it is described in those branches of physics

concerned with electromagnetic energy, optics, and mechanics.

The Role Of Perception

As we grow, and mature into what some would consider adults, we are told

to make sure we know about our environment and make sure to do unto

others as you would have done to you. In order to do this, you have to have

a level of perception in which you are able to see things in ways that others

may or may not. How do you see perception? On top of that, what isperception?

According to Kendra Van Wagner (UNK), Perception is our sensory

experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of

environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the

perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the

environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our

experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our

environment. That being said, how does that apply to everyday life and

how does that affect the views of those around you on you?

The best way to approach this is to find the most effective ways to view

perception. Three aspects can alter or influence how things are viewed. One

of them is the world as a whole. What is meant by the world is to say how

the world is viewed, no matter what it is that you look at. Everything has a

view and opinion from everyone who sees it, from the poor and homeless to

the rich and eloquent. Every person has an opinion on why the homeless are

homeless and why the rich are rich. What part of the scale do you fall on?

Are you the type that says that the homeless are homeless because of bad

luck and hard times? Do you lean the other way and think that the homelessare homeless because they are lazy and deserve nothing more than what they

have? Of the estimated 1.3 billion people living in poverty around the

world, 70 percent are women and girls. Women and girls are also the fastest

increasing group of impoverished, a process called "the global

feminization...


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PUBLIC PERCEPTION ON SOCIALWELFARE

Social welfare is an important element in determining society harmonious

life. Social welfare is the core to the concept of development of social,

community and nation. According to Midgley (1995) social development is:

A process of planned social change designed to promote the well-being of

the population as a whole in conjunction with a dynamic process of

economic development. (Midgley, 1995). Social development is the

promotion of social welfare or social living. However, social development

does not guarantee economic growth. Theoretically, social welfare provides

the people with a safe surrounding, satisfaction of basic needs andmaximizes opportunity for mobility. Therefore, the community is free to

develop its potential, participate actively in social activities and contribute to

their community. (Adriaansens, 1994; Fraser and Gordon, 1994; Midgley,

1995). Hence, social welfare care will contribute towards realizing the

advancement of the community.

Traditionally, social welfare efforts were to eradicate and control social

problems. Social welfare was also implemented as part of the efforts to

develop individuals potential to increase the level of social development.Social welfare efforts must be supported by other services in order to

achieve a more effective social development. This achievement is

meaningful to human life. Social welfare also refers to government activities

to provide assistance or social program for the poor.

Generally, the standard of living in Malaysia has improved at a healthy rate,

a product of strong economic growth rate. This is shown by the

improvement in several socio economy indicators like per capita income,

health, education, social well-being and housing (Rahimah and Mohamed

Yusof, 2002). However, at the same time the social welfare situation inMalaysia attract the attention of local academicians and social welfare

professionals as the development is skewed towards economic aspects but

fail to take into consideration social quality.

This study seeks to find the true meaning of the concept of social welfare

and its relationship with social development. Specific attention is given to


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aspects of social welfare such as poverty, unemployment, education, public

housing, health care and quality of life. The study will also attempt to

connect the concept of social welfare with social development with the

assumption that in Malaysia, social development is a process to improve the

social welfare of the community.

Perception and reality

In the case of visual perception, some people can actually see the precept

shift in their mind's.

The 'esemplastic' nature has been shown by experiment: an ambiguous

image has multiple interpretations on the perceptual level.

Just as one object can give rise to multiple percepts, so an object may fail to

give rise to any percept at all: if the percept has no grounding in a person's

experience, the person may literally not perceive it.

The processes of perception routinely alter what humans see. When people

view something with a preconceived idea about it, they tend to take those

preconceived ideas and see them whether or not they are there. This problem

stems from the fact that humans are unable to understand new information,

without the inherent bias of their previous knowledge. The extent of a

persons knowledge creates their reality as much as the truth, because the

human mind can only contemplate that which it has been exposed to. When

objects are viewed without understanding, the mind will try to reach for

something that it already recognizes, in order to process what it is viewing.

That which most closely relates to the unfamiliar from our past experiences,

makes up what we see when we look at things that we dont comprehend.

This confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in human technologies

such as camouflage, and also in biological mimicry, for example by Peacockbutterflies, whose wings bear eye markings that birds respond to as though

they were the eyes of a dangerous predator. Perceptual ambiguity is not

restricted to vision. For example, recent touch perception research Robles-

De-La-Torre & Hayward 2001 found that kinesthesia based haptic

perception strongly relies on the forces experienced during touch.


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Cognitive theories of perception assume there is a poverty of stimulus. This

(with reference to perception) is the claim that sensation are, by themselves,

unable to provide a unique description of the world. Sensations require

'enriching', which is the role of the mental model. A different type of theory

is the perceptual ecology approach of James J. Gibson.

Perception-in-action

The ecological understanding of perception advanced from Gibson's early

work is perception-in-action, the notion that perception is a requisite

property of animate action, without perception action would not be guided

and without action perception would be pointless. Animate actions require

perceiving and moving together. In a sense, "perception and movement are

two sides of the same coin, the coin is action." A mathematical theory of

perception-in-action has been devised and investigated in many forms of

controlled movement by many different species of organism, General Tau

Theory. According to this theory, tau information, or time-to-goal

information is the fundamental 'percept' in perception.-

Types of perception

a.) Amodal perception

b.) Color perception

c.) Depth perception

d.) Visual perception

e.) Form perception

f.) Haptic perceptinon

g.) Speech percepion

h.) Perception as Interpretationi.) Numeric Value of Perception

j.) Pitch perception

k.) Harmonic perception

l.) Rhythmic perception


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Employee Perception on CommitmentOriented Work Systems

Human resource management (HRM) does matter! Prior empirical research,

summarized and classified in the work of Delery and Doty (1996), Guest

(1997) and Boselie et al. (2000), suggests significant impact of HRM on the

competitive advantage of organizations. The mainstream research on this

topic reveals encouraging results on organizational level. Further research on

the perception of the individual employee may reveal new insights in the

effectiveness of HRM in organizations. Now we have the opportunity to

study recent empirical data of a Dutch employment agency. These data on

individual employee level provide us new insights in the perception of

commitment oriented HR systems and their relationship with perceived job

security and employee trust. High scores on employee participation,

payment system, training and development, information sharing, and support

of the direct supervisor result in employee trust and high scores on perceived

job security.

The Importance of Equity Perception

and Job Satisfaction in PredictingEmployee Intent to Stay at TelevisionStations

The purpose of this study was to determine what predicts employee intent to

stay at commercial television stations. Above-the-line employees of five

commercial television stations completed a survey questionnaire, whichfocused on employee turnover in three departments: news, production, and

sales. Data analysis indicated that a category of system outcomes predicted

perception of equity; that a category of interpersonal outcomes, in

conjunction with opportunity and perception of equity, predicted job

satisfaction; and that job satisfaction, in conjunction with perception of

equity and education, predicted intent to stay


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Role Perception as Predictor of Editors' JobSatisfaction

One of the main attractions of the profession to aspiring journalists has beenthe glamour associated with the ability to influence the course of events in

their community through informing the public debate on vital matters of

social and economic policy, keeping a check on the government, exposing

political corruption and helping to advance a progressive social agenda.

Despite the primacy of the profit motive to many owners of the press, the

individual editors and journalists who engage in this less-than-lucrative

profession tend to still be driven, in many cases, by the grand vision of

journalism's influential role in shaping public life.

How Does Perception Affect TheOrganisational Process?

Perception affects things we experience in our daily lives too so of course it

has an impact on the organizational process too.

Perception is basically what we think of something, someone, a situation etc.

Our thinking might be our own or it might be the result of what someone

else thinks of a particular situation.

The reason perception affects the organizational process is because if the

employees cant perceive the goal or the aim of the organization properly

then thy might not be working towards it either and if they are not working

towards it then that organization faces a gap between what is required of the

people and what is actually being done.

I hope you have heard of the "change process" that happens frequently in

organizations. If suppose that process is being implemented then its very

important for the employees to know what the organization is going to go

through and what is going to happen after the process. If their perception

isn't clear about it then they might resist the change a lot which isn't good for


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the company. The employees' perception can help the company's

organizational process run smoother or become difficult.

JOB SATISFACTION

Definitions

Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting

from the appraisal of ones job;an affective reaction to ones job; and an

attitude towards ones job. Weiss (2002) has argued that job satisfaction is an

attitude but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish the objects

of cognitive evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviours.This definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by taking

into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors.

HistoryOne of the biggest preludes to the study of job satisfaction was the

Hawthorne studies. These studies (1924-1933), primarily credited to Elton

Mayo of the Harvard Business School, sought to find the effects of various

conditions (most notably illumination) on workers productivity. These

studies ultimately showed that novel changes in work conditions temporarilyincrease productivity (called the Hawthorne Effect. It was later found that

this increase resulted, not from the new conditions, but from the knowledge

of being observed. This finding provided strong evidence that people work

for purposes other than pay, which paved the way for researchers to

investigate other factors in job satisfaction.

Scientific management (aka Taylorism) also had a significant impact on the

study of job satisfaction. Frederick Winslow Taylors 1911 book, Principles

of Scientific Management, argued that there was a single best way to

perform any given work task. This book contributed to a change in industrial

production philosophies, causing a shift from skilled labor and piecework

towards the more modern approach of assembly lines and hourly wages. The

initial use of scientific management by industries greatly increased

productivity because workers were forced to work at a faster pace. However,

workers became exhausted and dissatisfied, thus leaving researchers with


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new questions to answer regarding job satisfaction. It should also be noted

that the work of W.L. Bryan, Walter Dill Scoft, and Hugo Munsterberg set

the tone for Taylors work.

Some argue that Maslows hierarchy of needs theory, a motivation theory,

laid the foundation for job satisfaction theory. This theory explains that

people seek to satisfy five specific needs in life physiological needs, safety

needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization. This model

served as a good basis from which early researchers could develop job

satisfaction theories.

Models of job satisfaction

Affect Theory

Edwin A. Lockes Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most

famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that

satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job

and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much one

values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position)

moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations

are/arent met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, hissatisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are

met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one who

doesnt value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the

workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A

would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy

and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to

Employee B. This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will

produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that

facet.

Dispositional Theory

Another well-known job satisfaction theory is the Dispositional Theory. It is

a very general theory that suggests that people have innate dispositions that

cause them to have tendencies toward a certain level of satisfaction,


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regardless of ones job. This approach became a notable explanation of job

satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over

time and across careers and jobs. Research also indicates that identical twins

have similar levels of job satisfaction.

A significant model that narrowed the scope of the Dispositional Theory was

the Core Self-evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge in 1998.

Judge argued that there are four Core Self-evaluations that determine ones

disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus

of control, and neuroticism. This model states that higher levels of self-

esteem (the value one places on his/her self) and general self-efficacy (the

belief in ones own competence) lead to higher work satisfaction. Having an

internal locus of control (believing one has control over her\his own life, as

opposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction.

Finally, lower levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction

Measuring job satisfaction

There are many methods for measuring job satisfaction. By far, the most

common method for collecting data regarding job satisfaction is the Like

scale (named after Rensis Likert). Other less common methods of for

gauging job satisfaction include: Yes/No questions, True/False questions,

point systems, checklists, and forced choice answers. This data is typicallycollected using an Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM) system.

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI), created by Smith, Kendall, & Hulin

(1969), is a specific questionnaire of job satisfaction that has been widely

used. It measures ones satisfaction in five facets: pay, promotions and

promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the work itself. The

scale is simple, participants answer either yes, no, or cant decide (indicated

by ?) in response to whether given statements accurately describe ones

job.

The Job in General Index is an overall measurement of job satisfaction. It

is an improvement to the Job Descriptive Index because the JDI focuses too

much on individual facets and not enough on work satisfaction in general.

Other job satisfaction questionnaires include: the Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire (MSQ), the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), and the Faces


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Scale. The MSQ measures job satisfaction in 20 facets and has a long form

with 100 questions (five items from each facet) and a short form with 20

questions (one item from each facet). The JSS is a 36 item questionnaire that

measures nine facets of job satisfaction. Finally, the Faces Scale of job

satisfaction, one of the first scales used widely, measured overall job

satisfaction with just one item which participants respond to by choosing a

face.

Job satisfaction and emotions

Mood and emotions while working are the raw materials which cumulate to

form the affective element of job satisfaction. (Weiss and Cropanzano,

1996). Moods tend to be longer lasting but often weaker states of uncertain

origin, while emotions are often more intense, short-lived and have a clear

object or cause.

There is some evidence in the literature that state moods are related to

overall job satisfaction. Positive and negative emotions were also found to

be significantly related to overall job satisfaction.

Frequency of experiencing net positive emotion will be a better predictor of

overall job satisfaction than will intensity of positive emotion when it is

experienced.

Emotion regulation and emotion labor are also related to job satisfaction.

Emotion work (or emotion management) refers to various efforts to manage

emotional states and displays. Emotion regulation includes all of the

conscious and unconscious efforts to increase, maintain, or decrease one or

more components of an emotion. Although early studies of the consequences

of emotional labor emphasized its harmful effects on workers, studies of

workers in a variety of occupations suggest that the consequences of

emotional labor are not uniformly negative.

It was found that suppression of unpleasant emotions decreases job

satisfaction and the amplification of pleasant emotions increases job

satisfaction. The understanding of how emotion regulation relates to job

satisfaction concerns two models:


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Emotional dissonance Emotional dissonance is a state of

discrepancy between public displays of emotions and internal

experiences of emotions,that often follows the process of emotion

regulation.Emotional dissonance is associated with high emotional

exhaustion, low organizational commitment, and low jobsatisfaction.

Social interaction model. Taking the social interaction perspective,

workers emotion regulation might beget responses from others

during interpersonal encounters that subsequently impact their own

job satisfaction. For example: The accumulation of favorable

responses to displays of pleasant emotions might positively affect

job satisfaction .performance of emotional labor that produces

desired outcomes could increase job satisfaction.

COMMITMENT

A great business leader once said:

"...the basic philosophy, spirit, and drive of an organization have far more to

do with its relative achievements than do technological or economic

resources, organizational structure, innovation, and timing. All these things

weigh heavily in success. But they are, I think, transcended by how stronglythe people in the organization believe in its basic precepts and how faithfully

they carry them out." (from Thomas J. Watson, Jr., A Business and its Beliefs

- The ideas that helped build IBM).

As true as this is for the success of a corporation, it is even more so for the

individual. The most important single factor in individual success is

COMMITMENT. Commitment ignites action. To commit is to pledge

yourself to a certain purpose or line of conduct. It also means practicing your

beliefs consistently. There are, therefore, two fundamental conditions for

commitment. The first is having a sound set of beliefs. There is an old saying

that goes, "Stand for something or you'll fall for anything." The second is

faithful adherence to those beliefs with your behavior. Possibly the best

description of commitment is "persistence with a purpose".


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Many successful business people are hailed as visionary leaders. On careful

inspection they are found to be individuals who hold firmly to a simple set

of commitments, usually grounded in beliefs such as "the best product

money can buy", or the highest possible customer service". It is the strength

of these commitments, religiously followed, that led to their business

success.

Authentic Commitment

We live and work in a culture that takes its identity from its efficiency,

speed, and practicality. We pay a price, though, for being a society of

implementers and executors, and that price is the loss of our idealism and

sense of purpose. We need to find a way to balance our concern with what

works with what matters.

The leadership challenge is to create organizations that combine a larger

purpose with the day-to-day doing. Idealism is the pursuit of the way we

think things should be. Idealists follow their ideals, even to the point of

impracticality. Once we were all more idealistic. A young child asks for the

moon and expects it to be delivered. As we grow older and enter the real

world, our idealism is assaulted and is considered a weaknessa flaw in

perception, an incapacity to see the world as it is. To be told you are

unrealistic is a painful accusation. In the absence of idealism, materialism

flourishes.

The pressure for realism is introduced now at an increasingly early age. As

soon as our children begin school, we start worrying about their SAT scores

to get into college. We fill their afternoons and weekends with

developmental activities. We are happy when they win, for we think this is

an indicator of their future. In this way, we ask the child to shift from

experiencing life to preparing for success in the world of commerce.

The push toward early adulthood short circuits idealism. Idealism dissolves

in a world where measurement and instant results are the most acceptable

answer. The result is a socially acceptable cynicism. The cynic is a fallen

idealist. Cynicism becomes the safe groundthe ultimate defense against

disappointmentand a breeding ground for entitlement. When the idealist is

considered a foola dreamer, out of touch with realitypeople in


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organizations adopt the cynics stance: Since the dream is gone, the world

owes me something in return.

HOW TO PRACTICE COMMITMENT

Effectively demonstrating commitment to others, to the organization's basic

principles, and to oneself is never easy. The truth is, demonstrating

commitment is hard work. Wavering commitment is usually seen as no

commitment at all. The only way to achieve a reputation for commitment is

through determination and persistence. Genuine commitment stands the test

of time.

Day to day, commitment is demonstrated by a combination of two actions.The first action is called supporting. Genuine support develops a

commitment in the minds and hearts of others. This is accomplished by

focusing on what is important and leading by example. It is not uncommon

for people to be either confused as to what is important, or lose sight of it

over time. Supporting means concentrating on what adds value, spotlighting

what's working, and rewarding others who are focusing on what is important

and leading by example. A crucial aspect of true support is standing up to

those who would undermine commitment, those whose words or actions

show disrespect.

The second action underlying commitment is called improving. Improving

stretches our commitment to an even higher level. Commitment means a

willingness to look for a better way and learn from the process. It focuses on

eliminating complacency, confronting what is not working, and providing

incentives for improvement. The spirit of improving is rooted in challenging

current expectation and ultimately taking the risk to make changes.

It is the combination of both supporting and improving behaviors that makes

up the practice of commitment. Separately neither action is capable of

sustaining commitment. Promoting alone can come across as a shallow andpollyannish. Continuous improvement can be seen as "good is never good

enough". Together they provide a needed balance. Both are essential to

commitment.


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ARTICLE

The Role of Organizational Justice in Pay and

Employee Benefit Satisfaction, and its Effects on Work

Attitudes

REVIEW

The objective of our study is to provide a complementary approach with

regard to organizational justice in the domain of compensation. It presents

research undertaken on a sample of 285 employees in three different

Canadian organizations. The results reveal that employees distinguish

clearly between pay satisfaction and benefit satisfaction, and that distributive

justice perceptions are better predictors of pay satisfaction than procedural

justice perceptions. This result is reversed for employee benefit satisfaction:

Procedural justice perceptions are better predictors than distributive justice

perceptions. Lastly, the results show that distributive justice perceptions with

regard to pay play a more important role than procedural justice in job

satisfaction and satisfaction with the organization.


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Perception as the Bridge BetweenNature and Life-World

REVIEW

The main claim in "Perception as the Bridge Between Nature and Life-

World" is that philosophy once again has to discuss the old problem of direct

realism. According to modern philosophy of perception we are never in our

perceptions in direct contact with the external world, but in our everyday

lives we take direct veridical perception for granted most of the time. Our

culture contains an epistemological contradiction. Therefore,

phenomenological philosophers should allow themselves to drop the method

of epoch, and analytic philosophers should not confine themselves to

language analysis. In the paper, some peculiar consequences of direct

realism are highlighted. Modern direct realists have to accept that veridical

perception (a) is x-ray perception (i.e. we perceive through material things),

(b) is backward perception (i.e. we perceive backwards in time), and (c) that

such perception contains a connection at a distance; they also have to accept

(d) that our ego has no determinate spatial and temporal limits. The mainalternative to direct realism seems to be some kind of monadology. It is

claimed, however, that a monadology is even worse off than direct realism

is. Therefore, the philosophical problems of direct realism have to be

discussed.


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SUPERVISORS PERCEPTIONS OF

ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

Power is a complex social phenomenon which has a pervasive influence on

the functioning of an organization. Though power relationships are

universally observed in organizational settings, they manifest themselves in

various forms in different organizations. The most distinctive aspect of

power structure in an organization is the way power is distributed over the

different hierarchical levels. The problem of distribution of power is usually

focused upon the twin guest ions of participation and power equalization in

the organization and their relative influence in determining organizational

effectiveness. The distribution or power, that is, how much influence in the

decision making is exerted by the different hierarchical levels, is closely

associated with the expected distribution of power, that is, how much

influence members expect different hierarchical levels to exert in the

decision making process. In addition to the expectations of the members, the

subordinates perceptions of the source from which the superiors influenceis derived, further adds to the complexity of understanding organizational

power

REFERENCES

www.wikipedia.com

www1.sapdesignguild.org/resources/optical_illusions/intro_definition.html - 6k

hem.passagen.se/ijohansson/intentionality1.ht

www.emeraldinsight.com


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www.nos.org/secpsycour/unit-8

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