the land and its early history - indus valley school … year pak studies fall 2015/section a... ·...

1THE LAND AND ITS

EARLY HISTORY

Few nations have as rich or complex a history as the Islamic Republicof Pakistan. Its destiny has been shaped fi rst by its geography. The

violent collision of continents that formed this land threw up great mountains that made this corner of the subcontinent a place apart. The sequestered, fertile environment of the Indus Valley nurtured one of the world’s fi rst great civilizations. Yet the passes that breached the guard-ing massifs served as funnels through which invaders both hostile and friendly have poured for millennia. These outsiders have been the sec-ond great ingredient in Pakistan’s destiny. They brought their traditions, ideas, and ways of life, all of which have become part of the nation’s identity. This chapter surveys the nation’s physical landscape, its fi rst civilizations, and the provinces that today refl ect the historical divisions that have made Pakistan’s past and present so vibrant, dynamic, and tumultuous. The chapter also introduces the Aryans, the fi rst of the interloping groups that would shape the history and heritage of what is today Pakistan. The Aryans’ experiences here would give rise to the Hindu religion, which continues to be a force with a powerful effect on the region today.

Geology and GeographyBefore the continents as we know them came to be, the land that is now Pakistan and India were part of Gondwanaland, an ancient super-continent. Some 200 million years ago Gondwanaland began to break apart, torn by tectonic forces. Over time the supercontinent’s rem-nants formed landmasses including Africa, South America, Antarctica, Australia, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Deccan Plateau, or the Indian subcontinent. At the time the Eurasian landmass was separated from the disintegrating supercontinent by a long, shallow sea. The

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN

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streams and rivers that drained what we know now as Asia deposited sandy runoff into this basin while the calcifi ed remains of sea creatures likewise accreted. Over time these deposits became sandstone and limestone. After Gondwanaland splintered, the future Deccan Plateau moved north, toward Eurasia. As the two landmasses drove toward each other, the sandstone and limestone that had carpeted the sea fl oor between them was thrust upward. At least 45 million years ago the landmasses met.

The submarine deposits ultimately became the fold mountains that now form a ridge across southern Asia from the Mediterranean to the Pacifi c. The contorted, visible bowing of the sedimentary rocks from which the mountains formed bears evidence of the compression caused by the slow tectonic collision. The peaks reach their highest point at the north end of the subcontinent. These are the Himalayan Mountains. Marine fossils found on Mount Everest, the world’s highest peak, attest to its undersea ancestry. The Himalayas and its offshoots, which fl ank southward on the east and west sides of the subcontinent, have served as a natural barrier to both the elements and humanity, separating the lands that became Pakistan and India from the rest of Asia. By 11 million B.C.E. migration of animals from and to the subcontinent had ended.

TopographyTo its south, west, north, and northeast, natural barriers of mountain and sea have sheltered Pakistan. But to the southeast, the land spills out into the Deccan, the vast peninsular homeland of India. The Indus River, historically the lifeblood of what would become Pakistan, and its tributaries drain the plateau. Though its terrain is varied throughout the country, Pakistan can be divided into three basic geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Baluchistan Plateau, and the Indus River plain. These areas can be further segmented into the Salt Mountains and the Potwar Plateau, north of the Indus Plain; the Western Mountain region (composed of the mountains in western Baluchistan); and the Upper and Lower Indus River Plain (roughly corresponding with the present-day provinces of Punjab and Sind, respectively).

The Arabian Sea forms Pakistan’s southern border. Its western border is shared with Iran in the south and Afghanistan in the north. Along Pakistan’s northern border the slim arm of Afghanistan’s Wakhan region separates Pakistan from Tajikistan. China’s territories of Xinjiang and Tibet lie on Kashmir’s border to the north and east. To Pakistan’s east


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THE LAND AND ITS EARLY HISTORY

are the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan. The Thar Desert serves as a barrier between these Indian lands and Pakistan. Despite the absence of any other barriers between these two states, historically they devel-oped independently.

THE INDUS RIVER

The Indus River is Pakistan’s principal waterway. Known as theSindhu in Sanskrit, the Sinthos in Greek, and the Sindus in Latin,

it has been integral to Pakistan’s culture and history, yet paradoxically gave its name to India, Pakistan’s neighbor and rival. Its headwaters are in the Himalayas in Tibet. It fl ows northwest through Gilgit-Baltistan in Kashmir before turning south and traversing the length of Pakistan, its total length between 1,800 and 2,000 miles (2,900–3,200 km). The river gave birth to one of the world’s fi rst great civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization. The course of the river has changed since ancient times as a result, it is believed, of earthquakes and other shifts of the land. Today it is damned at Tarbela, at the foothills of the Himalayas between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. Shortly after Pakistan became independent in 1947, India, which was given the region with the river’s headwaters by the British, shut the fl ow of water to the Indus, creat-ing a grave crisis that took more than 15 years to resolve.

The Indus River, Pakistan’s principal waterway, has played an integral role in the region’s history and culture. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation)



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The HimalayasThe Himalayas (meaning “the abode of snow” in Sanskrit) extend in a long bow some 1,500 miles (2,400 km) across the north end of the subcontinent, from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River (which originates in Tibet and ends in the Bay of Bengal) in the east. Four major ranges comprise the Himalayas: The Outermost, or Sub-Himalayas, are the farthest south. Its low hills, known as the Siwaliks, rise to about 3,000 feet (914 m). To the north lie the Outer, or Lesser Himalayas, whose peaks average 14,000–15,000 feet (4,267–4,572 m). Behind the Pir Panjal Range of the Outer Himalayas rise the Central, or Great Snowy Himalayas. In the Karakoram Range, permanently snow-covered peaks average 20,000 feet (6,096 m) in height and include Mount Everest, the world’s loftiest peak (29,028 feet; 8,848 m), and in Pakistan-controlled


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The Land and ITs earLy hIsTory

Kashmir, K2, the world’s second highest peak (28,251 feet; 8,611 m). north of Pakistan’s border is the Ladakh range, or Inner himalayas.

In Pakistan’s northwest is the hindu Kush (hindu Killer) range, extending from the high plateau of Pamir, sometimes called the roof of the World, into afghanistan. Tirich Mir is its highest peak (25,289 ft.; 7,708 m).

The himalayas have had important historical and climatological effects on Pakistan and the entire subcontinent. They capture mois-ture-laden winds from the arabian sea (and to the east, the Bay of Bengal) and create rain that irrigates the region. In winter they block cold winds from north and Central asia, keeping the subcontinent’s climate mild. spring melt-offs provide water. historically the himalayas and contiguous ranges have also formed a barrier protecting the region from the incursions of outsiders. several passes along Pakistan’s west-ern and northern borders provide routes in and out of the nation and have been key transit points throughout recorded history.

Western MountainsIn Baluchistan, west of the Indus Plain, three minor ranges run parallel south from the hindu Kush to the Kabul river, their valleys draining the swat, the Panjikora, and the Chitral-Kunar rivers.

K2, the world’s second-highest peak, is in Pakistan-controlled Kashmir. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation)


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The Safed Koh Range, which runs east–west, has peaks averag-ing about 12,000 feet (3,657 m). The Khyber Pass, the most famous of the high-elevation gateways to the subcontinent, cuts through its mountains. About 33 miles (53 km) in length, the pass extends from Jamrud, some 10 miles (16 km) from Peshawar, Pakistan, to Dakka in Afghanistan. South of the range is the Kurram River. The Kurram Pass, which goes through Parachinar, Thal, and Kohat, has long been another favored route to Afghanistan. To the south, the Waziristan Hills lie between the Kurram and Gomal Rivers. The Gomal Pass, named for the Gomal River, which feeds into the Indus, has been an important trade route between Afghanistan and Pakistan for nomadic tribes known as the Powindahs. (Today their entry into Pakistan is restricted.)

South of the Gomal River the Sulaiman Mountains extend for 300 miles (483 km). The main peak, Takht-i-Sulaiman, is 11,100 feet (3,383 m). The Bolan Pass is the most noted transit point of these mountains and the Bolan their main river. The Pakistan city of Quetta guards the northern end of the pass. From here the land descends to the Kirthar Hills, low parallel ranges of some 7,000 feet (2,134 m) in elevation. They get little monsoon rainfall and are barren.

West of the Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountains the land descends to the dry hills of the Baluchistan Plateau, running northeast to southwest at an elevation of about 1,000 feet (305 m). The coastal Makran range borders the south end of Pakistan’s western boundary.

The Salt Range and the Potwar PlateauThe Salt Range extends from near Jhelum, on the Jhelum River, north-west to the Indus River and then south into the districts of Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP). Its peaks average 2,200 feet (671 m) in height, though they reach about 5,000 feet (1,524 m) near Sakesar. In addition to extensive deposits of salt, its steep rock faces in the north contain gypsum, coal, and other minerals. The Salt Range has also attracted the attention of geologists, as it contains one of the world’s most complete geological sequences, from the Cambrian to the Pleistocene eras.

The Potwar Plateau extends north of the Salt Range. The elevation ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 feet (305–610 m). The landscape is varied, shaped by glacial erosion. During the last ice ages glaciers that covered Kashmir and much of the northern subcontinent extended over this now semiarid region, creating the plateau’s hills and hillocks.


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The Indus PlainSouth of the Salt Range the vast Indus Plain, drained by the Indus River and its tributaries, stretches to the Arabian Sea. The plain is composed of fertile alluvial deposits left by the overfl ow of the rivers. Several rivers in addition to the Indus traverse the Himalayan ranges. Their enormous fl ows in the rainy season often fl ood the surrounding plains. The northern part is called the Punjab and gives its name to the province that occupies the land. Most of this area is in Pakistan. The elevation here ranges from 600 to 1,000 feet (183–305 m).

The land between two rivers is referred to as a doab. The Indus has fi ve major tributaries, and thus Punjab has four doabs. The combined waters of these tributaries, before joining the Indus near Mithankot, is called the Panjad (fi ve rivers), thus the name of the province. The Indus and its fi ve major tributaries join in Sind south of Mithankot. Here the land is fl at, the river slow and wide, several miles across in the wet season. Silt on its banks forms a natural barrier, but at times the river has broken through and caused vast fl ooding, and has changed course. Near the coast a delta and fl ood plain form the mouth of the Indus. A coastal strip fi ve to 25 miles (8–40 km) wide contains scattered mangrove swamps. Canals have been cut through the area, providing access for water traffi c and trade. The Thar Desert occupies the southeast portion of the Indus Plain, spanning both Pakistan and India.

ClimateGenerally arid, Pakistan lies in a warm temperate zone. The year is popularly regarded as having three seasons: summer, rainy season, and winter. Hot, summery weather lasts from April to September, and cold winters stretch from October to March. Monsoon rains drench the region from July to September. Within its borders the country has four primary climactic regions. The northern and north-western mountains have very cold winters with frequent frosts and heavy snowfalls. Summers are mild. On the plains to the south, the low elevation and absence of sea breezes cause very hot summers. During summer days, dry winds called loo blow. In the coastal areas to the south the Arabian Sea provides a moderating infl uence, and temperature variations are less extreme. The Baluchistan Plateau has a climate similar to that of the northern regions, though warmer in both summer and winter.


A Brief History of PAkistAn

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The Provincestoday Pakistan is composed of four provinces, Punjab, sind, the north-West frontier Province (nWfP), and Baluchistan, and the federally Administered tribal Areas (fAtA), a region between southwest nWfP and Afghanistan largely outside of government control. the state of Jammu and kashmir is claimed by both Pakistan and india, and the dispute over the territory has been the defining issue dividing the two nations and inflaming passions on both sides of the border. the portion of Jammu and kashmir that is administered by the federal government of Pakistan is divided into the federally Administered northern Areas, commonly known as the northern Areas, and Azad kashmir.

PunjabPunjab is the most populous and developed of the four provinces. noted for its arts and crafts, it is considered the cultural capital of Pakistan. Covering an area of 97,192 square miles (205,346 sq. km), Punjab is primarily a plain, though its north is bisected by the salt range, composed of the Murree and kahuta hills on the north side and the Pubbi Hills of Gujrat in the south. the Potwar Plateau (1,000–2,000 feet; 305–610 m) lies north of the salt range, between the Jhelum river in the east and the indus river to the west. it is pri-marily an agricultural area and boasts one of the largest canal irrigation systems in the world.

Punjab comprises eight administrative divisions. its capital, Lahore, is linked to most major events and movements in Pakistan’s history. situated on the left bank of the river ravi, it is bristling with monuments and buildings of great architectural and historical note. these include the Badshahi Mosque, emperor Jahangir’s Mausoleum, and the shalimar Gardens. islamabad, the nation’s capital, lies some 170 miles (275 km) north of Lahore. its twin city, rawalpindi, is a gateway to the hills and mountains of Pakistan’s north, which draw hikers, trekkers, and moun-tain climbers from around the world. taxila, another of the province’s many points of interest, is an ancient city rich in archaeological sites and treasures.

throughout the province forts, palaces, mosques, and other grand edi-fices evidence the importance this region has long enjoyed. one of south Asia’s earliest existing buildings with enameled tile work, the mausoleum of shah yusuf Gardezi in Multan, was built here in 1152 c.e.

A Muslim artistic tradition developed in Punjab early in the Mughal period, influenced by Central Asian and Persian artists. the renown of

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artists such as Abdur Rahman Chughtai (1899–1975) and miniaturist Haji Mohammad Sharif (1889–1978) remains undimmed today, and their legacy remains alive in contemporary artists who continue in their tradition.

Carpet making and pottery, which have a rich history here, are also widely practiced today. The pottery of Multan, where the Muslims fi rst established a foothold in the region, was famed for its blue glazed pot-tery as early as the 13th century. Woodwork and metalwork in brass, iron, and copper add to the province’s cultural legacy.

SindThe life and economy of Sind fl ows on the current of the river Sindhu, or Indus, for which the province is named. Yet despite its aqueous



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spine, this is among the hottest areas of Pakistan. Jaccobabad, in the north of the province, is one of the hottest places on earth, with day-time temperatures in the summer rising to over 120 degrees F (49°C). Comprising three divisions, the province covers 54,198 square miles (140,914 sq. km). Sindhi, an ancient language, is spoken by a great majority of the population.

The capital, Karachi, has been the nation’s primary seaport since the 1700s and is the largest city in Sind. In addition to its position as a trading center, Sind is also an industrial powerhouse, producing up to half the nation’s goods in some manufacturing sectors. Rice, cotton, and wheat give the province a strong agricultural base.

Important archaeological sites are scattered throughout Sind. Just east of Karachi, Bhambore marks the site of the seaport of Debal, where the fi rst Arab armies came ashore in 711 C.E. and began their conquests in the region. Thatta, the former provincial capital, was once a center of learning and still contains notable historical architecture. About 60 miles (98 km) east of Karachi, it is also the site of the famed Makli Tombs, a sprawling necropolis built between the 15th and 17th centuries.

The town of Sehwan predates the Islamic era and includes the ruins of Kafi r-Qila, a fort reputedly built by Alexander the Great during his invasion of the area in the fourth century B.C.E. It is also the site of pil-grimages by Shia who come to visit the tomb of the 12th-century mystic poet, scholar, and saint Shaikh Usman Marvandvi.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Hyderabad was the capital of Sind, and today it is noted for colorful handicrafts including glass, lacquered furniture, and hand-loomed cloth, as well as several historic forts, buildings, and monuments. Crafts remain important throughout the province, which is noted for ajrak—local craftwork that includes pot-tery, carpets, leatherwork, and silk. Sind is also noted for its textiles in the form of blankets, gold and silver embroidery, and cotton cloth (soosi). As befi tting the fi rst outpost of Islam on the subcontinent, poetry has long been a part of Sind’s cultural heritage.

North-West Frontier Province (NWFP)The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) boasts the largest concen-tration of high peaks in the world. Containing the restless tribal areas and situated astride key mountain passes, including the Khyber Pass, NWFP has long been an untamed and strategic corner of the region. Most of the invaders who swept into the area that is now Pakistan—including Alexander the Great, Timur, Emperor Babur, and Mahmud of Ghazni—passed this way on their journeys of conquest.


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The province in its present confi guration, covering 29,808 square miles (74,521 sq. km), was created in 1901 and divided into “tribal” and “settled” areas. The tribal areas are administered by the federal government, while the settled areas are ruled by the fairly autonomous provincial assembly, as are all the provinces. The province has fi ve administrative divisions: Peshawar, Kohat, Hazura, Dera Ismail Khan, and Malakand. Each of these is divided into two or more districts. The provincial capital is Peshawar. This province was also the home of the Gandhara Civilization, noted for its art, which blended Greco-Roman and local traditions, often harnessed to glorify Buddha and the religion he brought to this region. The valley of Udiyana, in the Swat River val-ley, was important during the Buddhist era of this region.

BaluchistanThe largest of Pakistan’s four provinces (131,051 sq. miles; 347,190 sq. km), Baluchistan is a generally inhospitable land, and its lack of resources left it relatively undisturbed by regional powers for most of its history. Its geography encompasses mountains, coastal plains, and rocky deserts on its high plateau. In the south, the Makran Range sepa-rates the coastal plain from the interior, a region of highland basins and deserts.

Southeast Baluchistan is cut by narrow river valleys. With little room for alluvial deposits to settle, there is little agriculture. Archaeological research in the areas of Mehrgarh, Nausharo, and Pirak in the Kachi Plain indicates that settlements existed from the Neolithic period through the Iron Age, beginning in the early seventh millennium B.C.E. Dams were common to many settlements. The fi nal settlement phase of this culture lasted until about 2600 B.C.E., the period when the Indus Valley Civilization of the river plains to the east of Mehrgarh was begin-ning to develop. Evidence from this time period points to mass produc-tion of pottery and increasing trade and exchange. Near the middle of the third millennium B.C.E., traces of human habitation end.

In historic times the area was fi rst claimed by the Persian Empire, when it was called Maka. Alexander the Great brought it under nomi-nal Greek rule in the fourth century B.C.E. The province takes its name from the Baluchs, the last of the major ethnic groups to settle in what is now Pakistan. The Baluchis, who may have originated from the Caspian Sea area, arrived around 1000 C.E., displacing the Meds of Maran and other tribes. The great Persian poet Firdausi (Abdul Kasim Mansur; 932–1021) mentioned the Baluchs and their valor in his epic poem Shah Namah (The Book of Kings), along with the warlike Kuch.



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Baluchistan became a full-fl edged province only in 1969. It has six administrative divisions: Quetta, Sibi, Kalat, Makran, Loralai, and Nasirabad. Each of these is composed of two or more districts. The capital of Baluchistan is Quetta, located by the Bolan Pass.

Three main languages are spoken: Baluchi, Pashto, and Brauhvi. Urdu, Pakistan’s national language, is understood as well. The Baluchi, the language of the Baluchs, has Indo-Iranian roots. The strong national identity of the Baluchis—their tribes extend into Iran and Afghanistan—along with the historic lack of government attention and services, has made them resistant to being incorporated into the fabric of Pakistan. The region has been marked by periodic insurrections that continued into the 21st century.

Though only about 1.2 million of its 85 million acres is under culti-vation, the province’s economy is based on agriculture. The production of fruit in Baluchistan gives the province the sobriquet Fruit Garden of Pakistan. With little rainfall in the region, irrigation depends mostly on wells, karezes (underground water conduits), and springs. Canals irrigate about 1,000 square miles (2,590 sq. km). Livestock, primarily sheep and goats, are also a mainstay of the agricultural sector. In the Arabian Sea to the south, a fi shing industry fl ourishes.

Though rich in minerals including iron ore and copper, Baluchistan has lagged in development of these resources. Facilities for the textile, pharmaceutical, and gas industries have recently been constructed, and the government has established economic incentives to encourage investment in the province.

LanguagesThe language of the Indus Valley Civilization is unknown. The Dardic language came with the fi rst wave of Aryans around 1800–1500 B.C.E. Once established, the upper classes spoke Sanskrit (an Indo-Aryan language), while the masses (composed of indigenous populations) spoke what is called North-Western Prakrit, or the language of Gandhara. This was possibly an amalgam of local pre-Indo-European, Indo-Aryan, Dardic, and East Iranian speech. Today, refl ecting its polyglot past and the historic isolation of many of its peoples, Pakistanis speak a variety of languages. Urdu is the national language, and English is the offi cial language, but other common tongues are Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, and Baluchi. Most of the myriad languages are thought to be offshoots of the Sanskrit spoken by the Aryans three millennia ago.


the land and its early history - indus valley school … year pak studies fall 2015/section a... ·...

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