The Origins of Music (OoM) The Origins of Music (OoM) Comparative evaluation of Comparative evaluation of

competing theoriescompeting theories

Richard ParncuttRichard ParncuttUniversity of Graz, AustriaUniversity of Graz, Austria

International Conference on Music International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition (ICMPC), Perception and Cognition (ICMPC),

Seattle USA, 23-27 August 2010Seattle USA, 23-27 August 2010SysMus Graz

Contents of talk Contents of talk

What is a “good” theory?What is a “good” theory? What is “music”? What is “music”? Pitfalls to avoidPitfalls to avoid Selected OoM- theoriesSelected OoM- theories Systematic evaluationsSystematic evaluations MothereseMotherese

A “good” theory is...A “good” theory is...

simple simple parsimonious, falsifiable parsimonious, falsifiable

general general accounts for range of phenomena accounts for range of phenomena

concrete concrete clearly defined terms, processes clearly defined terms, processes

logical logical clear argument clear argument

empirical empirical observation-based, ecological observation-based, ecological

seminal seminal inspires new approaches inspires new approaches

Ockham Kuhn Popper GibsonOckham Kuhn Popper Gibson

A good theory A good theory of a complex phenomenon...of a complex phenomenon...

focuses on striking, universal aspects (“focuses on striking, universal aspects (“the wood”the wood”)) neglects specific detail (“neglects specific detail (“the trees”the trees”) (δ ) (δ 0) 0)

focus on music’s focus on music’s mainmain……1.1. functionsfunctions

2.2. emotionsemotions

3.3. structuresstructuresBisham (2009): Bisham (2009): music’s “design features”music’s “design features”

(Is music a unitary phenomenon or a Western construct?)(Is music a unitary phenomenon or a Western construct?)

1. Social functions of music1. Social functions of music

Music is an...Music is an...““interpersonal framework for synchronous and interpersonal framework for synchronous and group affective interaction” group affective interaction” (Bisham, 2009)(Bisham, 2009)

Participants...Participants...““share convergent intersubjective endstates”share convergent intersubjective endstates”

Music...Music...promotes conformity, integration, altruismpromotes conformity, integration, altruismenables coordinated action and change enables coordinated action and change

2. Music and emotion 2. Music and emotion Juslin & Sloboda...Juslin & Sloboda...

pleasurepleasure underlies musical motivation underlies musical motivation (Schubert, 2009; Vusst & Kringelbach, 2009)(Schubert, 2009; Vusst & Kringelbach, 2009)

spiritualityspirituality (Gabrielsson & Lindström Wik, 2003)(Gabrielsson & Lindström Wik, 2003) ““dissociation from earthly reality”dissociation from earthly reality” (Schubert, 2009)(Schubert, 2009)

Music can evoke...Music can evoke... all emotions all emotions strong emotions strong emotions changed stateschanged states

“What is great about great music? It moves us emotionally! ...awe-filled... sublime... biologically rooted social-emotional feelings” (Panksepp, 2009)

3. Music-structural universals3. Music-structural universals MelodyMelody: : like speech in...like speech in...

pitch range, interval sizes, tone and phrase durationspitch range, interval sizes, tone and phrase durations

RhythmRhythm: : tempo range like footsteps & heartbeats;tempo range like footsteps & heartbeats;

movement character (multimodality);movement character (multimodality);

beat induction, entrainment beat induction, entrainment (Honing, Patel, Merker)(Honing, Patel, Merker)

FormForm: : repetition, call-response, motivic developmentrepetition, call-response, motivic development

A definition of musicA definition of music

an acoustic signalan acoustic signal evokes recognizable patternsevokes recognizable patterns implies physical movementimplies physical movement meaningfulmeaningful intentionalintentional accepted by a cultural group accepted by a cultural group not lexical (not “language”)not lexical (not “language”)

A good theory should explain all this!A good theory should explain all this!

Constructing OoM theories:Constructing OoM theories:Pitfalls to avoid Pitfalls to avoid

Arbitrary focusArbitrary focus WesternWestern evolutionaryevolutionary

Researcher’s backgroundResearcher’s background experienceexperience expertiseexpertise

Pitfall 1: Western classical focusPitfall 1: Western classical focus

Should we explain... Should we explain... major-minor tonality?major-minor tonality?““Great Composers”? Great Composers”?

Or rather...Or rather...hunter-gatherer rituals?hunter-gatherer rituals?shamanic ceremonies?shamanic ceremonies?garage bands?garage bands?iPod experiences?iPod experiences?

Pitfall 2: Evolutionary focusPitfall 2: Evolutionary focus Not necessarily evolutionary!Not necessarily evolutionary!

““there has been curious lack of attention to the there has been curious lack of attention to the possibility that musical origins can be explained possibility that musical origins can be explained without the need to invoke music-specific genes” without the need to invoke music-specific genes” (Livingstone & Thompson, 2009, p. 84)(Livingstone & Thompson, 2009, p. 84)

Function ≠ adaptationFunction ≠ adaptationgroup group functionfunction group group survivalsurvival??

““Just so stories” in evol.psychol.Just so stories” in evol.psychol.with little behavioral, genetic, neuro support with little behavioral, genetic, neuro support (Huron, Panksepp)(Huron, Panksepp)

Pitfall 3: Experience biasPitfall 3: Experience bias

Climate changeClimate change If I don’t experience it, it’s a lieIf I don’t experience it, it’s a lie

Personal experience of music Personal experience of music If I perform for sex, everyone doesIf I perform for sex, everyone does If I am gifted, giftedness existsIf I am gifted, giftedness exists

Pitfall 4: Expertise biasPitfall 4: Expertise bias

Emphasize aspects of problem that Emphasize aspects of problem that correspond to one’s own expertisecorrespond to one’s own expertise

e.g. I do psychoacoustics e.g. I do psychoacoustics auditory scene analysis auditory scene analysis

is centralis centralASA is pleasurableASA is pleasurableASA is origin of musicASA is origin of music

Musical origins or prerequisites?Musical origins or prerequisites?

PrerequisitesPrerequisites include: include: physiologyphysiology

vocal tract, fast neural processing...vocal tract, fast neural processing...(e.g. Fitsch, Nishimura, Lieberman)(e.g. Fitsch, Nishimura, Lieberman)

psychologypsychology reflective language, theory of mind...reflective language, theory of mind...

(e.g. Livingstone & Thompson, 2009)(e.g. Livingstone & Thompson, 2009)

latent abilitieslatent abilities ability to synchronize to a beatability to synchronize to a beat

(e.g. parrot “Snowball” – Patel)(e.g. parrot “Snowball” – Patel)

AnAn originorigin is is a a behavior similar to musicbehavior similar to music mechanisms, motivations, structuresmechanisms, motivations, structures

Six theories of originsSix theories of originsbehaviors that are similar to musicbehaviors that are similar to music

1.1. Animal behaviorsAnimal behaviors

2.2. Pleasure seekingPleasure seeking

3.3. Mate attractionMate attraction

4.4. Training Training

5.5. SocializingSocializing

6.6. MothereseMotherese

Grades for OoM theoriesGrades for OoM theories

Grade A B C D E

Evaluation brill good ok scrape sorry

Contribution to OoM

large medium small tiny zero

Systematic evaluation of performance on various tasks final grade

Weighting of tasks and final evaluation are subjective

1. Non-human animal behaviors1. Non-human animal behaviors

Examples:Examples: singing (birds, whales, gibbons) singing (birds, whales, gibbons) territorial marking (wolves...)territorial marking (wolves...) synchronous chorusing (chimpanzees)synchronous chorusing (chimpanzees)

For: For: may explain unconscious “drives”may explain unconscious “drives”

Against: Against: isolated, impoverished skillsisolated, impoverished skills

Can account for music’s...Can account for music’s... functions: yes (but not intentionality)functions: yes (but not intentionality) emotions: yes (but not spirituality)emotions: yes (but not spirituality) structures: yes (but not their complexity) structures: yes (but not their complexity)

Grade: CGrade: C

2. Non-adaptive pleasure seeking2. Non-adaptive pleasure seeking(Pinker, 1997; cf. Huron, 2001-2010)(Pinker, 1997; cf. Huron, 2001-2010)

Uses multiple existing neural systems: Uses multiple existing neural systems: motor, ASA, language, social, aggression...motor, ASA, language, social, aggression...

CounterevidenceCounterevidence based on accident – could go in the wrong directionbased on accident – could go in the wrong direction musicians do not get addicted and suffer withdrawalmusicians do not get addicted and suffer withdrawal

Accounts for music’s...Accounts for music’s... functions: nofunctions: no emotions: yesemotions: yes structures: nostructures: no

Grade: DGrade: D

3. Mate attraction3. Mate attractionDarwin (1871), Miller (2000)Darwin (1871), Miller (2000)

Evidence: Evidence: more male than female musiciansmore male than female musicians more creative when sexually activemore creative when sexually active

Counterevidence: Counterevidence: no gender difference in music abilitiesno gender difference in music abilities humans are smarter than peacockshumans are smarter than peacocks

Accounts for music’s...Accounts for music’s... functions: yesfunctions: yes emotions: yesemotions: yes structures: no structures: no (peacock colors are arbitrary)(peacock colors are arbitrary) Grade: CGrade: C

4. Training 4. Training (Roederer, 1984)(Roederer, 1984)

Children play with music Children play with music (in times of bounty and safety) (in times of bounty and safety)

to train survival skills to train survival skills (in times of shortage and danger)(in times of shortage and danger)performance, dance performance, dance physical skills, coordination physical skills, coordinationlistening listening cognitive skills, language cognitive skills, language

Doubts: Doubts: Does this kind of training really promote survival? Does this kind of training really promote survival? Is there a “Mozart effect”?Is there a “Mozart effect”?

Accounts for music’s...Accounts for music’s...functions: no (individual)functions: no (individual)emotions: only pleasureemotions: only pleasure

(not all, strong, spiritual)(not all, strong, spiritual) structures: maybe structures: maybe

Grade: CGrade: C

5. Socializing5. SocializingRoederer (1984), McNeill (1995), Brown (2000)Roederer (1984), McNeill (1995), Brown (2000)Freeman (2000), Cross (2009), Huron (2001)....Freeman (2000), Cross (2009), Huron (2001)....

Evidence:Evidence:• Human rituals (church, soccer...) achieve “convergent Human rituals (church, soccer...) achieve “convergent

emotional states”, “socio-affective confluence” emotional states”, “socio-affective confluence” (Bisham)(Bisham)

• Primate grooming time Primate grooming time increases with increases with group size group size (Dunbar)(Dunbar)

Accounts for music’s...Accounts for music’s... functions: yesfunctions: yes emotionsemotions

yes: pleasureyes: pleasure

no: spirituality, strong emotionno: spirituality, strong emotion structures: maybestructures: maybe

Grade: BGrade: B

6. Motherese6. MothereseDissanayake (2000), Falk (2004)Dissanayake (2000), Falk (2004)

Larger brain + bipedalism Larger brain + bipedalism earlier birth earlier birth infant fragility = “atriciality” infant fragility = “atriciality” (strong evolutionary argument)(strong evolutionary argument) more parental care more parental care survival survival new, complex infant-mother interactionnew, complex infant-mother interaction (difficult since partners are very different)(difficult since partners are very different)

Accounts for music’s...Accounts for music’s... functions: yesfunctions: yes emotions: yesemotions: yes structures: yesstructures: yes

Grade: AGrade: A

May also account for...May also account for...•reflective languagereflective language•theory of mindtheory of mind•all artsall arts

From motherese to musicFrom motherese to music

* Long-term multimodal recognition memory for repeated, emotional patterns of sound and movement

** In play and ritual, behaviors similar to motherese • evoke “motherese feelings” • are reinforced by operant conditioning

From motherese to musicFrom motherese to music

““It is not surprising that societies all over the world have It is not surprising that societies all over the world have developed these nodes of culture that we call ceremonies developed these nodes of culture that we call ceremonies and rituals, which do for their members what mothers and rituals, which do for their members what mothers naturally do for their babies: naturally do for their babies: engage their interest, involve engage their interest, involve them in a shared rhythmic pulse, and thereby instill feelings them in a shared rhythmic pulse, and thereby instill feelings of closeness and communion. of closeness and communion. The inborn propensities for The inborn propensities for imitation, reciprocity, and emotional communion in infancy imitation, reciprocity, and emotional communion in infancy have become further elaborated and used in ritualized and have become further elaborated and used in ritualized and ceremonial forms that themselves build and reinforce ceremonial forms that themselves build and reinforce feelings of unity among adults, feelings of unity among adults, all of which ultimately serve all of which ultimately serve to hold the group together.” to hold the group together.”

((Dissanayake, 2000, p. 64, cited by Davies)Dissanayake, 2000, p. 64, cited by Davies)

Infant musicalityInfant musicalitye.g. many studies by Trehub and collaboratorse.g. many studies by Trehub and collaborators

Sensitivity to...Sensitivity to... melodic contour; relative pitch/durationmelodic contour; relative pitch/duration specific musical intervals (e.g. fifths)specific musical intervals (e.g. fifths) changes in unequal scales/rhythmschanges in unequal scales/rhythms+ pulse + pulse (Winkler et al., 2009; Phillips-Silver & Trainor, 2005)(Winkler et al., 2009; Phillips-Silver & Trainor, 2005)

These are “predispositions”These are “predispositions”““evident in infancy, before they have evident in infancy, before they have obvious utilityobvious utility””(Trehub, 2001)(Trehub, 2001)

Utility of infant musicalityUtility of infant musicality(Parncutt, 2009, 2010)(Parncutt, 2009, 2010)

Adaptations: prenatal audition, motherese1 million years = 50,000 generations

Byproduct: music100,000 years = 5,000 generations

Origins of infant musicalityOrigins of infant musicalitytwo possibilitiestwo possibilities

Genetic Genetic (Trehub)(Trehub)

selection for music (mate attraction, selection for music (mate attraction, training, training, social glue, motherese…)social glue, motherese…)

Learned Learned (Parncutt)(Parncutt)

prenatal exposure to changing maternal prenatal exposure to changing maternal sound, movement and hormone levelssound, movement and hormone levels

Why is motherese not Why is motherese not accepted as an OoM?accepted as an OoM?

Motherese is not musicMotherese is not music no practice-based expertiseno practice-based expertise no audience (private, active)no audience (private, active)

Link to music is not...Link to music is not... evolutionary (out of fashion!)evolutionary (out of fashion!) documented (no data!)documented (no data!)

(but competing theories have similar problems!)(but competing theories have similar problems!)

Portrays women as musically activePortrays women as musically active Contradicts a pervasive cultural stereotypeContradicts a pervasive cultural stereotype

Is OoM research sexist?Is OoM research sexist?an academic question – not moral, ethnical or politicalan academic question – not moral, ethnical or political

Evidence:Evidence:

1. Popularity of mate attraction hypothesis 1. Popularity of mate attraction hypothesis (Darwin)(Darwin)

...although male & female music abilities do not differ!...although male & female music abilities do not differ!

2. Neglect of motherese hypothesis 2. Neglect of motherese hypothesis (Dissanayake) (Dissanayake)

...although no other theory satisfies all major criteria!...although no other theory satisfies all major criteria!

In efficient hunter-gatherer societies, In efficient hunter-gatherer societies, men and women have different roles men and women have different roles in reproduction and survivalin reproduction and survival

sexism is “natural”sexism is “natural”we are all sexistwe are all sexist

Sexism and evolutionary theorySexism and evolutionary theory

Sexism and social psychologySexism and social psychologyBearman et al. (2009)Bearman et al. (2009)

Study of conversations: 45 pairs of female friendsStudy of conversations: 45 pairs of female friends

Analysis by categories of internalized sexism:Analysis by categories of internalized sexism:assertions of incompetence (powerlessness)assertions of incompetence (powerlessness)competition between womencompetition between womenconstruction of women as objectsconstruction of women as objectsinvalidation or derogation of womeninvalidation or derogation of women

Result: Result: On average, one such statement per minuteOn average, one such statement per minute

both men and women both men and women are sexistare sexist

““Great music” was composed by white malesGreat music” was composed by white males

Philosophical explanation (Kant): Philosophical explanation (Kant):

The female mind comprehends...The female mind comprehends... beautybeauty: : small, curved, soft, gentle, delicatesmall, curved, soft, gentle, delicate but not sublimitybut not sublimity: : rough, jagged, fearsomerough, jagged, fearsome

Culturally transmitted stereotypes:Culturally transmitted stereotypes: (some) men are musically active and deep(some) men are musically active and deep women are musically passive and superficialwomen are musically passive and superficial

Sexism and music historySexism and music history

Covert or subtle sexismCovert or subtle sexism

““hidden or clandestine...unnoticed because it is hidden or clandestine...unnoticed because it is built into cultural and societal norms” built into cultural and societal norms”

(Swim & Cohen, 2006) (Swim & Cohen, 2006)

MicroaggressionMicroaggression““unconscious and unintentional expression of bias unconscious and unintentional expression of bias and prejudice toward socially devalued groups” and prejudice toward socially devalued groups”

(Sue, 2010)(Sue, 2010)

Conclusion: take this theory seriously! Conclusion: take this theory seriously!

Motherese as the origin of musicMotherese as the origin of musicDissanayake (2000), Falk (2004)Dissanayake (2000), Falk (2004)

Larger brain + bipedalism Larger brain + bipedalism earlier birth earlier birth infant fragility “atriciality”infant fragility “atriciality” more parental care more parental care survival survival new, complex infant-mother interactionnew, complex infant-mother interaction

Accounts for music’s...Accounts for music’s... functions: yesfunctions: yes emotions: yesemotions: yes structures: yesstructures: yes

Maybe also for...Maybe also for...reflective languagereflective languagetheory of mindtheory of mindall artsall arts