THE POLICIES OF DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER &  JOHN F. KENNEDY Kourtney Mascarenas

DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER •  Born October 14, 1890 in Denison, Texas  

•  He was born into a poor, hardworking, and religious family and settled in Abilene, Kansas. 

•  He worked for a year and then joined the US Military Academy at West Point, New York

DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER CONT. •  He was commissioned as a

second lieutenant and went to San Antonio, Texas where he met his wife Mamie Geneva Doud.

•  They had two sons: Doud Dwight (1917) who died of scarlet fever and John Sheldon Doud (1922).

•  During WWI, commanded a tank training center. 

DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER CONT. •  During WWI, commanded a tank training center. 

•  1922-1924: assigned to the Panama Canal.

•  1928: Graduated from the Army War College. And after served in France and Washington D.C.

•  1933: Aide to Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur. o  Assisted in the reorganization of the

commonwealth's army in the Philippines.

•  1941: Full colonel, then Chief of Staff of the third army. 

•  He became very well known and eventually caught the attention of George C. Marshall.

DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER CONT. •  Eisenhower was selected for

president not only due to his military skills but his hard work and ability to get along with others.

•  In June of 1952 he decided to retire from the army after 37 years of service.

•  Ran in the 1952 presidential election as a republican against democrat Adlai E. Stevenson.

DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER CONT. •  During his campaign, he was

very friendly and sincere which impressed Americans 

•  His characteristics and military experience also impressed people from both parties.

•  Emphasized economic honesty and proposed to visit Korea for the chance to end the Korean War.

SUEZ CANAL •  A waterway between the Isthmus of

Suez connecting the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea.

•  There was growing tensions between Egypt and Britain with Egypt pressuring them to pull military presence from the canal zone.

•  Egypt also engaged in sporadic battles with Israeli soldiers along the border.

•  In July of 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal o Resulted in an attack by Israeli, British, and French forces.

SUEZ CANAL •  Was owned by the British and the French since its opening

in 1869

•  This was provoked by the American and British decision not to finance the construction of the Aswan High Dam which they promised. o This was due to Egypt’s growing ties with the communist

Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union.

•  The British and French feared that shipments of petroleum flowing through the Persian Gulf to western Europe might be cut off.

SUEZ CANAL

•  In December of 1956, the UN evacuated British and French troops with Israeli forces withdrawing in March.

•  The British lost their influence in the Middle East.

•  Nasser emerged a victor displaying strong Arab and Egyptian nationalism and humiliating the “colonialists”.

•  The Israeli’s invaded first joined by Britain and France demanding that the Egyptian troops withdraw from the canal. o They announced that they would intervene enforcing a cease-fire which was

ordered by the United Nations.

SUEZ CANAL • Role of Eisenhower and the United States o Concerned with dissociating

the US from European colonialism and Soviet intervention in the assistance with Nasser. o This invasion almost broke up the NATO alliance and

Eisenhower became furious at his lack of knowledge of the invasion. o Pressured Britain and France to accept the UN ceasefire.

SUEZ CANAL • Role of Eisenhower and the United States cont. o The US publically disapproved of the invasion. o Approved the creating of the UN peacekeeping force. o The US refused to give emergency loans to Britain unless

they stopped the invasion. § The British ended up surrendering to the American

demands and the French obliged as well. o Eisenhower enounced in January of 1957 that the US

would work to keep communism our of the Middle East. § Introduced the ”Eisenhower Doctrine”

HUNGARY •  Hungarian Revolution o Unrest and discontent began brewing in Hungary and active

fighting broke out on October 23 of 1956. o Catalyzed by the soviet leader Khrushchev’s speech attacking

Joseph Stalin’s rule. § There was new freedoms of debate and criticism.

o Revolt against the communist regimes. o 50,000 protesters gathered in the center of Budapest demanding:

§ The withdrawal of the Soviet troops § Multi-party elections § Release of political prisoners

HUNGARY •  Hungarian Revolution cont. o Protesters marched to the radio

station and fights broke out and The Hungarian State Security fired shots.

o Demonstrators broke into the police and army barracks seizing weapons.

o Government requested for Soviet troops to help restore order.

o A new government was formed but fighting continued despite Nagy’s demand for peace.

HUNGARY •  Hungarian Revolution cont. o The government was

broadened with more non-communists and the Soviet Union was willing to accept a reformed communist government.

o On October 31, it was decided that the revolution would be stopped by military force. § 75,000 Soviet troops § 2,500 tanks

HUNGARY � Hungarian Revolution cont. o Nagy took refuge in Yugoslavia and later left to Romania was

imprisoned then brought back to Budapest where he was tried and executed.

o Kádár established a new government in Hungary. � Role of Eisenhower and the United States o The US decided not to intervene in the Hungarian crisis that

spread across the nation. o Eisenhower praised the Hungarians and their bravery during the

military intervention. o Although he sympathized with the Hungarians, he also realized

that US action could lead to a potential conflict and danger with the Soviet Union.

HUNGARY �  Role of Eisenhower and the United States cont. o The US suggested that they should lead the UN to use their influence

and convince the rest of the world against the suppression of the Hungarians by the Soviets.

o Eisenhower even granted asylum to the Hungarians suffering from communist and Soviet persecution.

CONNECTIONS •  Eisenhower’s Reactions o Eisenhower’s responses to both of the crises dealt with the containment of

communism and keeping it from reaching other parts of the world. o He was fearful of the crises escalating and his main goal was to avoid any

major conflicts. o In Hungary he avoided actions that might provoke the Soviet Union. o The US also did not really do anything to help to intervene within Hungary and

gave responsibility to the UN. § Only said words of condolences and stayed out of the conflict.

o Focus was shifted towards the Suez Crisis by both the US and the UN, focused on a resolution. §  The US made vocal their discontent with European occupation in the

canal.

VIEW ON KHRUSHCHEV •  Nikita Khrushchev o Born in Kalinovka, Russia on April 5, 1894. o Born out of a poor family and was the son of a

coal miner. o Became a member of the Constitutional

Committee and the Foreign Affairs Commission of the Supreme Soviet in 1936.

o In September 1953 he replaced Malenkov as first secretary after the death of Stalin.

o He divided Stalin’s ministry of Internal Affairs into the criminal police and the security services.

o He attacked Stalin’s “one-man rule” in a speech to the 20th Party Congress in Moscow and attacked his ”intolerance, his brutality, his abuse of power”.

VIEW ON KHRUSHCHEV •  Nikita Khrushchev cont. o Khrushchev had caused and “intensified persecution of religion” o But by disassociating his rule from Stalin’s and criticizing it, it led to

a new “intellectual ferment and widespread hopes fro greater freedom”. § Predominantly among students and intellectuals.

o Because of growing unrest in Eastern Europe, within the Soviet Communist Party there began to be opposition towards him.

o After a lapse in power, he set a policy to reform communism to “humanize” the Soviet System. § Placed emphasis on producing consumer goods §  In foreign affairs he emphasized peaceful coexistence with the non-

communist world

VIEW ON KHRUSHCHEV •  Nikita Khrushchev cont. o In a visit to the US in 1959 he met with

Eisenhower and they brought Soviet-American relations to a new high.

o Later though relations began to dwindle as Khrushchev announced that a U.S. plane had been shot down over the Soviet Union and its pilot captured.

•  Views on Khrushchev o Eisenhower did attempt to improve relations

with the Soviet Union by inviting Khrushchev to the US for a tour.

o These meetings gave hope that peace would be settled between Eastern and Western civilizations.

VIEW ON KHRUSHCHEV •  Views on Khrushchev cont. o Eisenhower did attempt to improve relations with the Soviet Union by

inviting Khrushchev to the US for a tour. o These meetings gave hope that peace would be settled between

Eastern and Western civilizations. o After the plane incident though, Khrushchev felt that bettering relations

with Eisenhower was impossible. o Eisenhower did not know what to do

about the incident and he ended up lying saying that the aircraft could have just wandered off course and was later forced to acknowledge his lie.

o These spy planes implied Eisenhower’s lack of trust towards Khrushchev and the Soviet Union.

THE SPACE RACE •  Both the western and eastern worlds competed for superiority in space exploration.

•  After the launce of Sputnik into space the there was a fear that they could also launch nuclear weapons.

•  A competition between the US and USSR to explore space using satellites. o  Like an arms race but with space research

•  Eisenhower did not have much of a concern with Sputnik and believed it was not of significance to the American people.

SPUTNIK •  A series of 10 artificial Earth satellites launched by the Soviet Union

beginning on October 4, 1957. o Sputnik I was the first satellite launched by man. o Sputnik II was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first living creature

into space, Laika the dog. o Eight more missions continued testing space temperature, pressure, particles,

radiation, and magnetic fields.

THE SPACE RACE •  The US at the time was not behind in space

technology. o Developed the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile. o Started a US satellite project-Project Vanguard.

•  Eisenhower valued space development but also secrecy in order to protect security issues. o He did not reveal these programs to the

American citizens.

•  This made the Soviets think that the US was losing the Space Race.

•  Eisenhower’s leadership after Sputnik suffered though as he was seen as weak.

THE SPACE RACE •  Eisenhower though realized that

Sputnik I and II affected the moral of the Americans.

•  In order to fix this he was on a series of television speeches which was meant to ensure that the US was not defeated by Sputnik.

•  In general, Eisenhower responded with indifference and not showing any apprehension towards the idea of a Space Race.

THE SPACE RACE •  In 1958, the Eisenhower signed a public order creating the National

Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA). o Federal Agency dedicated to Space Exploration.

•  An organization called the National Reconnaissance Office (Corona) used to gather intelligence on the Soviet Union and its allies.

MIDDLE EAST DIPLOMCAY •  Due to an increase in tensions in the Middle East,

Eisenhower introduced a proposal that called fore a more proactive US policy in the Middle East. �  Known as the ”Eisenhower Doctrine”

•  These problems arrived during the Suez Crisis and the US withdrawing support for the construction of the Aswan Dam.

•  Eisenhower’s goal was to keep the danger of Communism out of the Middle East to keep it from becoming international.

•  Asked for authorization of new programs of economic and military cooperation with “friendly” nations in the region.

EISENHOWER DOCTRINE •  During the Cold War Eisenhower

introduced the foreign-policy of promising military or economic aid to any Middle Eastern country needing help in resisting communist aggression.

•  This was a check on the increased Soviet influence. o Resulted in a supply of arms to Egypt by

communist countries o Formed strong communist support of

Arab states against the joint Israeli-French-British attack (Suez Crisis).

EISENHOWER DOCTRINE • With the approval of Congress, the US would use the armed forces to protect the independence of Middle Eastern countries seeking American help.

• Presented no large change in US policy but rather was the continuation of containment of the ”Soviet sphere of influence”.

MIDDLE EAST DIPLOMACY •  Much of the Middle East

Diplomacy was geared towards reinforcing pro-Western tendencies and ideals.

•  However the use of the Eisenhower Doctrine in 1958 failed the crisis in Lebanon and led to a violent overthrow of the pro-Western Iraqi government.

JOHN F. KENNEDY •  Born on May 29, 1917 in Brookline,

Massachusetts.

•  Born in a very competitive family. o Between siblings it demanded physical and

intellectual competition.

•  In 1941 he joined the US Navy and two years later was sent to the South Pacific.

•  In 1946 he ran for Congress in the Massachusetts 11th congressional district in the Democratic Party when he was only 29 and won. o Served 3 terms.

JOHN F. KENNEDY •  Advocated for better working

conditions, more public housing, higher wages, lower prices, cheaper rents, and more Social Security for the aged.

•  Ran for the US Senate against Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. and defeated him.

•  Married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier who was from a socially prominent family.

•  Kennedy announced his run for presidency in January of 1960.

•  He had to deal with the religious taboo against Roman Catholics and ended up winning the primary in Protestant West Virginia.

JOHN F. KENNEDY •  Chose Lyndon B. Johnson to be his running

mate.

•  Kennedy won the general election narrowly defeating the Republican candidate Vice President Nixon.

•  Many thought voter fraud contributed to Kennedy’s victory.

•  Kennedy’s ”poise in front of the camera, his tony Harvard accent, and his good looks” had won over many voters.

•  His administration lasted 1,037 days until his death on November 22, 1963 in Dallas Texas.

THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION •  The Bay of Pigs invasion occurred on April 17, 1961 was a failed invasion of

Cuba at the Bahía de Cochinos by about 1,500 Cuban exiles opposed to Fidel Castro.

•  Invasion was financed and directed by the US government.

•  The relations between the US and Castro’s government began to deteriorate after Castro’s overthrow of Fulgencio Batista’s dictatorship.

•  Castro often accused the US of trying to undermine his government.

THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION •  Several US congressmen denounced castor and in June

they passed legislation enabling Eisenhower to take retaliatory steps. � Cut off sugar purchases from Cuba � Placed an embargo on export to Cuba except food and

medicine.

•  Finally diplomatic ties with Cuba were broken.

• An invasion of Cuba had been planned by the CIA since may of 1960.

•  Proceeding had been debated within the new administration of JFK but was then approved and carried out.

THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION •  On April 15, 1961, 3 US-made airplanes flown

by Cubans bombed Cuban air bases. �  2 days later more US trained Cubans landed in

several sites.

•  The invasion forces was weak compared to the strength of Castro’s troops and more than 1,100 men had been captured.

•  The CIA was blamed with giving faulty information to Kennedy.

•  The captured members of the invasion were imprisoned and the Kennedy administration unofficially backed attempts to ransom the prisoners

THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION •  The Tractors for Freedom failed to raise the $28,000,000 needed for heavy-

construction equipment demanded by Castro for reparations.

•  The conditions for ransom changed many times but Castro finally agreed to release the prisoners in exchange for $53,000,000 in food and medicine.

•  Between December of 1962 and July of 1965 survivors were returned to the US.

THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION •  Some thought the US had not been

aggressive enough in its support for the Invasion and left and “impression of irresolution”.

•  Others questioned the US misjudgment of the Cubans fighting power.

•  This was a crucial event in the development of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

•  This was one of the biggest failures in US foreign policies and invasion.

CUBAN MISSLE CRISIS •  The Cuban Missile Crisis occurred during October of 1962.

•  A major confrontation that brought the US and the Soviet Union close to war over the presence of Soviet nuclear-armed missiles in Cuba.

•  Nikita Khrushchev promised in May of 1960 to defend Cuba with Soviet Arms.

•  Assumed the US would not prevent the instillation of Soviet missiles in Cuba. o These missiles could hit the eastern US within a few minutes if

launched from Cuba.

•  The US learned of these missile shipments in July of 1962.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS •  Considered alternatives to an

immediate US invasion of Cuba, a blockade of the island, or further domestic maneuvers.

•  Kennedy placed a naval blockade on Cuba to prevent further Soviet shipments of missiles.

•  He announced this on October 22 and said US forces would “seize offensive weapons and associated matériel” which Soviet vessels might send to Cuba.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS •  The US and Soviet Union came

very close to a nuclear war. o Messages were exchanged

between Kennedy and Khrushchev during extreme tensions.

•  On October 28 Khrushchev informed Kennedy that the missile sites would be halted the those in Cuba would be returned to the Soviet Union.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS •  Kennedy committed the US to never invade Cuba and secretly

promised to withdraw the nuclear-armed missiles that the US stationed in Turkey previously.

•  By late November the crisis was over and each country began fulfilling their promises.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS •  Fidel Castro was infuriated

by the Soviet's retreat but could not do anything about it.

•  This marked the peak in tense relations between the US and Soviet Union.

•  This also marked the the closes point the world had ever come to a global nuclear war.

OPCVL •  Origin:

o  Illustrated by British political cartoonist Leslie Gilbert Illingworth.

o Was posted in October of 1962 after the end of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

o A political cartoon about the Cuban Missile Crisis.

•  Purpose: o To illustrate the tensions between the

US and Soviet Union. o Showed how fragile the relationship

was and each nations attempt to be seen as the strongest world power.

o They are sitting on hydrogen bombs with their finger very close to pushing the button enacting nuclear war.

OPCVL •  Value:

�  The sweat coming from both leaders show’s the tension and fear by the leaders going into a war.

�  Offers a broad global perspective with the author being British and presents an outside perspective.

�  The publishing of this in a British newspaper showed how this was a global crisis.

•  Limitation: �  Understatement of the fear that

many people felt during this time.

MUTUAL ASSURED DESTRUCTION •  A nuclear strategy that emerged at the end of the Kennedy

administration.

•  Target towards the other’s cities which would cause the maximum amount of casualties as possible.

•  Assumption was that there would not be a nuclear war if each side was unsure of survival.

•  There were a few nuclear alarms but no more crises after 1962.

•  Agreements on how to handle and manage Nuclear weapons began to emerge. o Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963): abolished nuclear tests in the atmosphere. o Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968): required nations with nuclear

weapons not help others require them.

CIVIL RIGHTS •  During Kennedy’s run for presidency in 1960, he was partly elected

because of his promise to secure equal rights for Black Americans.

•  His brother Robert Kennedy however wanted to avoid discussions on race due to the “politically divisive struggle”.

•  Violent conflicts in the south forced Kennedy to intervene but he still rested sending a civil rights legislation to congress for fear of risking further alienation of Southern conservatives.

•  Kennedy sent hundreds of US marshals to enforce a court order to admit James Meredith into the University of Mississippi.

•  In 1963 Kennedy submitted a civil rights bill to Congress but it did not address integration of public facilities.

CIVIL RIGHTS •  He also did not do much to support

the bill.

•  After violence erupted in Birmingham, Alabama, Kennedy realized he needed to put forth a new civil rights bill. o He was often discouraged by many of

his advisors.

•  After Governor George Wallace prevented two black students from attending the University of Alabama, Kennedy spoke to the nation in a televised broadcast asking for support for his civil rights bill.

CIVIL RIGHTS “We are confronted primarily with a moral issue. It is as old as the scriptures and is as clear as the American Constitution. The hear of the question is whether all Americans are to be afforded equal rights and equal opportunities.”

CIVIL RIGHTS •  For many. Kennedy’s speech was a

long-awaited show of support for the rights of Black Americans.

•  For others, it was intolerable and made many people opposed to civil rights and integration furious.

•  Kennedy presented Congress with a completely new and restructured Civil Rights bill.

•  Two months later though he was assassinated and his successor Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill through Congress and signed it into law in 1964.

PEACE CORPS •  US government agency of volunteers established by Kennedy on

March 1, 1961 (executive order).

•  Authorized by Congress through the Peace Corps Act of September 22, 1961.

•  The purpose is to assist other countries in their development efforts by providing skilled workers in the fields of: �  Education �  Agriculture �  Health �  Trade �  Technology �  Community development

PEACE CORPS •  Volunteers are assigned to specific projects

based on their skills, education, and experiences.

•  Once abroad they live for two years as a ”good neighbor” in the hos country, speak the language, and live in a similar level to other volunteers.

•  The Peace Corps has grown significantly and reached a large global area in countries such as Hungary, Poland, China, South Africa, and Mexico.

•  Kennedy’s goal was to have Americans have an understanding of different cultures, nations, and ways of life.

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