tfi.jethost.uztfi.jethost.uz/library/books/majmua/физика... · web viewproton - massasi...

ТОШКЕНТ ФАРМАЦЕВТИКАИНСТИТУТИ

ТАШКЕНТСКИЙ ФАРМАЦЕВТИЧЕСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ

МОДУЛЬ ФИЗИКАСИЛЛАБУС

O‘ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI SOG‘LIQNI SAQLASH VAZIRLIGI

TOSHKENT FARMATSEVTIKA INSTITUTI

FIZIKA, MATEMATIKA VA AXBOROT TEXNOLOGIYALARI KAFEDRASI

FIZIKA FANIDAN FARMATSIYA FAKULTETI FARMATSIYA VA SANOAT

FARMATSIYA FAKULTETLARI YO`NALISHLARI UCHUN

O`QUV- USLUBIY MAJMUA

TOSHKENT -2016

1




«FIZIKA» fanining2015-2016 o‘quv yili uchun mo‘ljallangan

SILLABUSI

OTMning nomiva joylashgan manzili:

Toshkent farmatsevtika instituti Oybek, 45

Kafedra: Fizika, matematika va axborot texnologiyalari

2 o‘quv binosi 4 qavat

Ta’lim sohasi va yo‘nalishi:

510000 – Sog‘liqni saqlash

5510500 – Farmatsiya (turlari bo‘yicha)5111039 – Kasb ta’limi (Farmatsiya)5510600 – Sanoat farmatsiyasi (turlari bo‘yicha)5320500 – Biotexnologiya

Fanni (kursni) olib boradigan o‘qituvchi to‘g‘risida ma’lumot:

Sodikova NargizaBaxtiyarovnaTursunova Zuxra Botirovna kafedra katta o‘qituvchilari

e-mail:[email protected][email protected]

umail.uz:[email protected]_nargiza1973&mail.uz

Dars vaqti va joyi: Dars jadval asosida kafedrada

KursningDavomiyligi: 1 kurs I/II semestr

Individual grafik asosida ishlash vaqti:

Payshanba va juma kunlari 13.30 dan 15.00 gacha

Fanga ajratilgan soatlar

Auditoriya soatlari Mustaqil ta’lim 74Ma’ruza 36 Amaliyot 4 Laboratoriya

mashg‘ulotlari68

Fanning boshqa fanlar bilan bog‘liqligi (prerekvizitlar):

– Oliy matematika, kimyo fanlaridan olgan bilimlariga asoslanadi.

(postrekvizitlar): Ushbu fan barcha tabiiy va mutaxassislik fanlarni o‘zlashtirish uchun asos bo‘ladi

2

mailto:[email protected]






O‘ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI

SOG‘LIQNI SAQLASH VAZIRLIGI

TOSHKENT FARMATSEVTIKA INSTITUTI

Fizika, matematika va axborot texnologiyalari kafedrasi

Ro‘yxatga olindi:

№ ___________________

2016 y. “____” ____________

”TASDIQLAYMAN”

O‘quv ishlari bo‘yicha prorektor f.f.n., S.U.Aliev

________________________ ”____ “ ____________2016 yil

“FIZIKA”

FANING

ISHCHI O‘QUV DASTURI

Bilim sohasi: 500000 Sog‘liqni saqlash va ijtimoiy ta’minot Ta’lim sohasi: 510000 Sog‘liqni saqlash

Ta’lim yo’nalishi: 5510500 Farmatsiya (Klinik farmatsiya) 5510500 Farmatsiya (Farmatsevtik taxlil)

5510500 Farmatsiya (Farmatsevtika ishi) 5111000 Kasb ta’limi (5510500- Farmatsevtika ishi) 5510600 Sanoat farmatsiyasi (Dori vositalari) 5510600 Sanoat farmatsiyasi (Farmatsevtik biotexnologiya) 5510600 Sanoat farmatsiyasi (Kosmetsevtika)

3




Toshkent – 2016 yil

Fanning ishchi o‘quv dasturi o‘quv, ishchi reja va o‘quv dasturiga muvofiq ishlab chiqildi.

Tuzuvchilar:N.B. Sodikova – Toshkent Farmatsevtika instituti “Fizika, matematika va AT” kafedrasi, katta o‘qituvchiZ.B. Tursunova - Toshkent Farmatsevtika instituti “Fizika, matematika va AT” kafedrasi, katta o‘qituvchi SH.SH. Sattorov - Toshkent Farmatsevtika instituti “Fizika, matematika va AT” kafedrasi, o‘qituvchi

Taqrizchilar:M.A.Fattaxov - TTESI “Fizika va elektrotexnika” kafedrasi dotsenti M.G‘. Ismoilova - Toshkent Farmatsevtika instituti Biotexnologiya kafedrasi mudiri, f.f.d.

Fanning ishchi o‘quv dasturi “Fizika, matematika va AT” kafedrasining 2016 yil “------”----------------- dagi ------ - sonli majlisida muhokamadan o‘tgan va fakultet kengashida muhokama qilish uchun tavsiya etilgan.

Fizika, matematika va AT kafedrasi mudiri

Sanoat farmatsiya fakulteti ilmiy kengashining2016 yil “------”--------------dagi -------- - sonli majlisida muhokama qilinib, tasdiqlash uchun tavsiya etildi:

Sanoat farmatsiya fakulteti

ilmiy kengashining raisi, dotsent X.SH. Ilxomov

“------”--------------2016 yil

4




Ishchi dastur MUKning 2016 yil “------”--------------dagi------ - sonli majlisida

muhokama qilib tasdiqlandi.

Fanning dolzarbligi va qisqacha mazmuni:

Sog‘liqni saqlashning profilaktik yo‘nalishini kuchaytirish, tibbiy xizmatni sifatini yaxshilash, aholini zamonaviy, mahalliy dori-darmonlar bilan ta’minlash hozirgi dolzarb masalalardan biri bo‘lib hisoblanadi. Bu masalalarni hal etish uchun chuqur maxsus bilimga, amaliy ko‘nikmalarga va yuqori nazariy tayyorgarlikka ega bo‘lgan mutaxassislarni tayyorlash zarur.

Fizika fani farmatsevt va muhandis-texnolog mutaxassislarni tayyorlashda asosiy fanlardan hisoblanadi. CHunki fizika asoslari tirik organizmlarda sodir bo‘ladigan jarayonlarni, fizik mexanizmlarni, dori moddalarining harakatlari va ta’sirlarini o‘rganishda keng qo‘llaniladi. Bu esa tibbiy va farmatsevtika instituti talabalariga fizika fanini o‘rgatish zarurligini ko‘rsatadi.

Fanni o‘qitishdan maqsad

Farmatsevtika sohasining farmatsevt va muhandis-texnolog mutaxassisligi bo‘yicha ta’lim olib muhandis-texnolog bo‘lib chiquvchi talabalarga o‘qitiladigan fizika va biofizika fanining maqsad va vazifasi barcha kimyo fanlarida, farmakologiyada, dori turlari texnologiyasi fanlarida zamin tayyorlash, undan tashqari fizik-kimyoviy tahlil usullarining nazariy va amaliy asoslarini berish hamda ularning amaliy tadbiqi bo‘yicha malaka hosil qilishdan iborat.

Fanning vazifasi

fizika fanining maqsad va vazifalarini hamda ularni echish usullarini;

- fizikaning asosiy qonunlarini;

- moddani fizik tadqiqot qilish usullarining nazariy asoslarini;

- moddaning fizik xossalari va xarakteristikalarini;

- tirik organizmga ta’sir qiluvchi fizik omillarning xarakteristikalarini;

- fizik asboblarning ishlash prinsiplarini;

- fizik apparatlar bilan ishlashda o‘lchov talablarini;

- texnika xavfsizligi qoidalarini;

- laboratoriya ishlarini mustaqil bajara olishni;

Talabalar uchun talablar

«Fizika» o‘quv fanini o‘zlashtirish jarayonida bakalavr:- fizika fani bo‘yicha o‘quv adabiyotlari va ma’lumotlardan foydalana bilish;

- olgan nazariy bilimlari asosida amaliy mashg‘ulotlar bajara olishi;

- olgan nazariy va amaliy bilimlarini mutaxassislik fanlarini o‘zlashtirishda qo‘llay bilishi;

5




- olgan nazariy va amaliy bilimlarini ish faoliyatida qo‘llay bilish ko‘nikma va malakalariga ega bo‘lishi lozim.

Elektron pochta orqali munosabatlar tartibi

Professor-o‘qituvchi va talaba o‘rtasidagi aloqa elektron pochta orqali ham amalga oshirilishi mumkin, telefon orqali baho masalasi muhokama qilinmaydi, baholash faqatgina institut hududida, ajratilgan xonalarda va dars davomida amalga oshiriladi.

Elektron pochtani ochish vaqti soat 15.00 dan 20.00 gacha.

“Fizika” fanidan mashg‘ulotlarning mavzular va soatlar bo‘yicha taqsimlanishi:

FAN MAVZULARI VA UNGA AJRATILGAN SOATLAR TAQSIMOTI:

Ma’ruza mavzulari

№ Mavzular Ma’ruza Laboratoriya Mustaqil ish

1.Mexanikaning fizik asos-lari. Umumiy tushunchalar. Kinematika. 2 10 4

2. Mexanikaviy tebranishlar va to‘lqinlar. 2 4

4

3.Suyuqlik va gazlar mexanikasi. Suyuqlik va gazlarda bosim. Paskal va Arximed qonunlari. 2 6

4

4. Ideal gaz. Gazlar molekulyar kinetik nazariyasi asoslari. 2 4 4

5.

Gaz molekulalarining tezliklari bo‘yicha taqsimoti Maksvell va Bolsman taqsimoti to‘g‘risida tushuncha. 2 6

4

6.

Termodinamika asoslari. Ish va issiqlik miqdori, issiqlik almashinuvi. Termo-dinamikaning birinchi bosh qonuni. 2 4

4

7.

Suyuqliklar, ularning mole-kulyar tuzilishining xususi-yatlari. Suyuqliklardagi ko‘chish hodisalari. 2 6

4

8. Elektrostatika. 2 2 49. O‘zgarmas tok qonunlari. Tok 2 - 4

6




kuchi va zichligi. Zanjirning bir qismi uchun Om qonuni.

10.Dielektriklar. Elektrik dipol. Dielektriklarning qutblanishi. Dielektriklarning turlari 2 -

4

11. Magnitizm. Magnit maydon. Tokli kontur.

2 4 4

12. Elektromagnit induksiya.O‘zinduksiya. O‘zaro induksiya.

2 - 4

13. Geometrik optika. Umumiy tushunchalar. Refraktometriya.

2 4 4

14. Yorug‘likning to‘lqin asoslariYorug‘lik interferensiyasi.Yorug‘lik dispersiyasi. Yorug‘-likning yutilishi. Yorug‘likni sochilishi.

2 8 4

15. Yorug‘likning qutblanishi. Polyarimetriya. Issiqlik nurlanishi va ularni xarakteristikalari.

2 4 4

16. Yorug‘lik dualizmi. Harakat-lanayotgan zarrachalar to‘lqin xususiyati. De-Broyl gipotezasi.

2 4 5

17. Atomning tuzilishi. Rezerford tajribasi. Atomni yadroviy planetar modeli.

2 - 5

18. Yadro fizikasi.Yadro fizikasi tushunchalari. Atom yadrosi. Radioaktivlik.

2 4 4

36 72 74

7




ASOSIY QISM: FANNING USLUBIY JIHATDAN UZVIY KETMA - KETLIGIMa’ruza mavzulari

Ma’ruza 1 (2 soat)Mexanikaning fizik asoslari. Umumiy tushunchalar. Kinematika. Adabiyotlar: 1 –5 bob, 4, 5, 8.Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Ko‘chish va yo‘l. To‘g‘ri chiziqli tekis harakat. Tekis, notekis,

tezlanuvchan, sekinlanuvchan harakat, tezlik va tezlanish, uning tashkil etuvchilari. Egri chiziqli harakat va uni tavsiflovchi kattaliklar.

Ma’ruza 2 (2 soat)Mexanikaviy tebranishlar va to‘lqinlar. Adabiyotlar: 1 –5 bob, 4, 5, 8.

Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Jismlarning absolyut elastik va noelastik urilishi. Tortishish kuchlari. Butun olam tortishish qonuni. Tortishish maydoni. Og‘irlik kuchi va vazn. Vaznsizlik. Kosmik tezliklar. Qattiq jismlar mexanikasi. Inersiya va kuch momentlari. Qattiq jism aylanma harakat dinamikasining tenglamasi. Qattiq jism deformatsiyasi. Qattiq jism muvozanati. Mayatniklar. Garmonik tebranishlar va ularni xarakterlovchi fizik kattaliklar (siljish, tezlik, tezlanish). Ularning differensial tenglamasi. So‘nuvchi tebranishlar, ularning parametrlari (siljish, so‘nishning logarifmik dikrementi). Majburiy tebranishlar. rezonans. Fazoviy va gruppaviy tezliklar. To‘lqin energiyasi oqimi. Doppler effekti. Turg‘un to‘lqinlar. To‘lqinlar interferensiyasi. Tovush to‘lqinlari. Eshitish sohalari.

Ma’ruza 3 (2 soat)Suyuqlik va gazlar mexanikasi. Suyuqlik va gazlarda bosim. Paskal va Arximed qonunlari.Adabiyotlar: 1-12 bob, 4, 5, 8.

Ma`ruza 4 (2 soat)Ideal gaz. Gazlar molekulyar kinetik nazariyasi asoslari.Adabiyotlar: 1-12 bob, 4, 5, 8.

Ma`ruza 5 (2 soat)Gaz molekulalarining tezlik-lari bo‘yicha taqsimoti Maksvell va Bolsman taqsi-moti

to‘g‘risida tushuncha.Adabiyotlar: 1-12 bob, 4, 5, 8.Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Biologik sistemalar termodinamikasi. Ochiq sistemalar uchun

termodinamika qonunlari. Erkin energiya o`zgarishi. Ximik va elektroximik potentsial.Termodinamik potensiallar. Standart erkin energiyaning o’zgarishi. Dissipativ funksiya va entropiya o’sish tezligi. Statsionar holat barqarorligi va kriteriy darajasi. Prigojin tenglamasi.

Ma`ruza 6 (2 soat)Termodinamika asoslari. Ish va issiqlik miqdori, issiqlik almashinuvi. Termo-dinamikaning

birinchi bosh qonuni.Adabiyotlar: 1, 4, 5, 8 – II bob.

Ma`ruza 7 (2 soat)Suyuqliklar, ularning mole-kulyar tuzilishining xususi-yatlari. Suyuqliklardagi ko‘chish

hodisalari.Adabiyotlar: 1-9 bob, 4, 5, 8.Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Djoul – Tomson effekti. Farmatsiya va tibbiyotda past temperaturalarning

qo’lanilishi. Suyuqliklar molekulyar tuzilishi o’ziga xosligi va umumiy xususiyatlari (diffuziya, qovushqoq-lik, issiqlik o’tkazuvchanlik). Sirt aktiv moddalar va ularning qo’llanilishi. Kapillyar

8




bosim. Laplas formulasi. Qattiq, kristall va amorf jismlar. Biopolimerlar umumiy xususiyatlari va tuzilisining o’ziga xosligi.

Ma`ruza 8 (2 soat)Elektrostatika.Adabiyotlar: 1-14 bob, 4, 5, 8.

Ma`ruza 9 (2 soat)O‘zgarmas tok qonunlari. Tok kuchi va zichligi. Zanjirning bir qismi uchun Om qonuni.

Adabiyotlar: 1-15 bob, 4, 5, 8.Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Dielektriklar polyarizatsiyasi (dipol yoki oriyentatsion, elektron, ion).

Plazma haqida tushuncha. Yarim o’tkazgichlarda elektr toki. Zonalar nazariyasi. Elektromagnit to’lqinlar va ularning farmatsiya va tibbiyotda qo’llanilishi.

Ma`ruza 10 (2 soat)Dielektriklar. Elektrik dipol. Dielektriklarning qutblanishi. Dielektriklar-ning turlari Adabiyotlar: 1-15 bob, 4, 5, 8.Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Dielektriklarni qutblanishi. Dielektriklarni turlari (qutblangan molekulalar

bilan; qutblanmagan molekulalar bilan; kristall, ya’ni ion tuzilishi bilan). Qutblanish (dipol, elektron, ionli). Qutblanganlik. Dielektrik singdiruvchanlik. Plazma haqida tushuncha. Yarim o’tkazgichlarda elektr toki. Yarim o’tkazgichlarning tuzilishi. Zonalar nazariyasi. r–tipidagi o’tkazuvchanlik. n–tipidagi o’tkazuvchanlik.

Ma`ruza 11 (2 soat)Magnitizm. Magnit maydon. Tokli kontur. Adabiyotlar: 1-17 bob, 4, 5, 8.

Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Ularning qo’llanilishi (mass-spektroskopiya, tezlatgichlar).

Ma`ruza 12 (2 soat)Elektromagnit induksiya. O‘zinduksiya. O‘zaro induksiya.

Adabiyotlar: 1-17 bob, 4, 5, 8.Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Siljish toki. Maksvell tenglamalari. Maksvell nazariyasini asosiy tushunchalari.

Ma`ruza 13 (2 soat)Geometrik optika. Umumiy tushunchalar. Refraktometriya.Adabiyotlar: 1,26 bob, 4, 5, 9.Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Ko’rish biofizikasi. Ko’rishning molekulyar mexanizmi.

Ma`ruza 14 (2 soat)Yorug‘likning to‘lqin asoslari. Yorug‘lik interferensiyasi. Yorug‘lik dispersiyasi. Yorug‘likning yutilishi. Yorug‘likni sochilishi. Adabiyotlar: 1,26 bob, 4, 5, 9.Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Vulf –Bregg formulasi. Rentgenostruktur analiz asoslari. Golografiya haqida tushuncha.

Ma`ruza 15 (2 soat)Yorug‘likning qutblanishi. Polyarimetriya. Issiqlik nurlanishi va ularni xarakteristikalari. Adabiyotlar: 1,26 bob, 4, 5, 9.

Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Yorug’likning sochilishi (Tindal hodisasi, molekulyar sochilish. Reley qonuni. Nefelometriya). Nurlanishlarning qo’llanlishi.

Ma`ruza 16 (2 soat)

9




Yorug‘lik dualizmi. Harakatlanayotgan zarrachalar to‘lqin xususiyati. De-Broyl gipotezasi. Adabiyotlar: 1,13 bob, 4, 5, 9.

Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Harakatlanayotgan zarrachalar to’lqin xususiyati. De Broyl gipotezasi. Elektron, neytron va boshqa zarrachalar difraksiyasi. Elektron mikroskop va ularning qo’llanilishi). Majburiy (induksiyalangan) nurlanish haqida tushuncha. Lazerlar va ularni qo’llanishi.

Ma`ruza 17 (2 soat)Atomning tuzilishi. Rezerford tajribasi. Atomni yadroviy planetar modeli.

Adabiyotlar: 1, 4, 5, 9 – II bob.Ma`ruza 18 (2 soat)

YAdro fizikasi.YAdro fizikasi tushunchalari. Atom yadrosi. Radioaktivlik. Adabiyotlar: 1, 4, 5, 9 – II bob.

Mustaqil ish mavzusi: Nishonli atomlar, belgilar va ularning qo’llanilishi. Elementar zarrachalar. Zarralarni qayd qilishning amaliy usullari. Tezlatkichlar. Yadro reaktori.

Amaliy mashg‘ulotlarni tashkil etish bo‘yicha mavzular, ko‘rsatma va tavsiyalar

№ Amaliy mashg‘ulotlarning nomi va mazmuni Ajratilgan soat

Adabiyotga

ko‘rsatma1 Kirish. Xatoliklar va ularni hisoblash. 2 1,3,4 va h.k.

2 Bajarilgan ishlar hisoboti. YAkuniy nazorat. 2 1,3,4 va h.k.

Laboratoriya mashg‘ulotlarini tashkil etish bo‘yicha mavzular, ko‘rsatma va tavsiyalar

№ Laborotoriya mashg‘ulotlarning nomi va mazmuni Ajratilgan soat

Adabiyotga

ko‘rsatma1 Analitik tarozida tortishni o‘rganish. 4 1,3,4 va

h.k.2 Geometrik shaklga ega bo‘lgan qattiq jismlar zichligini

aniqlash.2 1,3,4 va

h.k.

3 Suyuqlik sirt taranglik koeffitsientini halqa uzilish usuli bilan aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

10




4 Suyuqlik va sochiluvchan qattiq jismlarning zichligini piknometr yordamida aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

5 Stoks usuli bilan suyuqliklarning yopishqoqlik koeffisientini aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

6 Biologik suyuqliklarning yopishqoqlik koeffitsien-tini VK-4 viskozimetri yordamida aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

7 Havo molekulalarining o‘rtacha erkin yugurish yo‘li va ichki ishqalanish koeffitsientini aniqlash.

4 1,3,4 va h.k.

8 Halqaning tebranishidan jismlarning erkin tushish tezlanishi aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

9 Suyuqlikning sirt taranglik koeffitsientini tomchi uzilishi usuli bilan aniqlash.

4 1,3,4 va h.k.

10 Jismlarning zichligini gidrostatik tortish usuli bilan aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

11 Matematik mayatnik yordamida jismlarning erkin tushish tezlanishini aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

12 Osvald viskozimetri yordamida suyuqliklarning yopishqoqlik koeffitsientini aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

13 O‘zgarmas bosim va o‘zgarmas hajmdagi issiqlik sig‘mlari nisbatini aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

14 Havoning nisbiy namligini Assman psixrometri yordamida aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

15 Gey-Lyussak qonuni yordamida absolyut nol haroratni aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

16 Boyl-Mariott qonunini tajribada o‘rganish. 2 1,3,4 va h.k.

17 Refraktometr yordamida eritmalarning konsentratsiyasini va nur sindirish ko‘rsatkichini aniqlash.

4 1,3,4 va h.k.

18 Fotokolorometrda rangli suyuqliklarning konsentratsiyasini aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

19 Fotoelementning integral sezgirligini aniqlash. 2 1,3,4 va h.k.

20 Difraksion panjara yordamida yorug‘likning to‘lqin uzunligini aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

21 Elektrostatik maydonni o‘rganish. 2 1,3,4 va h.k.

11




22 Yоrug‘likning qutblanishini o‘rganish. 4 1,3,4 va h.k.

23 Amper qonunini o‘rganish. 2 1,3,4 va h.k.

24 Yorug‘lik to‘lqin uzunligini Nyuton halqalari yordamida aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

25 Spektroskopni darajalash va uning yordamida yorug‘likning to‘lqin uzunligini aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

26 Shishaning sindirish ko‘rsatkichini aniqlash. 2 1,3,4 va h.k.

27 Radioaktiv yadrolarning yarim emrilish davrini aniqlash. 2 1,3,4 va h.k.

28 Gazlar issiqlik sig‘imlari nisbatini “Kleman-Dezorma” stendi yordamida aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

29 Yerning magnit maydon kuchlanganligining gorizontal tashkil etuvchisi aniqlash.

2 1,3,4 va h.k.

KURS ISHLARINING NAMUNAVIY MAVZULARI: ( rejalashtirilmagan)

MALAKAVIY AMALIYOT: (rejalashtirilmagan)

Mustaqil ta’limni tashkil etishning shakli va mazmuni

Talaba mustaqil ishining asosiy maqsadi – o‘qituvchining rahbarligi va nazorati ostida muayyan o‘quv ishlarini mustaqil ravishda bajarish uchun bilim va ko‘nikmalarni shakllantirish va rivojlantirish.

Talaba mustaqil ishini tashkil etishda quyidagi shakllardan foydalaniladi: ayrim nazariy mavzularni o‘quv adabiyotlari yordamida mustaqil o‘zlashtirish; berilgan mavzular bo‘yicha axborot (referat) tayyorlash; nazariy bilimlarni amaliyotda qo‘llash; avtomatlashtirilgan o‘rgatuvchi va nazorat qiluvchi tizimlar bilan ishlash; ilmiy maqola, anjumanga ma’ruza tayyorlash va h.k.Toshkent farmatsevtika institutining “Talaba mustaqil ishini tashkil etish, nazorat qilish va

baholash” to‘g‘risidagi Nizom O‘zbekiston Respublikasi OO‘MTVning 2005 yil 21 fevral 34-buyrug‘i bilan tasdiqlangan Namunaviy Nizom asosida ishlab chiqilgan. Talabaning mustaqil ishi o‘quv rejasida muayyan fanni o‘zlashtirish uchun belgilangan o‘quv ishlarini ajralmas qismi hisoblanadi, kafedrada uslubiy va axborot resurslari jihatidan ta’minlanadi. Talabalarning mustaqil ishi reyting tizimi talabalari asosida nazorat qilinadi. Talaba mustaqil ishining umumiy xajmi 74 soatni tashkil qiladi.

O‘quv semestri yakunida talabaning mustaqil ishi joriy, oraliq va yakuniy nazoratlar jarayonida tegishli topshiriqlarni bajarishi va unga ajratilgan ballardan kelib chiqqan holda baholanadi. Talaba mustaqil ishni tayyorlashda fanning mavzular hususiyatlarini hisobga olgan holda quyidagi shakllardan foydalanish tavsiya etiladi:

12




1. Ko‘chish va yo‘l. To‘g‘ri chiziqli tekis harakat. Tekis, notekis, tezlanuvchan, sekinlanuvchan harakat, tezlik va tezlanish, uning tashkil etuvchilari. Tortishish kuchlari. Butun olam tortishish qonuni. Tortishish maydoni. Og‘irlik kuchi va vazn. Vaznsizlik. Kosmik tezliklar. Qattiq jismlar mexanikasi. Inersiya va kuch momentlari. Qattiq jism aylanma harakat dinamikasining tenglamasi. Qattiq jism deformatsiyasi.

2. So‘nuvchi tebranishlar, ularning parametrlari Majburiy tebranishlar. Rezonans. Ultratovush. Ultratovush manbalari. Ultratovush jism bilan o‘zaro ta’sir xususiyatlari. Biologik to‘qima va qattiq jismlarning mexanik xususiyatlari.

3. To‘lqinlar. To‘lqin tenglamasi. To‘lqin soni. Fazoviy va gruppaviy tezliklar. To‘lqin energiyasi oqimi. Umov vektori. Doppler effekti. Turg‘un to‘lqinlar. To‘lqinlar interferensiyasi.

4. Djoul – Tomson effekti. Farmatsiya va tibbiyotda past temperatura qo‘llanilishi. Sirt aktiv moddalar va ularning farmatsiyada qo‘llanilishi. Kapillyar bosim. Laplas formulasi. Qattiq, kristall va amorf jismlar. Biopolimerlar, umumiy xususiyatlari va tuzilishining o‘ziga xosligi.

5. Sikl. Isitish va sovitish mashinalari. Karno sikli. 6. Termodinamik potensiallar. Standart erkin energiyaning o‘zgarishi. Dissipativ funksiya va

entropiya o‘sish tezligi. Statsionar holat barqarorligi va kriteriy darajasi. Prigojin tenglamasi.7. Qattiq jismlar. Kristal va amorf qattiq jismlar. Polimerlar. Suyuq kristallar. Qattiq jism va

organizm to‘qimalarining mexanikaviy xossalari.8. Plazma xaqida tushuncha. YArim o‘tkazgichlarda elektr toki. YArim o‘tkazgichlarda elektr

toki. YArim o‘tkazgichlarni tuzilishi. Zonalar nazariyasi. r–tipidagi o‘tkazuvchanlik. n–tipidagi o‘tkazuvchanlik. Elektromagnit to‘lqinlar va ularning farmatsiya va tibbiyotda qo‘llanilishi.

9. Organik molekulalarning tebranma va aylana spektrlari. Meditsina va farmatsiyada fotolyuminession miqdor va sifat tahlillari. EPR, Xemilyuminessensiya, YAMR.

10. Turli muhitlarda elektr toki. Gazlarda elektr toki. Mustaqil va nomustaqil razryadlar. Suyuqliklarda elektr toki. Elektrolitlar. Elektroliz. Elektrolitik dissotsiatsiya. Elektroliz uchun Faradey qonunlari. Elektrolizni qo‘llanilishi.

11. Qon aylanish sistemalari biofizikasi. Qonning reologik va gemodinamik xarakteristikalari. Eritrotsitlar cho‘kish tezligi. Frank modeli.

12. Hujayra biofizikasi. Membrananing suyuq kristall holati. Qo‘zg‘algan membrananing ekvivalent elektrik sxemasi. Nerv impulsining tarqalishi. Elektrokinetik hodisalar.

13. Ko‘rish biofizikasi. Ko‘rishning molekulyar mexanizmi. Elektron mikroskop va ularning qo‘llanilishi.

14. Elektronlar, neytron va boshqa zarrachalar difraksiyasi. Radioaktiv emirilishlar. Nishonli atomlar, qo‘llanilishi.

15. Biosfera va fizik maydon. Atrof muhit va insonning fizik maydoni.16. Biologik membranalar. Biologik membranalar, ularning funksiyasi va asosiy holatlari.

Biolipidli membrana (BLM) modeli. Liposoma. Biomembranalar dinamikasi. Lipid molekulalarning membranadagi harakatchanligi. Lipid va oqsil molekulalarining diffuziyasi (lateral va flip-flop). Gel-suyuq kristall tipidagi lipid qo‘sh qatlamining mikroyopishqoqligi. Membranalar patologiyasi. Membranalarda fazoviy o‘tishlar.

17. Moddalar transporti. Moddalarning biologik membranalar orqali transporti. Passiv va aktiv transport. Gradient bo‘yicha va gradientga qarshi bo‘ladigan jarayonlar. Passiv transport va uning turlari: oddiy va engillashgan diffuziya, osmos, filtratsiya. Aktiv transport. Ussing tajribasi. Elektrogen ion nasoslari.

18. Bioelektrik potensiallar, ularning turlari. Tinchlik potensiali. Biopotensiallarni qayd qilishning fizik usullari. Mikroelektrod usuli. Nernst-Plank tenglamasining echimi. Goldman-Xodjkin

13




tenglamasi. Nerv impulsi biofizikasi. Harakat potensiali. O‘rganish usullari. Kuchlanishning fiksatsiya qilish usuli. Qo‘zg‘aluvchi membranalar ekvivalent elektr sxemalari. Xodjikin-Xaksli tenglamalari. Organlarning elektroaktivligi.

Fanni o‘qitishda qo‘llaniladigan axborot va pedagogik texnologiyalar

Talabalarga fizika fanini o‘qitishda kompyuter, axborot va boshqa zamonaviy texnologiyalarni qo‘llab, bilimini oshirish va shu orqali Kadrlar tayyorlash milliy dasturi talablariga javob beradigan ilmiy salohiyati etuk mutaxassis kadrlar tayyorlash jarayonini amalga oshirish. O‘qitish jarayonida o‘quv dasturlarini kompyuter orqali o‘qitishni joriy etish, laboratoriya ishlarini bajarishda olingan natijalarga kompyuterdan foydalanib Basic, exsel va Pascal tillarida tuzilgan dasturlar asosida matematik ishlov berish, turli biotexnologik jarayonlarni modellash va ularni kompyuter vositasida echish.

Fizika fanidan oraliq va yakuniy nazorat savollari1) Mexanikaning fizik asoslari. Umumiy tushunchalar. Kinematika.Mehanik harakat.(sanoq

sistemasi, ko‘chish, masofa, tezlik, tezlanish) Aylanma harakat. (burchak va chiziqli tezlik, burchak tezlanish, aylanish davri va chastotasi.)

2) Dinamika qonunlari. Nyutonning 1-qonuni. Inertlik, inersion sanoq sistemasi, massa, kuch. Nyutonning 2- qonuni. Harakat miqdori. Jism impulsi o‘zgarishi. 2-qonunni impuls orqali ko‘rinishi. Nyutonning 3-qonuni.

3) Saqlanish qonunlari (energiya, impuls). Ish, quvvat. Kuch momenti. Impuls momenti. Inersiya momenti. Aylanma harakat uchun Nyutonning 3-qonuni.

4) Mexanik tebranishlar. Mayatniklar. Garmonik tebranishlar va ularni xarakterlovchi fizik kattaliklar (siljish, tezlik, tezlanish). Ularning differensial tenglamasi. mayatniklar. Erkin tushish tezlanishini aniqlash usuli. Garmonik tebranish energiyasi

5) So‘nuvchi tebranishlar, ularning parametrlari siljish, so‘nishning logarifmik dikrementi. Majburiy tebranishlar. Rezonans.

6) To‘lqinlar. To‘lqin tenglamasi. To‘lqin soni. Fazoviy va gruppaviy tezliklar. To‘lqin energiyasi oqimi. Umov vektori. Akustika. Ultratovush va qo‘llanilishi. Doppler effekti. Tovush to‘lqinlari. Eshitish sohalari.

7) Suyuqlik va gazlar mexanikasi. Suyuqlik va gazlarda bosim. Paskal va Arximed qonunlari. 8) Gidrodinamika. Ideal suyuqlik. Statsionar oqim. SHalolaning uzuliksizlik sharti. Oqim

tezligini o‘zgarishi. Bernulli va Torrichelli tenglamalari. 9) YOpishqoqlik (ichki ishqalanish). Nyuton tenglamasi. YOpishqoq suyuqliklarni trubadan

oqishi. Puazeyl formulasi. Jismlarning yopishqoq suyuqliklarda harakati. Stoks qonuni. YOpishqoqlikni aniqlash usullari. Laminar va turbulent oqim. Reynolds soni. YOpishqoqlikni o‘lchash usullari.

10) Molekulyar fizika. Gazlar molekulyar kinetik nazariyasi asoslari. Ideal gaz va uning parametrlari. Molekulalararo o‘zaro ta’sir kuchlari va ularning energiyasi (moddaning agregat holatlari).

11) Izojarayonlar. Holat tenglamasi. Molekulyar kinetik nazariyaning asosiy tenglamasi. Gaz molekulalari o‘rtacha kvadrat tezligi. Gaz molekulalarining ilgarilanma xarakat o‘rtacha kinetik energiyasi. Erkinlik darajasi. Erkinlik darajasi bo‘yicha energiyani tekis taqsimlanishi. Ideal gaz ichki energiyasi.

14




12) Gaz molekulalarining tezliklari bo‘yicha taqsimoti (Maksvel taqsimoti). Bolsman taqsimoti to‘g‘risida tushuncha. Molekulalar orasidagi o‘zaro tuqnashuvlar. Molekulalarning o‘rtacha erkin yugurish yo‘li.

13) Termodinamika elementlari. Termodinamika asoslari. Ish va issiqlik miqdori, issiqlik almashinuvi. Termodinamikaning birinchi bosh qonuni. Termodinamika birinchi qonunining izojarayonlarga tadbiqi. Ideal gazning issiqlik sig‘imi.

14) Qaytuvchi va qaytmas jarayonlar. Sikl. Isitish va sovitish mashinalari. Karno sikli. Termodinamikaning ikkinchi qonuni. Entropiya.

15 Gazlarda ko‘chish hodisalari. Ko‘chishning umumiy tenglamasi. Gazlarda diffuziya hodisasi. Gazlarda issiqlik o‘tkazuvchanligi. Gazlarda yopishqoqlik (ichki ishqalanish hodisasi).

16) Real gazlar. Gaz molekulalari o‘rtasidagi ta’sir. Van-der-Vals tenglamasi. Real gazning ichki energiyasi.

17) Bug‘lanish va kondensatsiya. To‘yingan bug‘. Van-der-Vaals izotermalari. Gazlarni suyultirish, ularning qo‘llanilishi (tibbiyot va farmatsiya).

18) Qattiq jismlar. Kristall va amorf qattiq jismlar. Polimerlar. Suyuq kristallar. qattiq jism va organizm to‘qimalarining mexanikaviy xossalari.

19) Suyuqliklar, ularning molekulyar tuzilishining xususiyatlari. Suyuqliklardagi ko‘chish hodisalari. Sirt taranglik.

Molekulyar bosim. Sirt qatlam energiyasi. Egri sirt otsidagi bosim. Kapillyarlik. Sirt taranglikni o‘lchash usullari.

20) Elektrodinamika asoslari. Elektrostatika. Elektr maydon. Elektr zaryadi. Umumiy tushunchalar. Kulon qonuni. Elektrostatik maydon va uning kuchlanganligi. Elektr maydon potensiali. Potensiallar farqi. Kuchlanish.

Elektr maydon kuchlanganligi va kuchlanish orasidagi bog‘lanish. Ekvipotensial sirtlar. Ostragradskiy – Gauss teoremasi.

21) O‘zgarmas tok qonunlari. Tok kuchi va zichligi. Zanjirning bir qismi uchun Om qonuni. O‘tkazgichning qarshiligi. Elektr o‘tkazuvchanlik. O‘tkazgich qarshiligining temperaturaga bog‘liqligi. Solishtirma qarshilik. Solishtirma elektr o‘tkazuvchanlik. Birliklari. To‘la zanjir uchun Om qonuni. O‘tkazgichlarni ketma-ket va parallel ulash. Kirxgof qonunlari. Elektr tokining issiqlik ta’siri. Joul–Lens qonuni. Tokning ishi va quvvati.

22) Elektr tokini issiqlik ta’siri. Joul –Lens qonuni. Elektr tokining ishi va quvvati. 23) Dielektriklar. Elektrik dipol. Dielektriklarni qutblanishi. Dielektriklarni turlari qutblangan

molekulalar bilan; qutblanmagan molekulalar bilan; kristal, ya’ni ion tuzilishi bilan. Qutblanish (dipol, elektron, ionli). Qutblanganlik. Dielektrik singdiruvchanlik. 24) Metallarda elektr toki. Emissiya hodisalari va ularni qo‘llanilishi.25) Gazlarda elektr toki. Mustaqil va nomustaqil razryadlar. Plazma haqida tushuncha. 26) Suyuqliklarda elektr toki. Elektrolitlar. Elektroliz. Elektrolitik dissotsiatsiya. Elektroliz

uchun Faradey qonunlari. Elektrolizni qo‘llanilishi.27) YArim o‘tgazgichlarda elektr toki. YArim o‘tgazgichlarni tuzilishi. Zonalar nazariyasi. R –

tipidagi o‘tkazuvchanlik. n – tipidagi o‘tkazuvchanlik.28) Magnitizm. Magnit maydon. Tokli kontur. Magnit induksiya vektori. Magnit oqim.

Birliklari. Bio-Savar-Laplas qonuni. Amper qonuni. Magnit maydonining harakatlanayotgan zaryadga ta’siri. Lorens kuchi. Ularning qo‘llanilishi (mass-spektroskopiya, tezlatgichlar). Muhitning magnit singdiruvchanligi. Dio-para va ferromagnetizmlar.

29) Elektromagnit induksiya hodisasi. Faradey tajribalari. Lens qoidasi. Kontur induktivligi. Uzinduksiya. O‘zaro induktsiya. Elektromagnit tebranishlar. Magnitoelektr induksiya hodisasi. Elektromagnit maydon. Umov – Poyting vektori.. O‘zgaruvchan tok.

15




30) O‘zgaruvchan tok zanjirida aktiv, sig‘im va induktiv qarshiliklar. O‘zgaruvchan tok zanjiri uchun Om qonuni.

31) Geometrik optika. Umumiy tushunchalar. Refraktometriya (tola optikasi va ularning qo‘llanilishi).

32) YOrug‘likning to‘lqin asoslari. YOrug‘lik interferensiyasi. YOrug‘lik to‘lqinining kogerentligi. YOrug‘lik difraksiyasi. Gyuygens – Frenel prinsipi. Difraksion panjara. Difraksion spektr. Vulf –Bregg formulasi. Rentgenostruktur analiz asoslari.

33) YOrug‘likning qutblanishi. Tabiiy va qutblangan yorug‘lik. Polyarizator va analizator. Malyus qonuni. YOrug‘likning

qaytishi va sinishdagi qutblanish. Bryuster qonuni. 34) Polyarimetriya. YOrug‘likning modda bilan ta’siri. YOrug‘lik dispersiyasi. Dispersiya

spektri. YOrug‘likning yutilishi. Buger–Lambert–Ber qonuni. Kolorimetriya. YOrug‘likni sochilishi Tindal hodisasi, molekulyar sochilish. Reley qonuni.

35) Jismlarning issiqlikdan nurlanishi. Issiqlik nurlanishi va ularning xarakteristikalari. Absolyut qora jism. Kirxgof qonuni.

Absolyut qora jism nurlanish qonuniyatlari Plank gipotezasi. Plank formulasi. Stefan – Bolsman qonuni. Vinning siljish qonuni. Nurlanishlarning qo‘llanlishi.

36) Kvant mexanikasi elementlari. YOrug‘lik dualizmi. Harakatlanayotgan zarrachalar to‘lqin hususiyati. De - Broyl gipotezasi.

Bor postulatlari. Elektron, neytron va boshqa zarrachalar difraksiyasi. Elektron mikroskop. Ularning qo‘llanilishi.

37) Fotoefekt. YOrug‘likni korpuskulyar hususiyatlari. Foton. Eynshteyn tenglamasi. Fotoefektning qizil chegarasi.

38) Noaniqlik munosabatlari. Atom sistemasini xarakterlovchi kvant sonlar. Pauli prinsipi. Vodorod spektridagi asosiy qonuniyatlar. Majburiy (induksiyalangan) nurlanish haqida tushuncha

39) Atomning tuzilishi (Atomni Tomson modeli. Rezerford tajribasi. Atomni yadroviy planetar modeli.).

40) YAdro fizikasi tushunchalari. Atom yadrosi. Zaryad, massa va yadro radiusi. Radioaktivlik. Preparatlar aktivligi. Radioaktiv emirilishlar. (alfa, betta, gamma) YAdro reaksiyalari. Nishonli atomlar, belgilar. Ularni qo‘llanilishi.

BAHOLASH MEZONLARITalabalarning fan bo‘yicha o‘zlashtirishini baholash semestr davomida muntazam ravishda olib

boriladi va quyidagi turlar orqali amalga oshiriladi:joriy baholash (JB) oraliq baholash (OB)talabaning mustaqil ishi (TMI)yakuniy baholash (YAB)Har bir fan b’yicha talabaning semestr davomidagi o‘zlashtirish ko‘rsatkichi 100 ballik tizimda

baholanadi.Ushbu 100 ball baholash turlari bo‘yicha quyidagicha taqsimlanadi:

№ Baholash turi Maksimal ball Saralash bali

1 Joriy baxolash 45 272 Talabaning mustaqil ishi 5 33 Oraliq baholash 20 11

16




4 YAkuniy baholash 30 17JAMI 100 58

Talabaning fan bo‘yicha to‘plagan umumiy bali har-bir baholash turlarida to‘plagan ballar yig‘indisiga teng bo‘ladi.

Joriy baholash (JB)

JBda fanning har bir mavzusi bo‘yicha talabaning bilimi va amaliy ko‘nikmalarini aniqlab borish ko‘zda tutiladi va u amaliy, seminar yoki laboratoriya mashg‘ulotlarida amalga oshiriladi. Baholashda talabaning bilim darajasi, amaliy mashg‘ulot materiallarini o‘zlashtirishi, nazariy material muhokamasida va ta’limning interaktiv uslublarida qatnashishning faollik darajasi, shuningdek amaliy bilim va ko‘nikmalarni o‘zlashtirish darajasi (ya’ni nazariy va amaliy yondashuvlar) hisobga olinadi.

JB har bir fanning hususiyatlaridan kelib chiqqan holda og‘zaki, yozma ish, test yoki ularning kombinatsiyasi shaklida amalga oshiriladi.

Talabalar fizika fanidan har kuni baholanib, o‘rtachasi to‘rtinchi darsga qo‘yiladi. Semestr davomida har bir talaba jami 9 marotaba baholanib, 10 ustunga mustaqil ish bahosi qo‘yiladi.

Talaba bilimini baholash tartibiTalabaning ballarda ifodalangan o‘zlashtirishi quyidagicha baholanadi: har bir JB da talaba

maksimal 5 ball oladi. 9 ta JB fan bo‘limlaridan o‘tkaziladi va jami maksimal 45 ball xisobidan o‘zlashtirish baholari quyidagi jadvaldan aniqlanadi.

O‘zlashtirish, % Ballar Baho86-100 39-45 “5” a’lo71-85 32-39 “4” yaxshi56-70 25-32 “3”qoniqarli56 dan kam 25 dan kam “2” qoniqarsiz

№ Ballar Baho Talabaning bilim darajasi

1 39- 45 A’lo“5” Talabalar ma’ruza va amaliyot bo‘yicha xulosa va qaror qabul qilishi, ijobiy fikrlay olishi, mustaqil mushohada yurita olishi, olgan bilimlarini amalda qo‘llay olishi, mohiyatini tushunishi, bilishi, aytib berishi, tasavvurga ega bo‘lishi lozim.

2 32-39 YAxshi“4” Talabalar ma’ruza va amaliyot bo‘yicha mustaqil mushohada yurita olishi, olgan bilimlarini amalda qo‘llay olishi, mohiyatini tushunishi, bilishi, aytib berishi; tasavvurga ega bo‘lishi lozim.

3 25-32 qoniqarli“3” Talabalar ma’ruza va amaliyot bo‘yicha olgan bilimlarini mohiyatini tushunish, bilishi, aytib berishi, tasavvurga ega

17




bo‘lishi lozim4 25 dan kam qoniqarsiz “2” Talabalar ma’ruza va amaliyot bo‘yicha olgan bilimlarini

mohiyatini tushunmasa, aniq tasavvurga ega bo‘lmasa, bilmasa.

Talabaning mustaqil ishi (TMI)

Toshkent farmatsevtika institutining “Talaba mustaqil ishini tashkil etish, nazorat qilish va baholash” to‘g‘risidagi Nizom O‘zbekiston Respublikasi OO‘MTVning 2005 yil 21 fevral 34 - buyrug‘i bilan tasdiqlangan Namunaviy Nizom asosida ishlab chiqilgan.

Talabaning mustaqil ishi o‘quv rejasida muayyan fanni o‘zlashtirish uchun belgilangan o‘quv ishlarini ajralmas qismi hisoblanadi, kafedrada u uslubiy va axborot resurslari jihatidan ta’minlanadi. Talabalarning mustaqil ishi reyting tizimi talablari asosida nazorat qilinadi.

Talabaning jami mustaqil ishining umumiy xajmi 74 soatni tashkil qiladi.O‘quv semestri yakunida talabaning mustaqil ishi joriy, oraliq va yakuniy nazoratlar jarayonida

tegishli topshiriqlarni bajarishi va unga ajratilgan ballardan kelib chiqqan holda baholanadi. (Ilova 1)Talaba mustaqil ishni tayyorlashda fanning mavzular xususiyatlarini hisobga olgan holda

quyidagi shakllardan foydalanish tavsiya etiladi: darslik va o‘quv qo‘llanmalar bo‘yicha fan boblari va mavzularini o‘rganish; tarqatma materiallar bo‘yicha ma’ruzalar qismini o‘zlashtirish; maxsus adabiyotlar bo‘yicha fanlar bo‘limlari yoki mavzulari ustida ishlash; yangi texnologiyalarni, apparaturalarni, jarayonlar va texnologiyalarni o‘rganish; talabaning o‘quv, ilmiy-tadqiqot ishlarini bajarish bilan bog‘liq bo‘lgan fanlar

bo‘limlari va mavzularini chuqur o‘rganish: faol va muammoli o‘qitish uslubidan foydalaniladigan o‘quv mashg‘ulotlarini o‘tkazish

masofaviy ta’lim.

TMI ning o‘zlashtirishi quyidagicha baholanadi. Maksimal ball 5.

O‘zlashtirish, % Ballar Baho86-100 5 “5” a’lo71-85 4 “4” yaxshi56-70 3 “3”qoniqarli55 dan kam 3 dan kam “2” qoniqarsiz

Oraliq baholash (OB)

OB da fanning bir necha mavzularini qamrab olgan bo‘limi yoki qismi bo‘yicha mashg‘ulotlar o‘tib bo‘lingandan so‘ng, talabaning nazariy bilimlari baholanadi va unda talabaning muayyan savolga javob berish yoki muammoni echish qobiliyati aniqlanadi.

OB ikki marta kalendar rejaga asosan o‘tkaziladi. OBga o‘quv mashg‘ulotlaridan qarzi bo‘lmagan talabalar qo‘yiladi.

18




OB da talabaning o‘zlashtirishi quyidagicha baholanadi. Maksimal 20 ball.

O‘zlashtirish, % Ballar Baho86-100 17-20 “5” a’lo71-85 14 – 17 “4” yaxshi56-70 11– 14 “3”qoniqarli56 dan kam 11 dan kam “2” qoniqarsiz

OB kafedra majlisi qarori bilan yozma ish shaklida o‘tkaziladi. OB bo‘yicha belgilangan maksimal reyting balining 11 dan kam ball to‘plagan talaba YABga qo‘yilmaydi.

YAkuniy baholash (YAB)

YAB da talabaning bilim, ko‘nikma va malakalari fanning umumiy mazmuni doirasida baholanadi. YAB fan bo‘yicha o‘quv mashg‘ulotlari tugaganidan so‘ng o‘tkaziladi.

JB, TMI va OB ga ajratilgan umumiy ballarning har biridan saralash balini to‘plagan talabaga YAB ga ishtirok etishga huquq beriladi.

YAB o‘tkazish shakli – test, yozma ish shaklida, Ilmiy Kengash qarori bilan belgilanadi. JB, OB va YAB turlarida fanni o‘zlashtira olmagan (56 dan kam ball to‘plagan) yoki uzrli

sabablar bilan baholash turlarida ishtirok eta olmagan talabalarga quyidagi tartibda qayta baholashdan o‘tishga ruxsat beriladi:

qoldirilgan amaliy mashg‘ulot kelgusi darsga qadar guruh o‘qituvchisiga qayta topshirish va maslahat kunida topshiriladi. 3 ta mashg‘ulotni qoldirgan talaba fakultet dekani ruxsati bilan qayta topshiradi;

OB ni 2 hafta muddatda qayta topshirishga ruxsat beriladi va bali koeffitsientsiz qayd etiladi; semestr yakunida fan bo‘yicha saralash balidan kam ball to‘plagan talabaning o‘zlashtirishi

qoniqarsiz (akademik qarzdor) hisoblanadi.akademik qarzdor talabalarga semestr tugaganidan keyin dekan ruxsatnomasi asosida qayta

o‘zlashtirish uchun – 2 hafta muddat beriladi. SHu muddat davomida o‘zlashtira olmagan talaba belgilangan tartibda rektorning buyrug‘i bilan talabalar safidan chetlashtiriladi (birinchi kurs talabalariga o‘quv yili yakunlari bo‘yicha amalga oshirish maqsadga muvofiqdir).

Namuna:

№ F.I.SH. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

1 Abidova F + + + 5 + + + 5 + + + 4 + + + 4 + + + 5 +2 Axmedo A + + + 3 + + + 3 + + + 3 + + + 3 + + + 3 +

№ F.I.SH. 22

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 mi JN ON YN Jami

1 Abidova F + + 4 + + + 4 + + + 5 + + + 5 5 46 15 25 86582 Axmedo A + + 3 + + + 3 + + + 3 + + + 3 3 30 11 17

19




Atamalar lug‘ati (Glossariy)

Atom fizikasi - atom va u bilan bog‘liq hodisalar fizikasini o‘rganuvchi fan.YAdro fizikasi - atom yadrosi tuzilishi, xossalari va bir - biriga aylanishlarini o‘rganadi.Kvant fizikasi - mikrozarrachalar va ulardan tashkil topgan sistemalarning harakat qonunlarini

bayon etish usullarini ifodalovchi zamonaviy nazariya.Zarra- to‘lqin dualizmi- barcha mikrozarrachalar korpuskulyar xususiyatiga ega bo‘lishi

bilan birgalikda to‘lqin xususiyatiga ham ega bo‘ladi.Geyzenberg (tengsizliklar) noaniqliklar munosabati- mikrozarrachalarning impuls va

koordinatasini bir vaqtning o‘zida katta aniqlik bilan o‘lchab bo‘lmaydi.Bosh kvant soni - n = 1,2,3...N asosan atomning diskret energetik sathlarini aniqlaydi.Orbital kvant soni - l = 0,1,2...n – 1 bu kvant soni bilan elektronning orbital impuls momenti

aniqlanadi.Magnit kvant soni – Ml= 0, ±1,±2,…± l orbital momentining (masalan:magnit maydon bilan)

ruxsat etilgan vaqtda yo‘nalish bo‘yicha proeksiyasini aniqlaydi.Spin kvant soni – S= ±1/2 elektronning xususiy impuls momenti (spin)ni aniqlaydi.Spontan nurlanish - atomlarning o‘z-o‘zidan yuqori energetik holatlaridan patski energetik

holatlarga o‘tishi natijasida hosil bo‘ladigan nurlanish.Majburiy nurlanish - atomlari (molekulalari, ionlari ) pastki energetik holatdan biror tashqi

ta’sir (foton yutishi) natijasida, ya’ni uyg‘ongan holatlardan majburan o‘tishidagi nurlanish.Metastabil holatlar- bunda ayrim moddalarning atomlarida shunday uyg‘ongan holatlar borki,

atomlar bu holatda uzoq vaqt bo‘la oladilar.Proton - massasi elektron massasidan 1836,1 marta katta bo‘lgan, elektr zaryadi esa

elementar zaryadga e= 1,6 10-19 kl, spini esa spini esa S =1/`2 ga teng bo‘lgan musbat zaryadli turg‘un elementar zarradir.

Neytron - massasi elektron massasidan 1838,6 olti marta katta bo‘lgan, zaryadsiz, spini S =1/2ga ga teng bo‘lgan elementar zarradir.

Nuklon - Proton va neytronlardan tashkil topgan bo‘lib, atom yadrosi shu zaryadlardan tuzilgan.

YAdro zaryadi- yadro tarkibiga kiruvchi protonlar soni Z aniqlaydi, u Ze ga teng, Z soni Mendeleev davriy jadvalidagi tartib nomerini ko‘rsatadi.

YAdroning massa soni A- yadrodagi nuklonlar sonini, ya’ni proton va neytronlar yig‘indi sonini ko‘rsatadi.

YAdroning neytronlar soni - N = A-Z ga teng.Izotoplar - yadrodagi protonlar soni o‘zgarmasdan qoladigan yadrolar guruhi.Izotonlar - yadrodagi neytronlar soni o‘zgarmasdan qoladigan yadrolar guruhi.Izobarlar - massa soni o‘zgarmasdan qoladigan yadrolar guruhi.Radioaktivlik -yadroning o‘z-o‘zidan bir yoki bir necha zarralarni chiqarish hodisasi.

20




Radioaktiv emirilish - radioaktiv yadrolarning o‘zidan biror bir turdagi zarralarni chiqarib, boshqa yangi yadroga aylanish jarayoni.

Birlamchi yoki ona yadro - radioaktiv emirilishga duchor bo‘layotgan yadrolar.Ikkilamchi yoki qiz yadro - radioaktiv emirilishi natijasida hosil bo‘lgan yadrolar.Radioaktiv yemirilish qonuni- emirilishga duchor bo‘layotgan radioaktiv yadrolar soni

eksponentsial qonun bo‘yicha kamayadi.YArim yemirilish davri- boshlang‘ich yadrolar soni ikki marta kamayishi uchun ketgan vaqt.Preparatning aktivligi- radioaktiv moddalarning bir vaqt ichidagi yemirilishlar soni.α zarralarni emirilish – og‘ir yadrolarning o‘z-o‘zidan α zarralarini chiqarish jarayoniga

aytiladi.γ –emirilish - yadroning qo‘zg‘algan holatidan o‘z-o‘zidan kvantlarni chiqarish jarayoniga

aytiladi.β – emirilish - yadrolarning o‘z-o‘zidan + yoki - zarralarini chiqarish jarayoniga aytiladi.Kuchli ta’sirlashuv - nuklonlar orasidagi mutsahkam bog‘lanishni hosil qiladigan yadroviy

kuchlar, bu bog‘lanish elementar zarralar (mezonlar) orqali namoyon bo‘ladi.Elektromagnit ta’sirlashuv - elektromagnit maydon orqali zaryadlangan zarralarga o‘zaro

ta’siri fotonlar orqali namoyon bo‘ladi.Gravitatsion ta’sirlashuv - jismlar orasidagi butun olam tortishish qonuni orqali tushuntiriladi.

Namoyon bo‘lish ob’ekti topilmagan.Elektron qobiq - bir xil bosh kvant soni (n) ga, lekin boshqa kvant sonlari har xil bo‘lgan

elektronlar majmuasi.Elektron qobiqchalar - bir xil bosh kvant soni (n) ga va orbital kvant soni (l), lekin magnit

kvant soni (m) har xil bo‘lgan elektronlar majmuasi.Pauli printsipi - atomda yoki kvant sistemasida to‘rtta n,l,m,s bir xil kvant sonlariga ega

bo‘lgan ikkita elektron, bitta elektron holatida bo‘lishi mumkin emas.Dipolning elektrik momenti - vektor kattalik bo‘lib, miqdoran zaryadning elka L (orasidagi

masofaga) ko‘paytmasi bilan aniqlanadi va yo‘nalishi manfiy zaryaddan musbatga yo‘nalgan bo‘ladi.

Nisbiy dielektrik singdiruvchanlik - dielektriklarning elektr maydonida qutblanish qobilyatini miqdoran tavsiflofchi o‘lchamsiz kattalik bo‘lib, dielektrikning vakuumdagi maydon kuchlanganligini necha marta kuchsizlantirishini ko‘rsatadi.

CHiqish ishi - elektronlarning metall sirti yuzasidan vakuumga uzib chiqarishdagi yuza kuchlariga qarshi bajaradigan ishi.

Elektron emissiya - metallga chiqish ishiga teng yoki undan ortiq energiya beradigandagi elektronlarning metalldan chiqishi.

1 elektronnovolt ga (1 ev) teng chiqish ishi - potensiallar farqi 1 volt bo‘lgandagi maydondan elektron zaryadini yutishida maydon kuchlariga qarshi bajargan ishi.

Termoelektron emissiya - qizitilgan metalldan elektronlarning chiqishi.Fotoelektron emissiya - yoruglik kuchi ta’sirida moddalardan elektronlarning chiqarilishi.Gazlar ionizatsiyasi - atom va molekulalardan elektronlarning uzilishi jarayoni, ya’ni musbat

va manfiy zaryadlangan ionlarni paydo bo‘lishi.Gaz razryadi - gazlardan elektr tokining o‘tish jarayoni.Rekombinatsiya- ionlarning neytral atom yoeki molekulalarga aylanish jarayoni.Nomustaqil zaryad - gazda tokning tashqi ionlashtiruvchi ta’sirida vujudga keluvchi razryad,

ya’ni elektr o‘tkazuvchanlik.Mustaqil zaryad - tashqi ionizatorning ta’siri tugaganidan keyin ham davom etadigan gaz

razryadi (elektr o‘tkazuvchanligi).

21




Plazma - moddaning alohida holati bo‘lib, elektronlarning kontsentratsiyasi musbat ionlarning kontsentratsiyasiga taxminan teng bo‘lgan kuchli ionlashgan gaz.

Elektrolitlar - erituvchida eriganda ionlarga ajraladigan moddalar bo‘lib, ularda elektr toki ion o‘tkazuvchanligi bilan xarakterlanadi.

Elektrolitik dissotsiatsiya - erituvchi ta’sirida erigan modda molekulalarini musbat va manfiy zaryadlangan ionlarga ajralishi.

Elektroliz - elektrolitdan tok o‘tganda tarkibiga kiruvchi moddalarning elektrodlarda ajralib chiqishi.

Dissotsiatsiyalanish darajasi - elektrolitlardan tok o‘tganda ionlarga dissotsiatsiyalangan molekulalar sonining moddadagi molekulalarning umumiy soniga nisbati.

Elektrodinamika - fizikaning bir bo‘limi bo‘lib, unda elektromagnit ta’sirlar o‘rganiladi.Elektrostatika – o‘zgarmas elektrik zaryadlarning xossalari va ta’sirlashuvi o‘rganiladi.O‘zgarmas tok - tok kuchi va zichlikning vaqt o‘tishi bilan o‘zgarmas qolishi, ya’ni

zaryadlarning tartibli harakat tezligining o‘zgarmasligi.Elektrik zaryad - elektromagnit ta’sirini aniqlovchi elementar zarrachaning xarakteristikasi.Elementar zaryad - moduli bo‘yicha elektron (yoki proton) zaryadiga karrali bo‘lgan zaryad

miqdori, ya’ni e=1.6*10-19kl.Nuqtaviy zaryad – o‘lchamlarini shu zaryadning ta’sir qilish nuqtasiga bo‘lgan masofaga

nisbatan hisobga olmasa ham bo‘ladigan zaryadlangan modda.Elektromagnit maydon- materiyaning bir formasi bo‘lib, u orqali zaryadlangan zarrachalar

yoki moddalarning elektromagnit o‘zaro ta’siri namoyon bo‘ladi.Elektrik maydon - elektromagnit maydonning bir ko‘rinishi bo‘lib, uning asosiy

xususiyatlaridan biri shuki, unda bu maydon elektrik zaryadlar yoki zaryadlangan moddalar tomonidan yaratiladi, hamda ular bu ob’ektlarga harakatda yoki harakatsiz bo‘lishidan qat’iy nazar ta’sir ko‘rsatadi.

Magnit maydon - elektromagnit maydonning bir ko‘rinishi bo‘lib, ular tokli o‘tkazgichlar, elektrik zaryadlangan zarrachalar va moddalarning harakati, hamda magnitlangan moddalar va o‘zgaruvchan elektr maydoni ta’sirida vujudga keladi.

O‘tkazgichlar - butun hajm bo‘yicha erkin zaryad tashuvchilar mavjud bo‘ladi.Dielektriklar - bu shunday moddalarki, bunda amalda erkin elektronlar, ya’ni erkin zaryad

tashuvchilar mavjud emas.YArim utkazgichlar - bu shunday moddalarki, ular o‘tkazgich va dielektriklar orasida turuvchi.Kulon qonuni - ikkita nuqtaviy zaryadlarning o‘zaro ta’sir kuchi shu zaryadlar

modullarining ko‘paytmasiga to‘g‘ri proportsional va ular orasidagi masofaga teskari proporsional.Elektr maydon kuchlanganligi- vektor kattalikka ega bulgan kuch xarakteristikasi bo‘lib, u

berilgan maydonda nuqtaviy zaryadga ta’sir qilayotgan kuchning shu zaryad miqdori bilan xarakterlanadi.

Kuch- elektr maydon kuchlanganligi E bo‘lgan maydondagi q zaryadga ta’siri.Elektr potentsial- son jihatdan birlik musbat zaryadning ma’lum bir nuqtasidagi potensial

energiyasi.Potensiallar farqi (yoki kuchlanish) - son jihatdan birlik musbat zaryadni boshlang‘ich va

oxirgi nuqtalari orasida harakati natijasida elektrostatika maydon kuchlarini bajargan ishi.Tok kuchi - elektr tokining miqdoriy o‘lchovi bo‘lib, o‘tkazgichning ko‘ndalang kesim

yuzasidan vaqt birligida o‘tuvchi elektr zaryadi bilan aniqlanadigan skalyar kattalik.Tok zichligi - vektor kattalik bo‘lib, uning moduli tok kuchining, zaryadlarning tartibli

harakati yo‘nalishiga perpendikulyar bo‘lgan yuzaga nisbati.

22




Manbaning elektr yurituvchi kuchi (EYUK)- zaryadi 1 kulon bo‘lgan musbat zaryad tashuvchilarning butun zanjir bo‘ylab ko‘chirishda tashqi kuchlar bajaradigan ishi.

Zanjirning bir qismi uchun Om qonuni – o‘tkazgichdagi tok kuchi uning uchlaridagi kuchlanishga to‘g‘ri proporsional va o‘tkazgich qarshiligiga teskari proporsional.

1 Om qarshilik - kuchlanish 1v bo‘lganda, o‘tkazgich orqali 1 A tok o‘tgandagi shu o‘tkazgich qarshiligi kattaligi.

To‘la zanjir uchun Om qonuni- zanjirdagi tok kuchi shu zanjirdagi EYUK ga to‘g‘ri proporsional va zanjirning ichki va tashqi qarshiliklar yigindisiga teskari proporsional.

Kirxgofning birinchi qoidasi - zanjirning tugunlarida uchrashayotgan tok kuchlarining algebraik yig‘indisi nolga teng.

Kirxgofning ikkinchi qoidasi -zanjirning ixtiyoriy yopiq konturi uchun tok kuchlarini ularning mos karshiliklariga kupaytmasining algebraik yig‘indisi shu konturdagi barcha EYUK larning algebraik yig‘indisiga teng.

Elektr tok quvvati -vaqt birligi ichida tok kuchining bajargan ishi.Optika-yorug‘lik hodisalari va qonunlari , yorug‘likning tabiati, hamda uning modda bilan

o‘zaro ta’sirini o‘rganuvchi fizikaning bir bo‘limi.Fotometriya- yorug‘lik to‘lqinlarining yorug‘lik muhiti atrofidagi energiyasi, shu energiyani

o‘lchash usulini o‘rganuvchi bo‘lim.Geometrik optika- yorug‘likning to‘g‘ri chiziq bo‘ylab tarqalishi, qaytish va sinish

qonunlarini o‘rganuvchi bo‘lim.To‘lqin optikasi - difraksiya , interferensiya , yorug‘likning qutblanishi kabi optik hodisalarni

yorug‘likning to‘lqin nazariyasi nuqtai nazaridan tahlili.Molekulyar optika- yorug‘lik bilan muhit orasidagi o‘zaro ta’sirini o‘rganadi. Bunda yorug‘lik

dispersiyasi yorug‘likning yutilishi va sochilishi, spektral analizning nazariy asoslari taxlil qilinadi.Kvant optikasi- yorug‘lik nurlarini muhitda tarqalishi, muhit bilan ta’sirlashuv jarayoni

o‘rganiladi. YOrug‘lik oqimi- vaqt birligi ichida tashilayotgan nurlanish quvvati bilan o‘lchanadigan

kattalik.Manbaning yorug‘lik kuchi-yorug‘lik oqimining bu oqim tarqalayotgan fazoviy burchak

kattaligiga nisbati bilan o‘lchanadigan kattalik.YOritilganlik-yorug‘lik oqimining o‘zi tushayotgan sirt yuzasiga nisbati bilan o‘lchanadigan

kattalik.YOrqinlik- yorug‘lik manbaining yuza birligidan barcha yo‘nalishlari bo‘yicha nurlanayotgan

yorug‘lik oqimiga son jihatdan teng bo‘lgan kattalik.Ravshanlik-manba sirtining yuza birligidan ma’lum yo‘nalishda yuzaga normal ravishda

chiqayotgan yorug‘lik nuriga son jihatdan teng bo‘lgan kattalik.Linzaning bosh optik o‘qi-sferik sirtlarning markazlari orqali o‘tgan to‘g‘ri chiziqqa aytiladi.Linzaning optik markazi-yupqa linzaning nurlar yo’nalishi o‘zgarmay o‘tadigan nuqtasi.Linzaning fokus masofasi- optik markazdan fokusgacha bo‘lgan masofa F ga aytiladi.Linzaning optik kuchi-fokus masofaga teskari kattalikka aytiladi.YOrug‘lik (ko‘rinuvchan) –to‘lqin uzunligi 400 -780 nm gacha bo‘lgan elektromagnit

tebranishlarning fazoda tarqalishi.Kogerent yorug‘lik manbalari-bir xil chastotali va fazalar farqi o‘zgarmas bo‘lgan

tebranishlarni yuzaga keltiruvchi to‘lqin manbai.YOrug‘lik interferensiyasi-ikki kogerent to‘lqinning fazoda qo‘shilib, ular energiyasi

(intensivligi) ning qayta taqsimlanishiga, ya’ni o‘zaro kuchayishi yoki susayishi.

23




Optik yo‘l uzunligi-yorug‘lik absolyut sindirish ko‘rsatkichining, muhitda bosib o‘tgan yo‘li x ga ko‘paytmasi.

YOrug‘lik difraksiyasi- yorug‘lik tulqinlarining to‘siqlarni aylanib o‘tishi va geometrik soya sohasi tomoniga og‘ishi.

Difraksion panjara-bir-biriga yaqin joylashgan juda ko‘p parallel tirqishlar yoki to‘siqlardan iborat sistema.

Tabiiy nur (yorug‘lik) yoki qutblanmagan nur – ko‘ndalang elektromagnit to‘lqindan iborat bo‘lib, fazoning barcha tekisliklarida tebranayotgan elektr va magnit maydon kuchlanganlik vektorlarining mavjudligi.

Qutblangan yorug‘lik -elektr vektorlari biron-bir yo‘l bilan tartibga solinishi, ya’ni elektr tebranish vektorlari bitta tekislikda tebranayotgan nur.

YOrug‘likni yutilishi- yorug‘lik biror muhitdan o‘tayotganda shu muhit qatlamidan chiqqandan so‘ng intensevligini kamayishi.

YOrug‘likning sochilishi-muhitda tarqalayotgan yorug‘likni mumkin bo‘lgan barcha tomonlarga og‘ishi.

YOrug‘lik dispersiyasi- muhit sindirish ko‘rsatkichining moddaga tushayotgan yorug‘lik chatsotasiga (to‘lqin uzunligi) bog‘liqligi.

Spektral analiz - olingan yutilish yoki nurlanish spektrlarga asoslanib, modda tarkibini sifat va miqdori tomonidan o‘rganiladigan fizik metod.

Konsentratsion kolorimetriya- yorug‘likni yutilishiga asoslanib, eritmalarda modda konsentratsiyasini aniqlashning fotometrik usul.

Nefilometriya - eritmalardagi makromolekulalarning o‘lchami, kolloid eritmalardagi zarrachalar, emulsiyalar, aerozollarni xarakterlovchi ma’lumotlarni olish maqsadida sochilgan yorug‘likni o‘lchash usuli.

Saxarimetriya (polyarimetriya)-aktiv moddalar o‘zlaridan o‘tayotgan yorug‘lik nurini qutblanish tekisligini burib yuborish xossasiga asoslangan usul.

Jismning yorug‘lik yutish qobiliyati yoki jismning monoxromatik yutish koeffitsienti- yutilgan yorug‘lik oqimini tushayotgan yorug‘lik oqimiga nisbatiga aytiladi.

Issiqlik nurlanishi-atom va molekulalarning issiqlik harakati natijasida elektromagnit nurlanishning g‘alayonlanishi.

Absolyut qora jism-jism o‘ziga tushayotgan nurlanishni butunlay yutgan hol.Magnit induksiyasi-vektor kattalik bo‘lib, unig moduli birlik magnit momentiga ega bo‘lgan

tokli konturga ta’sir qiluvchi maksimal aylantiruvchi moment bilan aniqlanadi.Tokli konturning magnit momenti-vektor kattalik bo‘lib, uning moduli tokli konturdan

o‘tayotgan tok kuchini shu kontur yuzasiga ko‘paytmasi.Aylantiruvchi kuch momenti-tokli konturning magnit momentini magnit induksiya

vektorining vektor ko’paytmasi.Magnit singdiruvchanlik-o‘lchamsiz kattalik bo‘lib, u muhitning magnit induksiyasi

vakuumdagi magnit induktsiyaga nisbatan necha marta katta (yoki kichik) ekanligini ko‘rsatadi.Magnit maydon kuchlanganligi- magnit maydonining vektor xarakteritsikasi bo‘lib, u faqat

maydon bog‘langan toklarga bog‘liq bo‘lgan holda u joylashgan muhitning xususiyatlariga bog‘liq emas.

Magnit oqimi-skalyar kattalik bo‘lib, u ma’lum bir yuza bo‘yicha o‘tayotgan magnit kuch chiziqlari soni bilan ifodalanadi.

Elektromagnetik induksiya-o‘zgaruvchan magnit maydoni uyurmali elektr maydon manbai bo‘lib hisoblanadi,u esa o‘z paytida tokli konturda elektr tokini (induksiya tokini) qo‘zg‘atadi.

24




O‘zinduksiya-zanjirdagi tok o‘zgarishi natijasida shu zanjirning o‘zida induksiyalangan EYUK vujudga kelishi.

O‘zaroinduksiya-1A tok o‘tkazuvchi tok bilan chegaralangan yuzadan o‘tuvchi induksiya magnit oqimi kattaligi.

Kontur induktivligi-1A tok o‘tkazuvchi tok bilan chegaralangan yuzadan o‘tuvchi induksiya magnit oqimi kattaligi.

Elektrik tebranishlar-zaryad, tok kuchi, kuchlanish kabi elektrik kattaliklarni qandaydir o‘rtacha qiymatlarga nisbatan qisman yoki to‘la qaytarilishini chekli o‘zgarishi.

Elektromagnit maydon-bir- biri bilan uzviy bog‘langan o‘zgaruvchan elektrik va magnit maydonlar yig‘indisi.

Elektromagnit to‘lqinlar- fazoda tarqaluvchi o‘zgaruvchan elektromagnit maydon.Tebranish konturi- induktiv galtak L va C sig‘im kondensatordan iborat yopiq elektrik zanjir.Poyting vektori-bu vektor moduli tarqalishi yo‘nalishiga perpendikulyar bo‘lgan 1m2 yuza sirti

bo‘yicha 1 sekundda elektromagnit to‘lqinlar olib o‘tadigan energiya.Tranzistor - emitter, baza va kollektordan iborat elektron lampa.Voltmetr, millivolt metr- kuchlanishni o‘lchaydigan asboblar.Ampermetr, milliampermetr-tok kuchini o‘lchaydigan asboblar.Bir kulon-o‘zgarmas tok kuchi 1A bo‘lganda o‘tkazgichning ko‘ndalang kesimidan 1s

davomida o‘tadigan elektr zaryadining miqdori.Qarshilikning temperatura koeffitsienti –o‘tkazgich temperaturasi 10S ga o‘zgarganda uning

qarshiligi o‘zgarishini ko‘rsatuvchi kattalik.Manbaning yorug‘lik kuchi- birlik yuzaga mos keluvchi yorug‘lik oqimi.Fizik mayatnik-og‘irlik kuchi ta’sirida vertikal ipga nisbatan tebranuvchi qattiq jism.Burilish burchagi-jism aylana bo‘ylab harakat qilganda uning vaziyati o‘zgarishi.Burchak tezlik -nuqtaga o‘tkazilgan radiusning birikish burchagining shu burilishga ketgan

vaqt orlig‘iga nisbatidir.Tezlik –ko‘chishdan vaqt bo‘yicha birinchi tartibli hosilasi. Tezlanish - ko‘chishdan vaqt bo‘yicha ikkinchi tartibli hosila yoki tezlikdan vaqt bo‘yicha

birinchi tartibli hosila. Mexanika – jismlarning harakati, muvozanati va ular orasidagi o‘zaro ta’sirni o‘rganadigan

ta’limot.Dinamika - kuchlar ta’siridagi jismlarning muvozanat qonunlarini o‘rganuvchi ta’limot.Kinematika – jismlarning massasini va ularga ta’sir qiluvchi kuchlarni hisobga olmagan holda

harakat qonunlarini o‘rganadigan ta’limot.Aylanish davri - bitta aylanish uchun ketgan vaqt.Burchak tezlanish-burchak tezlikni vaqt bo‘yicha hosilasi yoki burilish burchagidan vaqt

bo‘yicha olingan ikkinchi tartibli hosila.Aylanish chastotasi- vaqt birligidagi aylanishlar soni. Statika –kuchlar ta’siridagi jismlarning muvozanat qonunlarini o‘rganuvchi ta’limot.Moddaning uchlamchi nuqtasi -bir xil moddaning uch xil fazasi muvozanatda bo‘lgan holat.Sublimatsiya -kristall qattiq jismni gaz holatiga o‘tishi.Moddaning agregat holati- bir – biridan strukturasi va molekulalari issiqlik harakatlari bilan

farqlanuvchi holat.Moddaning fazoviy o‘tishlari- moddaning bir fazadan ikkinchi fazaga o‘tishi.Bug‘lanish -suyuqlikning gaz holatiga o‘tishi.Moddaning erishi -qattiq jismning suyuq holatga o‘tishi.

25




Kattalikning oqim zichligi-vaqt birligi ichida ma’lum bir yuza orqali o‘tayotgan berilgan kattalik miqdori.

Molekulalarning o‘rtacha yugurish yo‘li-molekulalarni ketma-ket to‘qnashishlar orasida o‘tgan o‘rtacha masofasi.

Atom spektrlari - erkin yoki kuchsiz ta’sirlashayotgan atomlarning energetik qatlamlari orasidagi kvant o‘tishlar natijasidagi nurlanish yoki yutilish spektrlari.

Lyuminessensiya- jismning berilgan haroratdagi issiqlik nurlanishidan ortiqcha bo‘lgan, hamda davomiyligi ham nurlanuvchi yorug‘lik to‘lqinlarining davriy (10-15 s) nurlanishi.

Ionolyuminessensiya – ionlar hosil qilgan lyuminessensiya.Katodolyuminessensiya - elektronlar hosil qilgan lyuminessensiya.Radiolyuminessensiya- yadro nurlanishlari lyuminessensiyasi.Fluoressensiya- qisqa muddatli shu’lalanish.Molekulyar spektrlar- chiqarish va yutilish spektrlari bo‘lib, molekulalarning bir energetik

sathdan ikkinchisiga kvant o‘tishlarida vujudga keladi. Kattaroq yoki kichikroq kenglikka ega chiziqlar to‘plamidan iborat bo‘lgan zich joylashgan chiziqlar.

GlossaryAbsolute

humidity: The ratio of water vapor in a sample of air to the volume of the sample.

Absolute zero: The temperature of - 273.16 or 0 K at which molecular motion vanishes.Absorptance: The ratio of the total absorbed radiation to the total incident radiation.Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity with respect to time.Acceleration due

to gravity:The acceleration imparted to bodies by the attractive force of the earth or

any other heavenly body.

Achromatic: capable of transmitting light without decomposing it into its constituent colors.

Acoustics: The science of the production, transmission and effects of sound.Acoustic shielding: A sound barrier that prevents the transmission of acoustic energy.Adiabatic: Any change in which there is no gain or loss of heat.Afocal lens: A lens of zero convergent power, whose focal points are infinitely distant.

Albedo: The fraction of the total light incident on a reflecting surface, especially a celestial body, which is reflected back in all directions.

Alpha particle: The nucleus of a helium atom (two protons and two neutrons) emitted as radiation from a decaying heavy nucleus.

Alternating current: The electric current that changes its direction periodically.

Amorphous: Solids which have neither definite form nor structure.

Ampere: S.I. Unit of electric current, one ampere is the flow of one coulomb of charge per second.

Amplitude: The maximum absolute value attained by the disturbance of a wave or by any quantity that varies periodically.

Angle of contact: The angle between tangents to the liquid surface and the solid surface inside the liquid, both the tangents drawn at the point of contact.

Angle of The angle between the incident ray and the normal.

26




incidence:Angle of

reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Angle of refraction: The angle between the refracted ray and the normal.

Angle of repose: The angle of inclination of a plane with the horizontal such that a body placed on the plane is at the verge of sliding.

Angstrom: A unit of length, 1 = 10-10 m.Angular

momentum:Also called moment of momentum, it is the cross product of position vector

and momentum.Angular velocity: The rate of change of angular displacement with time.

Annihilation: A process in which a particle and antiparticle combine and release their rest energies in other particles.

Antineutrino: The antiparticle of neutrino, it has zero mass and spin ½.Archimedes

principle:A body immersed in a fluid experiences an apparent loss in weight which is

equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Atomic mass unit: It is equal to one-twelfth the mass of C -12 isotope of carbon, 1 amu = 1.66x 10-27 Kg.

Atomic number: The number of protons in an atomic nucleus.Avogadro

number:The number of molecules in a gram molecular weight of a substance, it is

equal to 6.02 x 1023.

Avogadro's law: Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain equal number of molecules.

Balmer lines:Lines in the spectrum of hydrogen atom in visible range, produced by transition between n 2 and n = 2, n is the principal quantum no.

Bar:A unit of pressure, equal to 105 Pascals.Baryon:subatomic particle composed of three quarks.Beat:A phenomenon of the periodic variation in the intensity of sound due to superposition of

waves differing slightly in frequency.Bernoulli's theorem:The total energy per unit volume of a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in a

streamline flow remains constant.Beta particle:An electron emitted from a nucleus in radioactive decay.Binding energy:The net energy required to decompose a system into its constituent particles.Black body:An ideal body which would absorb all incident radiation and reflect none.Black hole:The remaining core of a supernova that is so dense that even light cannot escape.Boyle's law:For a given mass of a gas at constant temperature, the volume of the gas is inversely

proportional to the pressure.Brewster's law:States that the refractive index of a material is equal to the tangent of the

polarizing angle for the material.Brownian motion:The continuous random motion of solid microscopic particles when suspended

in a fluid medium due to the consequence of ongoing bombardment by atoms and molecules.Bulk's modulus of elasticity:The ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain produced in a

body.Buoyant force:upward force on an object immersed in fluid.A

27




Abiogenesis:The study of how life on Earth could have arisen from inanimate matter. It should not be confused with evolution (the study of how living things change over time), biogenesis (the process of lifeforms producing other lifeforms) or spontaneous generation (the obsolete theory of complex life originating from inanimate matter on an everyday basis).

Absolute Zero:The lowest temperature possible, equivalent to -273.15°C (or 0° on the absolute Kelvin scale), at which point atoms cease to move altogether and molecular energy is minimal. The idea that it is impossible, through any physical process, to lower the temperature of a system to zero is known as the Third Law of Thermodynamics.

Accretion Disk:

Diffuse material orbiting around a central body such as a protostar, a young star, a neutron star or a black hole. Gravitycauses the material in the disc to spiral inwards towards the central body with great speed, and the gravitational forcesacting on the material cause the emission of x-rays, radio waves or other electromagnetic radiation (known as quasars).

Alpha Particle (Alpha Decay):

A particle of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (essentially a heliumnucleus) that is emitted by an unstable radioactive nucleusduring radioactive decay. It is a relatively low-penetration particle due its comparatively low energy and high mass.

Angular Momentum:A measure of the momentum of a body in rotational motion about its centre of mass. Technically, the angular momentum of a body is equal to the mass of the body multiplied by the cross product of the position vector of the particle with its velocity vector. The angular momentum of a system is the sum of the angular momenta of its constituent particles, and this total is conserved unless acted on by an outside force.

Anthropic Principle:The idea that the fundamental constants of physics and chemistry are just right (or “fine-tuned”) to allow the universe and life as we know it to exist, and indeed that the universe is only as it is because we are here to observe it. Thus, we find ourselves in the kind of universe, and on the kind of planet, where conditions are ripe for our form of life.

Antimatter:

A large accumulation of antiparticles - antiprotons, antineutronsand positrons (antielectrons) - which have opposite properties to normal particles (e.g. electrical charge), and which can come together to make antiatoms. When matter and antimatter meet, they self-destruct in a burst of high-energy photons or gamma rays. The laws of physics seem to predict a pretty much 50/50 mix of matter and antimatter, despite the observable universeapparently consisting almost entirely of matter, known as the “baryon asymmetry problem”.

28




Atom:

The basic building block of all normal matter, consisting of anucleus (which is itself composed of positively-charged protonsand zero-charged neutrons) orbited by a cloud of negatively-charged electrons, so that the positive charge is exactly balanced by the negative charge and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral. Atoms range from about 32 to about 225 picometres in size (a picometre is a trillionth of a metre). A typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width.

B Back to Top

Beta Particles (Beta Decay):

High-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons (antielectrons) emitted by some types of radioactive decay, when an unstable atomic nucleus with an excess of neutrons or protonsundergoes beta decay (a process mediated by the weak nuclear force). The particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation, also known as beta rays.

Big Bang:

The huge “explosion” 13.7 billion years ago in which theuniverse (including all space, time and energy) is thought to have been created. According to this theory, the universe began in a super-dense, super-hot state and has been expanding and cooling ever since. The phrase was coined by Fred Hoyle during a 1949 radio broadcast.

Big Crunch:

One possible scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the gravity of the matter in the universe (providing that there is in fact a “critical mass”) will one day halt and reverse the universe’s expansion in a mirror image of the Big Bang, causing it to collapse into a black hole singularity. However, in the light of recent evidence for an accelerating universe, this is no longer considered the most likely outcome.

Black Body:

An idealized object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiationthat falls on it, without passing through and without reflection. The radiation emitted from a black body is mostly infrared lightat room temperature, but as the temperature increases it starts to emit visible wavelengths, from red through to blue, and then ultraviolet light at very high temperatures.

Black Hole:

The warped space-time remaining after the gravity of a massive body has caused it to shrink down to a point. It is a region of empty space with a point-like singularity at the centre and anevent horizon at the outer edge. It is so dense that no normalmatter or radiation can escape its gravitational field, so that nothing - not even light - can ever leave (hence its blackness). It is thought that most galaxies have a supermassive black hole at their heart.

29




C

Classical Physics:A general term used to describe the physics based on principles developed before the rise of general relativity and quantum mechanics, essentially physics as it had existed up to the early years of the 20th Century. It includes the mechanics of Galileo and Newton, the electrodynamics of Maxwell, the thermodynamics of Boyle and Kelvin, and usually even the special relativity of Einstein.

Complementarity:The idea in quantum theory that items can be separately analyzed as having several contradictory, and apparently mutually exclusive, properties. For example, the wave-particle duality of light, wherelight can either behave as a particle or as wave, but not simultaneously as both.

Copernican Principle:The idea that there is nothing special about our position in the universe, a generalized version of Nicolaus Copernicus’ recognition that the Earth is actually just a planet circling the Sun, and not vice versa.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation:

Cosmic microwave background radiation (or CMB for short) is the “afterglow” of the Big Bang, a microwave radiation which still uniformly permeates all of space at a temperature of around -270°C (about 3° above absolute zero). It is considered to be the best evidence for the standard Big Bang model of theuniverse.

Cosmic Inflation:

The idea that, in the first split-second after the Big Bang, theuniverse underwent a fantastically fast (exponential) expansion driven by the vacuum of empty space. The theory was developed by Alan Guth in the early 1980s to explain certain problems and inconsistencies with the basic Big Bang theory, such as those related to the large-scale structure of the features of the universe, the “horizon problem”, the “flatness problem” and the “magnetic monopole problem”.

Cosmic Rays:High speed, energetic particles (about 90% of which are protons) originating from space that impinge on Earth's atmosphere. Some are generated by our own Sun, some by supernovas, some by as yet unknown events in the farthest reaches of the visible universe. The term "ray" is a misnomer, as cosmic particles arrive individually, not in the form of a ray or beam of particles.

Cosmological Constant:A term added by Albert Einstein as a modification to his original theory of general relativity, in order to balance the attractive force of gravity and achieve a static or stationary universe. It represents the possibility that there is a density and pressure associated with apparently empty space, and that the overall mass-energy of the universe is actually much greater than currently estimated. Once dismissed as just a mathematical “fix”, it has been revived in recent years with the discovery of the apparent acceleration of the expansion of the universe.

30




Cosmological Principle:

The starting point for the General Theory of Relativity and theBig Bang theory is that, that averaged over large distances, one part of the universe looks approximately like any other part, and that, viewed on sufficiently large distance scales, there are no preferred directions or preferred places in the universe. Stated in more technical terms, on large spatial scales, the universe is homogeneous and isotropic.

Critical Mass (Critical Density):

As applied to the universe as a whole, critical mass refers to the total required mass of matter in the universe which will allow the effects of gravity to overcome its continued outward expansion. If the universe contains more than the critical mass of matter, its gravity will eventually reverse the expansion, causing the universe to collapse back to what has become known as the Big Crunch. If, however, it contains insufficientmatter, it will go on expanding forever. In the same way, critical density is that overall density of thematter in the universe which will just allow continued expansion.In other contexts, critical mass is also used to refer to the amount of fissile material needed to sustainnuclear fission.

D Back to Top

Dark Energy:

An invisible, hypothetical form of energy with repulsive gravitythat permeates all of space and that may explain recent observations that the universe appears to be expanding at an accelerating rate. In some models of cosmology, dark energy accounts for 74% of the total mass-energy of the universe. Its exact nature remains a mystery, although Einstein’s hypothesized “cosmological constant” is now considered a promising candidate.

Dark Matter:Matter that gives out no light and does not interact with the electromagnetic force, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. It is estimated that there may be between 6 and 7 times as much dark matter as normal, bright matter in the universe, although its exact nature remains a mystery.

Decoherence:

The process by which bodies and quantum systems lose some of their more unusual quantum properties (e.g. superposition, or the ability to appear in different places simultaneously) as they interact with their environments. When a particle decoheres, itsprobability wave collapses, any quantum superpositionsdisappear and it settles into its observed state under classical physics.

Density:The mass of an object divided by its volume, a measure of how much it is compacted or crowded together (e.g. air is low in density, iron is high). Boyle’s Law dictates that a substance increases in density as its pressure is increased or as its temperature is decreased.

31




Dimensions:Independent directions in space-time. We are familiar with the three dimensions of space (length, width and height, or east-west, north-south and up-down) and one of time (past-future), but superstring theory, for example, requires the universe to have ten dimensions.

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules consist of two long intertwined polymers of nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds, structured as the familiar double helix. DNA is responsible for the long-term storage of genetic information, and specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins. It is organized into structures called chromosomes, and contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The first accurate model of the structure of DNA was formulated by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. The genetic information from DNA is transmitted into the nucleus of cells by molecules of RNA, which controls certain chemical processes in the cell. Both DNA and RNA are considered essential building blocks of life.

E

Electric Charge:A property of microscopic particles, which may be either positive (e.g. protons) or negative (e.g.electrons). Particles with the same charge repel each other, and particles with opposite charges attract each other. The field of force that surrounds an electric charge is called an electric field, and a river of charged particles flowing through a conductor is called an electric current.

Electric Field:The field of force that surrounds an electric charge (in the same way as a magnetic field is the field of force that surrounds a magnet). Together, the electric and magnetic fields make up the electromagnetic field which underlies light and other electromagnetic waves, and changes in either field will induce changes in the other, as shown in the equations of James Clerk Maxwell.

Electromagnetic Force (or Electromagnetism):The force that an electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles. It is one of the fourfundamental forces of physics (along with the gravitational force and the strong and weak nuclear forces), and the one responsible for most of the forces we experience in our daily lives. The electromagnetic forces acting between the electrically charged protons and electrons inside atomsand between atoms are essentially responsible for gluing together all ordinary matter.Although hugely stronger (1042 times) than the force of gravity, it is a less dominant force on larger scales because the attractive and repulsive interactions tend to cancel each other out. Like gravity, the electromagnetic force is subject to an inverse-square law, and its strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the particles. The force is mediated or operated by the exchange of photons between the particles. The ‘electrostatic force’ is one aspect of the electromagnetic force, which arises when two charged particles are static (i.e. not in motion).

Electromagnetic Radiation (or Electromagnetic Waves):

32




A wave that travels though space at the speed of light, consisting of an electrical field that periodically grows and dies, alternating with a magnetic field that periodically dies and grows. Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum, which may be imparted when it interacts with matter.In order of increasing frequency, the electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays and gamma rays.

Electron:

A negatively-charged sub-atomic particle. It is an indivisible,elementary particle, and is usually to be found orbiting thenucleus of an atom. Electrons in an atom (which exist in the same quantity as the number of protons in the nucleus of the particular atom, so that the overall electric charge is zero) are constrained to occupy certain discrete orbital positions or “shells” around the nucleus. Interactions between the electrons of different atoms play an essential role in chemical bonding and phenomena such as electricity, magnetism and thermal conductivity. The discovery of electrons is credited to the British physicist J. J. Thomson in 1897.

Element:

A substance that cannot be reduced any further by chemical means. It is a pure chemical substance composed of atomswith the same atomic number (i.e. the same number of protonsin its nucleus). There are 92 naturally occurring elements on Earth, and all chemical matter consists of these elements (although a further 25 have been discovered as products of artificial nuclear reactions). Elements with atomic numbers 83 or higher are inherently unstable, and undergo radioactive decay. The list of elements is usually shown in the form of a Periodic Table, in order of their atomic number (see box at right, or click ther source link for a more detailed interactive Periodic Table).

Elementary Particle:

A particle with no substructure (i.e. not made up of smaller particles) and which is therefore one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which all other particles are made.Quarks, electons, neutrinos, photons, muons and gluons (along with their respective antiparticles) are all elementary particles;protons and neutrons (which are made up of quarks) are not.

Energy:Sometimes defined as the ability to do work or to cause change, energy is notoriously difficult to define. In accordance with the Law of Conservation of Energy, energy can never be created or destroyed but it can be changed into different forms, including kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic and electromagnetic. The standard scientific unit of energy is the Joule.

Entanglement:

The phenomenon in quantum theory whereby particles that interact with each other become permanently dependent on each other’s quantum states and properties, to the extent that they lose their individuality and in many ways behave as a single entity. At some level, entangled particles appear to “know” each other’s states and properties.

33




Entropy:A measure of the disorder of a system and of its constituent molecules. More specifically, in thermodynamics it is a measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work. The Second Law of Thermodynamics embodies the idea that entropy can never decrease, but rather will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value as it reaches thermal equilibrium. A classic example of increasing entropy is ice melting in water until both reach a common temperature.

Event Horizon:

A one-way boundary in space-time surrounding a black hole. Any matter or light that falls through the event horizon of ablack hole can never leave, and any event inside the event horizon cannot affect an outside observer.

Exogenesis:The hypothesis that life on Earth was transferred from elsewhere in the universe. A related but more limited concept is that of panspermia, the idea that "seeds" of life exist already all over the universe, and that life on Earth may have originated through these "seeds".

Exotic Particle:A kind of theoretical particle said to exist by some theories of modern physics, whose alleged properties are extremely unusual. Examples include tachyons (particles that always travels faster than the speed of light), WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles which do not interact withelectromagnetism or the strong nuclear force), axions (particles with no electric charge, very smallmass and very low interaction with the strong and weak forces) and neutrinos (particles that travel close to the speed of light, lack an electric charge and are able to pass through ordinary matteralmost undisturbed).

Expanding Universe:

A universe which is constantly growing in size and in which the constituent parts (galaxies, clusters, etc) are flying ever further away from each other. Although contrary to the static universewhich had been assumed throughout most of history, an expanding universe was confirmed by Edwin Hubble’s 1929 observations of the redshifts of distant Cepheid variable stars, and is consistent with most solutions to Albert Einstein’s general relativity field equations. It also suggests that, in the distant past, the universe was much smaller and ultimately had its beginning in aBig Bang type event.

F

Fundamental (or Elementary) Forces:There are four basic forces of physics that are believed to underlie all phenomena in the universe. Listed in order of strength they are: the strong nuclear force, the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force and the gravitational force (or gravity). It is thought likely that, in extremely high energyconditions such as occurred near the beginning of the Big Bang, the four fundamental forces of nature are actually unified in a single theoretical framework (known as the Grand Unified Theory).According to quantum field theory, the forces between particles are mediated by other particles, and

34




the fundamental forces can be described by the exchange of virtual force-carrying particles: the strong nuclear force mediated by gluons; the electromagnetic force by photons; the weak nuclear force by W and Z bosons; and gravity by hypothetical gravitons.

G

Galaxy:

One of the basic building block of the universe, a galaxy is a massive system of stars, stellar remnants, gas, dust, and possibly a hypothetical substance known as dark matter, bound together by gravity. Galaxies may be anywhere from 1 to 100,000 light years across and are typically separated by millions of light years of intergalactic space. They are grouped into clusters, which in turn can form larger groups called superclusters and sheets or filaments. There are many different kinds of galaxy including spiral (like our own Milky Way galaxy), elliptical, ring, dwarf, lenticular and irregular. There are estimated to be over a hundred billion galaxies in the observable universe.

Gamma Ray:

A form of electromagnetic radiation produced by some kinds ofradioactive decay. Gamma rays have the highest frequency andenergy and the shortest wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum, and penetrate matter more easily that either alpha particles or beta particles.

Gamma Ray Burst:A narrow beam of intense electromagnetic radiation released during a supernova event, as a rapidly rotating, high-mass star collapses to form a black hole. They are the brightest events known to occur in the universe, and can last from milliseconds to several minutes (typically a few seconds). The initial burst is usually followed by a longer-lived 'afterglow' emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared and radio).

Gas:A state of matter consisting of a collection of particles (molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, etc) without a definite shape or volume, and that are in more or less random motion. A gas tends to have relatively low density and viscosity compared to the solid and liquid states of matter, expands and contracts greatly with changes in temperature or pressure (“compressible”), and diffuses readily, spreading and homogeneously distributing itself throughout any container.

General Theory of Relativity:

Sometimes known as the Theory of General Relativity, this wasAlbert Einstein’s refinement (published in 1916) of his earlierSpecial Theory of Relativity and Sir Isaac Newton’s much earlierLaw of Universal Gravitation. The theory holds that acceleration and gravity are indistinguishable - the Principle of Equivalence - and describes gravity as a property of the geometry (more specifically a warpage) of space-time. Among other things, the theory predicts the existence of black holes, an expanding universe, time dilation, length contraction, gravitational light bending and the curvature of space-time. Although classical physics can be considered a good approximation for everyday purposes, the predictions of general relativity differ significantly from those of classical

35




physics. They have become generally accepted in modern physics, however, and have been confirmed by all observations and experiments to date.

Geodesic:

The shortest path between two points in curved space. It originally meant the shortest route between two points on the Earth's surface (namely a segment of a great circle) but, since its application in general relativity, it has come to mean the generalization of the notion of a straight line as applied to all curved spaces. In non-curved three-dimensional space, the geodesic is a straight line. In general relativity, a free falling body (on which only gravitational forces are acting) follows a geodesic in curved four-dimensional space-time.

Grand Unified Theory (or Unified Field Theory):Also known as Grand Unification or GUT, this refers to any of several unified field theories that predict that at extremely high energies (such as occurred just after the Big Bang), the electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces are all fused into a single unified field. Thus far, physicists have only been able to merge electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force into the “electroweak force”. Beyond Grand Unification, there is also speculation that it may be possible to merge gravity with the other three gauge symmetries into a “theory of everything”.

Gravity (or Gravitational Force):

The force of attraction that exists between any two masses, whether they be stars, microscopic particles or any other bodies with mass. It is by far the weakest of the fourfundamental forces (the others being the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force), and yet, because it is a consistent force operating on all bodies withmass, it is instrumental in the formation of galaxies, stars, planets and black holes. It was approximately described by Sir Isaac Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation in 1687, and more accurately described by Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity in 1916.

H

Half-Life:A measure of the speed of radioactive decay of unstable, radioactive atoms. It is the time taken for half of the nuclei in a radioactive sample to disintegrate or decay. Half-lives can vary from a split-second to billions of years depending on the substance.

Hawking Radiation:

Random and featureless sub-atomic particles and thermal radiation predicted to be emitted by black holes due to quantum effects. Over long periods of time, as a black hole loses morematter through radiation than it gains through other means, it is therefore expected to dissipate, shrink and ultimately vanish.

Horizon:

36




The horizon of the universe is much like the horizon on Earth: it is the furthest that can be seen from a particular position. Because light has a finite speed and the universe has a finite age, we can only see objects whose light has had time to reach us since the Big Bang, so that the observable universe can be thought of as a bubble centred on the Earth.

Hubble’s Law:Formulated by Edwin Hubble in 1929, the law states that the redshift in light coming from distantgalaxies is proportional to their distance, so that every galaxy appears to be rushing away from us (or from any other point in the universe) with a speed that is directly proportionate to its distance from us. It is considered the first observational basis for an expanding universe (or the metric expansion of space), and the most often cited evidence in support of the Big Bang theory, and arguably one of the most important cosmological discoveries ever made.

Hydrostatic Equilibrium:

The state in which the force of gravitation working to crush astar is exactly balanced by the thermal pressure of its hot gaspushing outwards. It is the reason that stars in general do not implode or explode, and it also explains why the Earth's atmosphere does not collapse to a very thin layer on the ground.

I

Inertia:The natural tendency (as defined in Sir Isaac Newton’s First Law of Motion of 1687) of objects to resist changes in their state of motion. Therefore, a body at rest tends to stay at rest and, once set in motion, a body tends to stay moving at a constant speed in a straight line (or along a geodesic in curved space) unless acted on by an outside force. An example of an inertial force is centrifugal force, which in reality is just due to a body trying to continue in a straight line while constrained to move along a curved path.

Inertial Frame (or Inertial System):A reference frame in which the observers are not subject to any accelerating force. An inertial frame is a frame of reference in which a body remains at rest or moves with constant linear velocity unless acted upon by outside forces (as stipulated by Sir Isaac Newton’s First Law of Motion, Force = MassCH Acceleration). Any frame of reference that moves with constant velocity relative to an inertial system is itself an inertial system.

Interference:

The ability of two waves passing through each other to mingle, reinforcing each other where crests coincide and cancelling each other out where crests and troughs coincide, similar to the way ripples in water interfere with each other. This results, for example, in an interference pattern of light and dark stripes on a screen illuminated by light from two sources.

Ion:An atom or molecule that has been stripped of one or more of its orbiting electrons, thus giving it a

37




net positive electric charge. Technically, an atom which gains an electron (thus giving it a net negativeelectric charge) is also a type of ion, known as an anion.

Isotope:A possible form of an element, distinguishable from other isotopes of the same element by its differingmass, which is caused by a different number of neutrons in the nucleus (the number of protons, which gives the atomic number of the element, must be the same). Around 75% of isotopes are stable, while some are unstable or radioactive, and will decay over time into other elements.

L

Law of Conservation of Energy:

Also known as the First Law of Thermodynamics, this is the principle that energy can never be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another (e.g. the chemical energy of gasoline can be converted into the energy of motion of a car). The total amount of energy in an isolated system (or in the universe as a whole) therefore remains constant.

Law of Universal Gravitation:

Published by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687, and sometimes also known as the Universal Law of Gravity, this was the first formulation of the idea that all bodies with mass pull on each other across space. Newton observed that the force of gravitybetween two objects is proportional to the product of the twomasses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Although the theory has since been superseded by Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, it predicts the movements of the Sun, the Moon and the planets to a high degree of accuracy and it continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity for everyday applications (relativity is only required when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with the gravitation of very massive objects).

Length Contraction:

The phenomenon, predicted by Albert Einstein’s Special andGeneral Theories of Relativity, whereby, from the relative context of one observer's frame of reference, space or length appears to decrease as the relative velocities increase.

Life:A difficult and contentious phenomenon to define, life is usually considered to be a characteristic of organisms that exhibit certain biological processes (such as chemical reactions or other events that results in a transformation), and that are capable of growth through metabolism and are capable of reproduction. The ability to ingest food and excrete waste are also sometimes considered requirements of life (e.g. bacteria are usually considered to be alive, whereas simpler viruses, which do not feed or excrete, are not).

The two distinguishing features of living systems are sometimes considered to be complexity and organization (negative entropy). Some organisms can communicate, and many can adapt to their

38




environment through internally generated changes, although these are not universally considered prerequisites for life.

Light:Technically, this refers to electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye, although in the broader field of physics, it is sometimes used to refer to electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, whether visible or not. It exhibits “wave-particle duality” in that it can behave as both waves and particles (photons). Light travels at a constant speed of about 300,000 kilometres per second in a vacuum.

Light Year:A convenient unit for measuring the large distances in the universe. It is the distance that light travels in one year which, given that light travels at 300,000 kilometres per second, works out to about 9,460,000,000 kilometres (9.46 trillion kilometres).

M

Magnetic Field:The field of force that surrounds a magnet (in the same way as an electric field is the field of force that surrounds an electric charge). Together, the magnetic and electric fields make up the electromagnetic field which underlies light and other electromagnetic waves, and changes in either field will induce changes in the other, as indicated by James Clerk Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetism.

Magnetic Monopole:A hypothetical particle that is a magnet with only one pole, and which therefore has a net magnetic charge. Although the existence of monopoles is indicated by both classical theory and quantum theory (and predicted by recent string theories and grand unified theories), there is still no observational evidence for their physical existence.

Mass:A measure of the amount of matter in a body. It can also be seen as a measure of a body’s inertia or resistence to change in motion, or the degree of acceleration a body acquires when subject to a force (bodies with greater mass are accelerated less by the same force and have greater inertia). Mass is often confused with weight, which is the strength of the gravitational pull on the object (and therefore how heavy it is in a particular gravitational situation), although, in everyday situations, the weight of an object is proportional to its mass.

Mass-Energy Equivalence:The concept that any mass has an associated energy, and that, conversly, any energy has an associated mass. In Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity, this relationship is expressed in the famous mass-energy equivalence formula, E = mc2, where E = total energy, m = mass and c = thespeed of light in a vacuum. Given that c is a very large number, it becomes apparent that mass is in fact a very concentrated form of energy.

Matter:Anything that has both mass and volume (i.e. takes up space). Matter is what atoms and moleculesare

39




made of, and it exists in four states or phases: solid, liquid, gas and plasma (although other phases, such as Bose-Einstein condensates, also exist).

Molecule:

A collection of atoms glued together by electromagnetic forces. A more formal definition might be: a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two atoms, in a definite arrangement, held together by very strong chemical bonds. A molecule may consist of atoms of the same chemical element(e.g. oxygen: O2) or of different elements (e.g. water: H2O). Organic molecules are those which include carbon, and the others are called inorganic.

Momentum:A measure of how much effort is required to stop a body, defined as the body’s mass multiplied by its velocity. Thus, a large heavy body (e.g. a train) going relatively slowly may have more momentum than a smaller body going very fast (e.g. a racing car). The Law of Conservation of Momentum rules that the total momentum of an isolated system (one in which no net external force acts on the system) does not change.

Multiverse (Parallel Universes):

A hypothetical set of multiple possible universes (including our own) which exist in parallel with each other. Our universe would then be just one of an enormous number of separate and distinct parallel universes, the vast majority of which would be dead and uninteresting, not having a set of physical laws which would allow the emergence of stars, planets and life.

N

Neutrino:

A sub-atomic elementary particle with no electrical charge and very small mass that travels very close to the speed of light. They are created as a result of certain types of radioactive decay or nuclear reaction, such as the decay of a free neutron(i.e. one outside of a nucleus) into a proton and electron. Being electrically neutral and unaffected by the strong nuclear force or the electromagnetic force, neutrinos are able to pass through ordinary matter almost undisturbed and are therefore extremely difficult to detect, although when created in huge numbers they are capable of blowing a star apart in a supernova.

Neutron:

One of the two main building blocks (along with the proton) of the nucleus at the centre of an atom. Neutrons have essentially the same mass as a proton (very slightly larger) but no electric charge, and are made up of one “up” quark and two “down”quarks. The number of neutrons in an atom determines theisotope of an element. Outside of a nucleus, they are unstable and disintegrate within about ten minutes.

Neutron Star:A star that has shrunk under its own gravity during a supernova event, so that most of its material has

40




been compressed into neutrons only (the protons and electrons have been crushed together until they merge, leaving only neutrons). Neutron stars are very hot, quite small (typically 20 to 30 kilometres in diameter), extremely dense, have a very high surface gravity and rotate very fast. A pulsar is a kind of highly-magnetized rapidly-rotating neutron star.

Newton’s Laws of Motion:The three physical laws, published by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687, that form the basis for classical mechanics: 1) a body persists its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force; 2) force equals mass times acceleration; and 3) to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Nonlocality:The rather spooky ability of objects in quantum theory to apparently instantaneously know about each other’s quantum state, even when separated by large distances, in apparent contravention of the principle of locality (the idea that distant objects cannot have direct influence on one another, and that an object is influenced directly only by its immediate surroundings).

Nuclear Fission:A nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts, often producing freeneutrons, lighter nuclei and photons (in the form of gamma rays). The process releases large amounts of energy, both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the resulting fragments.

Nuclear Fusion:

The welding together of two light nuclei to make a heaviernucleus, resulting in the liberation of nuclear energy. An example of this kind of nuclear reaction is the binding together of hydrogen nuclei in the core of the Sun to make helium. In larger, hotter stars, helium itself may fuse to produce heavierelements, a process which continues up the periodic table ofelements as far as iron. The fusion of ultra-stable iron nucleiactually absorbs energy rather than releasing it, and so iron does not easily fuse to create heavierelements.

Nucleosynthesis:

The process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existingprotons and neutrons by a process of nuclear fusion. The primordial nucleons (hydrogen and helium) themselves were formed from the quark-gluon plasma in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, as it cooled to below ten million degrees, but nucleosynthesis of the heavier elements (including all carbon, oxygen, etc) occurs primarily in the nuclear fusionprocess within stars and supernovas.

Nucleus:The tight cluster of nucleons (positively-charged protons and zero-charged neutrons, or just a singleproton in the case of hydrogen) at the centre of an atom, containing more than 99.9% of the atom’smass. The nucleus of a typical atom is about 100,000 smaller than the total size of the atom(depending on the individual atom).

O Back to Top

41




Oscillating Universe:A cosmological model, in which the universe undergoes a potentially endless series of oscillations, each beginning with a Big Bang and ending with a Big Crunch. After the Big Bang, the universeexpands for a while before the gravitational attraction of matter causes it to collapse back and undergo a “bounce”.

P Back to Top

Panspermia:

The hypothesis that "seeds" of life exist already all over theuniverse, and that life on Earth may have originated through these "seeds", driven by a steady influx of cells or viruses arriving from space via comets. It is a more limited form of the related hypothesis of exogenesis, which also proposes that lifeon Earth was transferred from elsewhere in the universe, but makes no prediction about how widespread it may be.

Pauli Exclusion Principle:The prohibition on two identical fermions from sharing the same quantum state simultaneously. Among other implications it stops electrons (which are a kind of fermion) from piling on top of each other, thereby explaining the existence of different types of atoms and the whole variety of the universearound us.

Photoelectric Effect:

The phenomenon in which, when a metallic surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation above a certain threshold frequency (typically visible light and x-rays), the light is absorbed andelectrons are emitted. The discovery of the effect is usually attributed to Heinrich Hertz in 1887, and study of it (particularly by Albert Einstein) led to important steps in understanding thequantum nature of light and electrons and in formulating the concept of wave-particle duality.

Photon:A particle (or quantum) of light or other electromagnetic radiation, which has no intrinsic mass and can therefore travel at the speed of light. It is an elementary particle and the basic unit of light, and effectively carries the effects of the electromagnetic force. The modern concept of the photon as exhibiting both wave and particle properties was developed gradually by Albert Einstein and others.

Planck Constant:The proportionality constant (h) which provides the relation between the energy (E) of a photon and the frequency (v) of its associated electromagnetic wave in the so-called Planck Relation E = hv. It is essentially used to describe the sizes of individual quanta in quantum mechanics. Its value depends on the units used for energy and frequency, but it is a very small number (with energy measured in Joules, it is of the order of 6.626 CH 10-34 J·s).

Planck Energy:The super-high energy (approximately 1.22 CH 1019 GeV) at which gravity becomes comparable in strength to the other fundamental forces, and at which the quantum effects of gravity become important.

42




Planck Length:The fantastically tiny length scale (approximately 1.6 CH 10-35 metres) at which gravity becomes comparable in strength to the other fundamental forces. It is the scale at which classical ideas aboutgravity and space-time cease to be valid, and quantum effects dominate.

Planck Temperature:The temperature of the universe at 1 Planck Time after the Big Bang, approximately equal to 1.4 CH 1032°C.

Planck Time:The time it would take a photon travelling at the speed of light to cross a distance equal to the Planck Length. This is the “quantum of time”, the smallest measurement of time that has any meaning, and is approximately equal to 10-43 seconds.

Planck Units:“Natural units” of measurement (i.e. designed so that certain fundamental physical constants are normalized to 1), named after the German physicist Max Planck who first proposed them in 1899. They were an attempt to eliminate all arbitrariness from the system of units, and to help simplify many complex equations in modern physics. Among the most important are the Planck Energy, the Planck Length, the Planck Time and the Planck Temperature.

Plasma:

A partially ionized gas of ions and electrons, in which a certain proportion of the electrons are free rather than being bound to an atom or molecule. It has properties quite unlike those of solids, liquids or gases and is sometimes considered to be a distinct fourth state of matter. An example of plasma present at the Earth's surface is lightning.

Positron:The antiparticle or antimatter counterpart of the electron. The positron, then, is an elementary particlewith a positive electric charge, and the same mass and spin as an electron. The existence of positrons was first postulated in 1928 by Paul Dirac, and definitively discovered by Carl Anderson in 1932.

Primeval (or Primordial) Soup:The theory of the origin of life on Earth first put forward by Alexander Oparin, whereby a “soup” of organic molecules could be created in a “reducing” oxygen-less atmosphere through the action of sunlight, creating the necessary building blocks for the evolution of life.

Principle of Equivalence:The idea that no experiment can distinguish the acceleration due to gravity from the inertial acceleration due to a change of velocity (or acceleration).

Principle of Relativity:

The idea, first expressed by Galileo Galilei in 1632 and also known as the principle of invariance, that the fundamental laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames and that, purely by observing

43




the outcome of mechanical experiments, one cannot distinguish a state of rest from a state of constant velocity. Thus, all uniform motion is relative, and there is no absolute and well-defined state of rest.

Probability Wave (or Wave Function):A description of the probability that a particle in a particular state will be measured to have a given position and momentum. Thus, a particle (an electron, photon or any other kind of particle), when not being measured or located, takes the form of a field or wave of probable locations, some being more probable or likely than others.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:

Prokaryotes are primitive organisms that lack a cell nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelles. Most prokaryotes are single-celled (although some have multicellular stages in their life-cycles), and they are divided into two main domains, bacteria and archaea.Eukaryotes, on the other hand, are organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and are organized into complex structures enclosed within membranes. Most living organisms (including all animals, plants, fungi and protists) are eukaryotes.

Proton:

One of the two main building blocks (along with the neutron) of the nucleus at the centre of an atom. Protons carry a positiveelectrical charge, equal and opposite to that of electrons, and are made up of two “up” quarks and one “down” quark. The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus determines its atomic number and thus which chemical element it represents.

Pulsar:

A highly-magnetized rapidly-rotating neutron star that sweeps regular pulses of intense electromagnetic radiation (radio waves) around space like a lighthouse. The intervals between pulses are very regular, ranging from 1.4 milliseconds to 8.5 seconds depending on the rotation period of the star. A pulsar generally has a mass similar to our own Sun, but a diameter of only around 10 kilometres.

Q

Quantum:The smallest chunk into which something can be divided in physics. Quantized phenomena are restricted to discrete values rather than to a continuous set of values. Some quanta take the form ofelementary particles, such as photons which are the quanta of the electromagnetic field. Quanta are measured on the tiny Planck scale of the order of around 10-35 metres.

Quantum Electrodynamics:Sometimes shortened to QED, it is essentially the theory of how light interacts with matter. More specifically, it deals with the interactions between electrons, positrons (antielectrons) and photons. It explains almost everything about the everyday world, from why the ground is solid to how a laser works to the chemistry of metabolism to the operation of computers.

44




Quantum Gravity (or Quantum Theory of Gravity):A so-called “theory of everything” which combines the General Theory of Relativity (the theory of the very large, which describes one of the fundamental forces of nature, gravity) with quantum theory (the theory of the very small, which describes the other three fundamental forces, electromagnetism, theweak nuclear force and the strong nuclear force) into a unified theory. However, even the most promising candidates, like superstring theory and loop quantum gravity, still need to overcome major formal and conceptual problems, and this is still very much a work in progress.

Quantum State:The set of characteristics describing the condition a quantum mechanical system is in. It can be described by a wave function or a complete set of quantum numbers (energy, angular momentum,spin, etc), although, when observed, the system is forced into a specific stationary "eigenstate". If a particle within a quantum system (such as an electron within an atom) moves from one quantum state to another, it does so instantaneously and in discontinuous steps (known as quantum leaps or jumps) without ever being in a state in between.

Quantum Theory (or Quantum Physics or Quantum Mechanics):The physical theory of objects isolated from their surroundings. Because it is very difficult to isolate large objects, quantum theory (also known as quantum mechanics or quantum physics) is essentially a theory of the microscopic world of atoms and their constituents. Among its main principles are the dual wave-like and particle-like behaviour of matter and radiation (wave-particle duality), and the prediction of probabilities in situations where classical physics predicts certainties. Classical physicsprovides a good approximation to quantum physics for everyday purposes, typically in circumstances with large numbers of particles.

Quantum Tunnelling:

The quantum mechanical effect in which particles have a finite probability of crossing an energybarrier, or transitioning through an energy state normally forbidden to them by classical physics, due to the wave-like aspect of particles. Theprobability wave of a particle represents the probability of finding the particle in a certain location, and there is a finite probability that the particle is located on the other side of the barrier.

Quark:A type of elementary particle which is the major constituent of matter. Quarks are never found on their own, only in groups of three within composite particles called hadrons (such as protons and neutrons). There are six different types (or “flavours”) of quarks - up, down, top, bottom, charm and strange - and each flavour comes in three “colours” - red, green or blue (although they have no colour in the normal sense, being much smaller than the wavelength of visible light). Quarks are the only particles in the standard model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental forces, and they have the properties of electric charge, colour charge, spin and mass.

Quasar:

45




Short for QUAsi-StellAr Radio source, a quasar is an extremely powerful and distant active galactic nucleus (a compact region at the centre of a galaxy which has a much higher than normal luminosity). It derives most of its energy from very hot matterswirling into a central supermassive black hole, and can generate as much light as a hundred normal galaxies from a much smaller volume. It is one of the most powerful objects in the universe, and among the most distant things ever seen in space.

R Back to Top

Radioactivity (Radioactive Decay):The disintegration of unstable heavy atomic nuclei into lighter, more stable, atomic nuclei, accompanied in the process by the emission of ionizing radiation (alpha particles, beta particles orgamma rays). This is a random process at the atomic level but, given a large number of similar atoms, the decay rate on average is predictable, and is usually measured by the half-life of the substance.

Redshift:

The shifting of emitted electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light) towards the less energetic red end of the electromagnetic spectrum when a light source is moving away from the observer. This occurs as the wavelengths of lightstretch as an object moves away (as opposed to being squashed by an approaching object), similar to the familiar Doppler effect on sound waves. Among other things, it can be used as a measure of the speed with which galaxies throughout the universe are moving away from us.

Relativity:The theory, formulated essentially by Einstein’s theory has two main parts: the Special Theory of Relativity (or special relativity) which deals with objects in uniform motion, and the General Theory of Relativity (or general relativity) which deals with acclerating objects and gravity.

RNA and DNA:

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a type of single-stranded moleculethat consists of a long chain of nucleotide units, each of which consists of a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar and a phosphate. RNA transmits the genetic information from DNAinto the nucleus of cells, and controls certain chemical processes in the cell. Both DNA and RNA are considered essential building blocks of life.

S

Second Law of Thermodynamics:The idea that entropy (the microscopic disorder of a body) can never decrease, but rather will tend to increase over time. In practice, this results in an inexorable tendency towards uniformity and away from patterns and structures, and means, for example, that heat always flows from a hot body to a cold one, and that differences in temperature, pressure and density tend to even out in an isolated physical system (or in the universe as a whole).

46




Simultaneity:The idea, disproved by Einstein in his Special Theory of Relativity, that events that appear to happen at the same time for one person should appear to happen at the same time for everyone in theuniverse.

Singularity (or Gravitational Singularity):

A region of space where the density of matter, or the curvature of space-time, becomes infinite and the concepts of space and time cease to have any meaning. At this point, the whole fabric of space-time ruptures and the precepts of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (and physics in general) break down and no longer apply, similar to the way in which a calculator returns an error when asked to divide by zero. According to general relativity, the Big Bang started with a singularity, and there is a singularity at the centre of a black hole.

Space-Time:

Space-time (or spacetime or the spacetime continuum) is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single construct. The fourth dimension of time is traditionally considered to be of a different sort than the three dimensions of space in that it can only go forwards and not back but, in Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, space and time are seen to be essentially the same thing and can therefore be treated as a single entity.

Special Theory of Relativity:Albert Einstein’s first major theory, dating from 1905, special relativity builds on Galileo's more simplistic principle of relativity and relates what one person sees when looking at another person moving at constant speed relative to them. “Special” indicates that the theory restricts itself to observers in uniform or constant relative motion, a restriction Einstein addressed later in his General Theory of Relativity. The theory incorporates the principle that the speed of light is the same for allinertial observers, regardless of the state of motion of the source. Among other things, it reveals that the moving person appears to shrink in the direction of their motion (length contraction)and their time slows down (time dilation), effects which are ever more marked as speeds approach the speed of light. The theory also leads to some famous paradoxes like the so-called Time Travel Paradox and the Twin Paradox.

Speed of Light:

In a vacuum, light travels at a speed of exactly 299,792,458 metres per second, or about 300,000 kilometres per second, a speed which remains constant irrespective of the speed of the source of the light or of the observer (one of the cornerstones ofAlbert Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity). It is the term c in Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2.

Spin:

A fundamental property of sub-atomic elementary particles that means that behave as though they are spinning or rotating (although in reality they are not spinning at all). The concept has no direct analogue in the everyday world. Particles of spin Ѕ (e.g. electrons, positrons, neutrinos and quarks) make up all the matter in the universe, while particles

47




with integer spin (0, 1 or 2) give rise to, or mediate, the forces operating between thematter particles (e.g. photons, gluons, W and Z bosons).

Star:

A massive, luminous ball of gas or plasma, held together by its own gravity, that replenishes the heat it loses to space by means of nuclear energy generated in its core. Almost all of theelements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created by thenuclear fusion processes in stars. There are many different types of stars including binary stars, proto-stars, dwarf stars (like our nearest star which we call the Sun), supergiants, supernovas, neutron stars, pulsars,quasars, etc. There are a roughly estimated 10,000 billion billion stars (1022) in the observableuniverse.

Steady State Universe:

A cosmological model developed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi in 1948 as the main alternative to the standard Big Bang theory of the universe. Steady state theory holds that the universe is expanding but that new matter and new galaxies are continuously created in order to maintain the perfect cosmological principle (the idea that, on the large scale, the universe is essentially homogenous and isotropic in both space and time), and therefore has no beginning and no end. The theory was quite popular in the 1950s and 1960s, but fell out of favour with the discovery of distant quasars and cosmic background radiation in the 1960s.

String:An object with a one-dimensional spatial extent, length (unlike an elementary particle which is zero-dimensional, or point-like). According to string theory, the different fundamental particles of the standard model can be considered to be just different manifestations of one basic object, a string, with different vibrational modes. The characteristic length scale of strings is thought to be on the order of the Planck Length (about 10-35 metres, still too small to be visible in current physical laboratories), the scale at which the effects of quantum gravity are believed to become significant.Cosmic string is a similar but separate concept which refers to one-dimensional topological defects, extremely thin but immensely dense, which are hypothesized to have formed as a result of phase changes soon after the Big Bang (analogous to the imperfections that form between crystal grains in solidifying liquids or the cracks that form when water freezes into ice). According to some theories, such cosmic strings grew as the universe expanded and were instrumental in the accretion of matterand the formation of galaxy clusters and large-scale structures in the universe.

String Theory (Superstring Theory):

A theory which postulates that the fundamental ingredients of the universe are tiny strings of matter (on the tiny scale of thePlanck Length of around 10-35 metres) which vibrate in a space-time of ten dimensions. It is considered one of the most promising of the quantum gravity theories which hope to unite or unify quantum theory and the General Theory of Relativity, and apply to both large-scale structures and structures on the atomic scale.Superstring theory (short for supersymmetric string theory) is a refinement of the more general theory of strings.

48




Strong Nuclear Force:Also known as the strong interaction, this is the powerful but short-range force that holds protons andneutrons together in the nucleus of an atom despite the electromagnetic repulsion of same-chargeparticles, as well as holding together the constituent quarks which comprise neutrons and protons. It is one of the four fundamental forces of physics (along with the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force), and the most powerful, being 100 times the strength of theelectromagnetic force, about 1013 times as great as that of the weak force and about 1038 times that of gravity.The force is mediated by elementary particles called gluons which shuttle back and forth between the particles being operated on and "glue" the particles together. Unlike the other forces, the strength of the strong force between quarks becomes stronger with distance, acting like an unbreakable elastic thread. However, it only operates over a very small distance (less than the size of the nucleus), outside of which it fades away abruptly.

Supernova:

A cataclysmic explosion caused by the collapse of an old massive star which has used up all its fuel. For a short time, such an explosion may outshine an entire galaxy of a hundred billion ordinary stars. It leaves behind a cloud of brightly coloured gas called a nebula, and sometimes a highly compressed neutron star or even a black hole.

Superposition:The ability in quantum theory of an object, such as an atom or sub-atomic particle, to be in more than one quantum state at the same time. For example, an object could technically be in more than one place simultaneously as a consequence of the wave-like character of microscopic particles.

T

Time Dilation:

The phenomenon, predicted by Albert Einstein’s Special andGeneral Theories of Relativity, whereby, from the relative context of one observer's frame of reference, another’s time (for example, an identical clock) appear to run slower. Thus, moving clocks run more slowly compared to stationary clocks and, the closer the speed of movement approaches to the speed of light, the greater the effect. Gravitational time dilation is a related phenomenon, whereby time passes more slowly the higher the local distortion of space-time due togravity (such as near a black hole, for example).

Uncertainty Principle:

The principle in quantum theory, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926, which holds that the values of certain pairs of variables cannot BOTH be known exactly, so that the more precisely one variable is known, the less precisely the other can be known. For example, if the speed or momentum of a particle is known exactly, then its location must remain uncertain; if its location is known with certainty, then the particle’s speed or momentum cannot be known. Formulated another way, relating the unvertainties of energy and time, the uncertainty principle permits the existence of

49




ultra-short-lived microscopic particles (virtual particles) in apparently empty space, which briefly blink into existence and blink out again.

Universe:

Everything that physically exists, including the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. The universe (or cosmos) is usually considered to have begun about 13.7 billion years ago in a gravitational singulary commonly known as theBig Bang, and has been expanding ever since. Some have speculated that this universe is just one of many disconnected universes, which are collectively denoted as the multiverse.

W

Wave-Particle Duality:The idea that light (and indeed all matter and energy) is both a wave and a particle, and that sometimes it behaves like a wave and sometimes it behaves like a particle. It is a central concept ofquantum theory.

Weak Nuclear Force:Also known as the weak interaction, it is one of the forces experienced by protons and neutrons in thenucleus of an atom, the other being the strong nuclear force. It is one of the four fundamental forces of physics (along with the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force and the strong nuclear force). It is called the weak force because it is about 1013 times weaker than the strong nuclear force and 1011times weaker than the electromagnetic force, and it is also very short range in its effect.The weak interaction is mediated by the exchange of heavy elementary particles known as W and Z bosons. It is responsible for radioactive beta decay (as it converts neutrons into protons) and for the production of neutrinos.

White Hole:The theoretical time reversal of a black hole, which arises as a valid solution in general relativity. While a black hole acts as a vacuum, drawing in any matter that crosses its event horizon, a white hole acts as a source that ejects matter from its event horizon.

Wormhole:

A hypothetical “tunnel” through space-time that connects widely distant regions, thus providing a kind of short-cut throughspace-time. Although there is no observational evidence for wormholes, they are known to be valid solutions under theGeneral Theory of Relativity.

50




Foydalaniladigan asosiy darsliklar va o‘quv qo‘llanmalar ro‘yxati

Asosiy adabiyotlar

1. David Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jear “Fundamentals of physics!”, USA, 2011.2. Douglas C. Giancoli “Physics Principles with applications”, USA, 2014.3. Remizov A.N. “Tibbiy va biologik fizika” T. Ibn Sino, 2005. 4. Ulug‘murodov N.X. «Fizikadan praktikum», M., “Fan”, 2005. 5. Bozorova S. Fizika, optika, atom va yadro. Toshkent Aloqachi 20076. Gevorkyan A. Kurs fiziki.7. Sultonov E. “Fizika kursi” (darslik) Fan va ta’lim 2007.8. O.Qodirov.”Fizika kursi” (o‘quv qo‘llanma) Fan va ta’lim 2005.9. Ulug‘murodov N.X. (2-nashr)

Qo‘shimcha adabiyotlar. 1. V.A. Timanyuk i dr. “Biofizika”. Visshaya shkola. Kiev, 2004. 2. V.O.Samoylov “Meditsinskaya biofizika”Spetslit., Sankt-Peterburg, 2007 3. G.A.Bordovskiy “Fizicheskie osnovi estestvoznaniya”, ROFA, 2004.

4. Ahmadjanov O.I. Fizika kursi. 1,2,3-qism.-T.; O‘qituvchi, 1987., 1988., 1989 5. Abdullaev G.A. Fizika. – T.; O‘qituvchi, 1989y. – 296 b.6. Tursunov S., Kamolov J. «Umumiy fizika kursi».-Toshkent,1996 y.7. N.Norboev, X.Arg‘inboev, X.Abdullaev «Fizikadan amaliy mashg‘ulotlar».-Toshkent, 1993y.

8. Ulug‘murodov N.X. Fizika(mexanika, molekulyar fizika, elektr). – Ma’ruzalar matni. – Toshkent. 2001y.

9. Ulug‘murodov N.X. Fizika (tebranishlar va to‘lqinlar, optika, atom va yadro).– Ma’ruzalar matni. – Toshkent. 2001y.

10. N.X.Ulug‘murodov va boshqalar, «Fizika va biofizikadan laboratoriya ishlari uchun uslubiy qo‘llanma». – Toshkent, 1995y.

11. Raxmatullaev M.N. «Umumiy fizika kursi».-1995 y.12. Essaulova I.A i dr. “Rukovodstvo k laboratornыm rabotam po meditsinskoy i

biologicheskoy fizike”. M.,“Vыsshaya shkola” 1987.

51




Internet saytlari.

1. http :// www . Ziyonet . uz

2. Fizikon info @ college . ru

3. http: //www. Pharmi.uz

52


http://www.Ziyonet.uz/

tfi.jethost.uztfi.jethost.uz/library/books/majmua/физика... · web viewproton - massasi...

Documents