the relationship between reading text with …
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING TEXT WITH FAMILIAR AND UNFAMILIAR TOPIC AND STUDENTS’
COMPREHENSION (A CASE STUDY AT SMK COMPUTER MUTIARA ILMU
MAKASSAR)
HUBUNGAN ANTARA TEKS DENGAN TOPIK YANG FAMILIAR DAN YANG TIDAK FAMILIAR DAN PEMAHAMAN
MEMBACA SISWA (STUDI KASUS DI SMK COMPUTER MUTIARA ILMU
MAKASSAR)
BESSE HARDIANTI
P0600215024
ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDY PROGRAM FACULTY OF CULTURAL SCIENCES
POST GRADUATE PROGRAM HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY
2017
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING TEXT WITH FAMILIAR AND UNFAMILIAR TOPIC AND STUDENTS’
COMPREHENSION (A CASE STUDY AT SMK COMPUTER MUTIARA ILMU
MAKASSAR)
HUBUNGAN ANTARA TEKS DENGAN TOPIK YANG FAMILIAR DAN YANG TIDAK FAMILIAR DAN PEMAHAMAN MEMBACA SISWA
(STUDI KASUS DI SMK COMPUTER MUTIARA ILMU MAKASSAR)
T h e s i s
Submitted as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Magister Degree
in English Language Studies Program
Written and submitted by :
BESSE HARDIANTI
P0600215024
To
ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDY PROGRAM FACULTY OF CULTURAL SCIENCES
POST GRADUATE PROGRAM HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY
2017
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PERNYATAAN KEASLIAN TESIS
Yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini:
Nama : Besse Hardianti
Nomor pokok Mahasiswa : P0600215024
Program Studi : Bahasa Inggris
Menyatakan dengan sebenar-benarnya bahwa tesis yang saya tulis ini
benar-benar merupakan hasil karya saya sendiri, bukan merupakan
penganbilan tulisan atau pemikiran orang lain. Apabila kemudian hari
terbukti atau dapat dibuktikan bahwa sebagian atau keseluruhan tesis ini
adalah karya orang lain, saya bersedia menerima sanksi atas perbuatan
saya.
Makassar, 12 Agustus 2017
Yang menyatakan,
Besse Hardianti
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The long journey of this study would not have been completed
without the bless from the almighty Allah SWT and from the people who
have provided the writer with guidance, advice, support as well as
supervision. I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to Dr. Abidin
Pammu, M.A. Dipl. TESOL, the main supervisor, for his valuable
feedback during the writing of the thesis. I also would like to convey my
most sincere gratitude to Dr. H. Fathu Rahman, M. Hum., my co-
supervisor who has provided me with substantial academic direction
during my hard time at ELS program. His constant concern and attention
provides me with resistance to complete this study at the English language
Study Program at Hasanuddin University.
My deep appreciation also goes to the three examiners, Dr. H.
Mustafa Makka, M. S., Dra. Nasmilah, M. Hum., and Dr. H. Sudarmin
Harun, M. Hum. For their feedback, corrections, as well as constructive
criticism to provide further improvement of the thesis. I would like to
express my thankfulness to my classmates in ELS 2015 who have
provided me with useful insights and suggestions as well as useful
references to complete the thesis.
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Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere
and profound gratitude to the most valuable people in my life, my beloved
parents, Hj. St. Rohana and the late Ambo Lolo for their endless pray for
my success. The last but not least, I would like to pass my special thanks
to my husband, Muhammad Sukarno and my daughter, Besse Nurul
Fatin for their patience and love during the writing of the thesis.
Makassar, 1 July 2017
Besse Hardianti
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ABSTRACT
BESSE HARDIANTI. The Relationship between Reading Text with Familiar and Unfamiliar Topic and Students’ Comprehension: A Case Study at SMK Computer Mutiara Ilmu Makassar (Supervised by Abidin Pammu and Fathu Rahman).
The aims of this research were (1) to found out the relationship between familiar and unfamiliar topic and the students’ reading comprehension and (2) to determined how text familiarity and unfamiliarity affected the students’ reading comprehension on those expository texts as complex cognitive process.
The method was a qualitative and quantitative research method. The primary data were from direct observation, in depth interview, field notes, and as results of reading tests performed directly to the samples of 5 selected samples from SMK Computer Mutiara Ilmu Makassar. Supplementary data were from open-ended questionnaire. The determination of familiar and unfamiliar texts was performed by means of topics delivery, and familiarity and unfamiliarity were indicated from 16 sample topics presented. The level of difficulty of the text used from the study was carefully considered. The data were analyzed by means of descriptive qualitative based on interpretative research paradigm.
The results of this research showed that text familiarity and unfamiliarity were determined by their prevalence, their frequency of exposure in written and electronic media and degree of reading experience by the individual. The findings confirmed positive effect of familiar topic on the reading test results in almost all the samples. The five samples exhibited a relatively high score on the correct answers from the total 10 questions. In addition, unfamiliar topic seemed to provide more destructive effects rather than detrimental effect where almost all samples exhibited unsatisfactory results on reading text with unfamiliar ones. The reason for the differences was in reference to cognitive explanations where strategies and prior knowledge play the roles.
Key words: Relationship; familiarity; unfamiliarity; reading text; comprehension
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ABSTRAK
BESSE HARDIANTI. Hubungan antara Teks Bacaan dengan Topik yang Familiar dan yang Tidak Familiar dan Pemahaman Membaca Siswa: Studi Kasus di SMK Komputer Mutiara Ilmu Makassar (Dibimbing oleh Abidin Pammu dan Fathu Rahman). Penelitian ini bertujuan (1) menemukan hubungan antara topik yang familiar dan tidak familiar, serta pemahaman membaca siswa; dan (2) menentukan pengaruh keakraban dan ketidakakraban teks terhadap pemahaman membaca siswa sebagai proses kognitif yang kompleks terhadap kinerja tersebut. Metode penelitian adalah metode kualitatif dan kuantitatif. Data primer diperoleh berdasarkan pengamatan langsung, wawancara mendalam, catatan lapangan, dan hasil tes baca yang dilakukan langsung pada kelima sampel terpilih di SMK Komputer Mutiara ilmu Makassar. Data tambahan berasal dari tanggapan tertulis sampel menggunakan kuesioner terbuka. Penentuan teks yang akrab dan tidak akrab dilakukan dengan melihat pilihan para sampel dari enam belas contoh topic yang disajikan. Data dianalisis secara deskriptif kualitatif berdasarkan paradigma penelitian interpretatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa keakraban dan ketidakakraban teks ditentukan oleh prevalensinya, frekuensi keterpaparannya dalam media tertulis dan elektronik, serta tingkat pengalaman membaca secara individu. Temuan tersebut mengkonfirmasi efek positif dari topik yang familiar pada hasil tes baca di hampir semua sampel. Kelima sampel tersebut menunjukkan skor yang relatif tinggi terhadap jawaban yang benar dari sepuluh pertanyaan. Selain itu, ketidakakraban terhadap topik tampaknya memberi efek yang lebih destruktif, yakni hampir semua sampel menunjukkan hasil yang tidak memuaskan pada teks bacaan yang tidak mereka kenal. Alasan perbedaannya mengacu pada penjelasan kognitif, yakni strategi dan pengetahuan sebelumnya memainkan peran. Kata kunci: Hubungan; keakraban; ketidakakraban; membaca teks; pemahaman
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page ................................................................................................... i
Submission Sheet .................................................................................... ii
Approval Sheet ........................................................................................ iii
Pernyataan Keaslian Tesis ..................................................................... iv
Acknowledgement .................................................................................. v
Abstract .................................................................................................. vii
Abstrak .................................................................................................. viii
Table of Contents .................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ........................................................................................... xi
List Of Figures ........................................................................................ xii
List Of Abbreviation .............................................................................. xiii
List Of Appendices .............................................................................. xiv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1
A. Background ...................................................................................... 1
B. Research Questions ....................................................................... 11
C. Objectives of The Research ........................................................... 12
D. Significance of The Research ........................................................ 12
E. The Scope of The Research .......................................................... 13
F. Organization of The Paper ............................................................ 14
G. Research Terms ............................................................................ 14
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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................ 17
A. Previous Related Studies ............................................................... 17
B. Theoretical Background ................................................................. 24
C. Conceptual Framework .................................................................. 45
D. Operational Definition .…………………………………..….….…….. 45
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................ 47
A. Research Design ........................................................................... 48
B. Subject of the Research …………..……….….……………………. 50
C. Research Instruments…………………………..….………………….51
D. Sampling Techniques ……………………………………………….. 54
E. Determination of Familiar & Unfamiliar Topic…………….…………54
F. Data Collection Procedure…………………………...…………….…55
G. Data Analysis Techniques…………………………………………….56
CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION …...……….……………. 57
A. Finding ………………………..…...…………………………………….57
B. Discussion… ….………………………………………………...……....72
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ………………..…...86
A. Conclusion ….. ………………………………………………………...86
B. Suggestion ……,.………………………………………………....……...87
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................... 89
APPENDICES
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Distribution of Topics and Subject Response Learner 1 58
2. Distribution of Topics and Subject Response Learner 2 60
3. Distribution of Topics and Subject Response Learner 3 62
4. Distribution of Topics and Subject Response Learner 4 63
5. Distribution of Topics and Subject Response Learner 5 65
6. Distribution of Familiar & Unfamiliar Topics 67
7. Test Results of reading with Familiar Topics 69
8. Test Results of Reading with Unfamiliar Topics 71
9. Effect of Familiar and Unfamiliar Topic 83
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Coady’s Model of EFL/ESL Reader 27
2. Conceptual framework 45
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1. EFL English as Foreign Language 2
2. ESL English Second Language 2
3. L2 Second Language 2
4. RCS Reading Comprehension Strategies 3
5. LGBT Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender 60
6. PDST Professional Development Service for Teacher 31
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Number
1. List of Topics
2. The Visual Basic Programming
3. The Incredible Flea
4. Open ended Questionnaires
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the background study and the problem
statement, such as the status of English as a foreign language in
Indonesia and the context of reading as a core component within the
national curriculum. This part also addresses the research questions,
objectives of the research, the significance of the research, scope of the
research, research terms, and organization of the paper.
A. Background
Over the years, teaching and learning of English Language can be
considered to be an integral part of Indonesia educational system for a
long time to now (Mappiasse & Sihes , 2014: 114). The status of English
in Indonesia is well documented in the state decree number 096/1967 of
the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia. This
status clearly defines English as a foreign language and as a compulsory
subject within the curriculum from secondary schools to tertiary levels
throughout the country. For over more than two decades from 1950 to
1975, the objective of teaching English has been to enhance reading skills
for dealing with English academic text. As core content within the national
curriculum, English contents included other skills, such as listening,
speaking, writing, and with still greater emphasis on reading in year 1984
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up to 1994. A shift of content orientation underwent slight changes with
moderate emphasis on communication and writing at both curriculum year
2004 and 2006 (Minister of Education and Culture, 2012).
English also gives access to the latest ideas and opportunities to
enhance professional credibility through participation in international
meetings, forum, and partnership. In this respect, distance seems to be no
longer a serious handicap as if countries constantly come closer to each
other. In addition, advancement in technology has enabled the people to
enter different countries and come home for dinner in the same day. In this
context, different nations will be able to establish a good relationship that
is only possible if countries share one language for communication. It is
commonly known that that communication offers us an opportunity to
engage in cultural interaction that will enrich the culture in more global
sense. Reading necessity does not only prevail within EFL setting such as
Indonesia but also in ESL context.
From among the four language skills, namely such as reading,
writing, speaking, and listening. Reading comprehension is considered to
be the most important skill, especially for L2 learners. This skill was so
important to language learning and teaching that by the end of the first
quarter of the twentieth century an approach named the “reading
approach” emerged which underlined reading as a tool for language
learning and emphasized reading skills for foreign languages (Brown,
2000). The importance of reading is proven by the emerging needs of EFL
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learners willing to pursue better education overseas. They have to deal
with a lot of readings in English that requires strategies to comprehend
those texts. Often the learners are prevented from the opportunities to go
abroad because they did not fulfill the standard of TOEFL score required
by the university overseas.
In an EFL context such as Indonesia, reading is considered to be
one of the most important language skills to be acquired because of lack
of enough exposure to the spoken form of the target language. Zhang
(2001:175), stated that Reading in Indonesia context is not only essential
in the comprehension of textbooks but also essential to perform
professional jobs, such as doing translation because there are too many
university or undergraduate students are not able to read. This is probably
one of the main reasons that the government is trying to integrate Reading
subject into the curriculum starting from secondary school to tertiary level.
Reading is a major academic skill that is introduced to students
during the early school years. Therefore reading instruction should prepare
students to interact in a meaningful manner with a variety of texts. Good
readers focus their attention on the major ideas as they incorporate the
metacognitive skills needed to accomplish the task of understanding text.
Consequently, good readers are strategic readers who have developed
the necessary skills to benefit fully from the decoding process of reading.
That is why reading comprehension strategies (RCS) have been given
ample attention in research on language learning strategies. Koda (2005:)
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believes that skillful readers continuously adjust their reading behaviors to
cope with the text difficulty, task demands, and other contextual variables.
They monitor their reading process carefully and take immediate steps
when encountering comprehension problems. They are aware of their own
cognitive and linguistic resources and are capable of directing their
attention to the appropriate clues in the texts. These and similar behaviors
which separate skilled from less-skilled readers are called strategic
reading.
The imposition of Reading as a core subject within the secondary
school curriculum implies that reading is an important skill for all learners
regardless of their educational and social background. In Indonesia, the
main objective of English language education is to promote discourse
competence (i.e., students’ communicative ability, both in oral and written
language in any communicative events). In order to achieve the goal,
learners also have to learn other competences: actional competence,
linguistic competence, socio-linguistic competence, and strategic
competence. Thus, discourse competence is the final goal oflanguage
learning while the other competences are treated as the supportive
competences but should be firstly acquired (Depdiknas, 2004). The
imposition of reading may benefit the students in all level of education
because the current curriculum does not seem to provide sufficient skills to
deal with the demands of literacy skills. The ability to comprehend
textbooks in English has been the main concern of Indonesian educators
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and teaching professionals. They often urge the government especially the
Department of Education and Culture to make revision of the curriculum.
English as a foreign language aims to equip the learners with
decent communication as well as literacy skills in order to be able to
pursue further education overseas. However, proficiency in English is
difficult to achieve because English is not the official language of the
country and is only in use within school instruction under the English
subject and exposure to the target language is relatively rare outside
classroom setting. This condition has made it difficult for EFL learners in
Indonesia to make sufficient practice required for the language proficiency.
Besides, the learners from all level of education in this country needs other
skills, such as speaking in order to deal with the global demands. The
global demands require that people from all over the world understand
spoken English because it has been the major language used in
international events, such as conferences, seminars and workshops.
At present, the Indonesian government demands its people to
acquire high standard of English in reading. The government has become
well aware of the need of literacy skills to establish political and economic
engagement with other countries. More recently, the government of
Indonesia through the Department of Education and Culture has urged its
people all over the country to improve their literacy skills in order to be
able to challenge the dynamic development of globalization era.
Meanswhile, Whitehead (2008) confirms that this mission is relevant to the
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need of language proficiency as an essential condition for its people in
order to gain resistant survival in this fast changing society. This mission is
relevant to the need of language proficiency as an essential condition for
its people in order to gain resistant survival in this fast changing society.
Whitehead (2008) confirms that in large part of the world, the use of
English creates a space that enables communication and debates to take
place.
The vitality of the language skills and its importance in the world of
global economy is apparent in a scholar’s statement. Richards (2008)
argues that one of the simple facts of life in the present time is that the
English language skills of a good proportion of its citizenry are seen as
vital if a country is to participate actively in the global economy and to have
access to the information and knowledge that provide the basis for both
social and economic development. He convinces that central to this
enterprise are English teaching and English language teacher education.
However, the learning and teaching of English in Indonesian tertiary
education has faced some challenges. More and more tertiary learners
find it difficult to read and understand academic text in their respective
subject disciplines. Recent investigation of the reading behaviour of EFL
learners in Indonesia demonstrated that their main motivation to read was
for fulfilling the assignment (Erna, 2012:3).
The apparent under performance of tertiary learners has raised
questions about current development of teaching and learning a foreign
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language in Indonesia. The development of language teaching does not
seem to provide significant impact on the improvement of learners’ poor
standard of EFL performance particularly in reading skills. There has been
strong perception among teaching practitioners, teachers, and educators
regarding poor standard of English achievement at all levels of education
(Syatriana, 1998; Hamra, 1996; Kweldju, 2001). They claimed that most
university graduates are not able to read with full comprehension. Such
perception is also justified through the profile of many tertiary graduates
who could not meet the TOEFL score of 500 and above in the admission
test for the postgraduates studies at Hasanudin University. The learners’
failure to achieve the TOEFL band score provides a clear outlook that a
large majority of university graduates have poor performance on reading
skills. As Lie (2007) claims that even though English is officially taught
through the country from secondary schools to tertiary levels, competence
in the English language among learners at both schools and universities is
generally low.
Successful comprehension monitoring requires the detection of
unknown or inconsistent information and an awareness of strategies that
can be utilized to alleviate the problem. Effective readers are able to
monitor their own comprehension and take the necessary steps to cope
successfully with difficulties encountered in comprehending text. The
public perception of Indonesia scholars and researchers show that the
majority of Indonesia students are not even able to comprehend textbooks
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in almost all disciplines. They often claim that the failure of teaching
English in Indonesia context is due to the lack of teacher training and the
complexity of geographical conditions that make it difficult for the
government to provide such needs. It is even difficult for the government to
establish standard of curriculum suitable for Indonesian context with
diverse cultural and social background.
The students’ attitudes toward reading can influence achievement.
The parents play a major role in promoting and sustaining children's
enthusiasm for reading. Regularly, children observe their parents and
other individuals reading. Therefore by observing their parents and others
interacting with print, children learn that reading and writing have
functional environmental uses (Brown, 2000 and Briggs, 1987). The
children easily ascertain the attitude that others have toward reading and
the importance of reading in daily life. Over a period of time, students have
gradually assimilated their attitudes toward reading from the actions and
beliefs of those with whom they regularly come in contact (Briggs, 1987).
Students who develop positive attitudes toward the value of reading will
approach reading instruction with a greater possibility for success.
Extensive research has been conducted on the teacher's influence in
helping to foster students’ attitudes toward reading. Schofield (1980) found
that teachers who value reading tend to promote positive attitudes and
higher achievement among their students. Obviously, when learning to
read, children are also developing attitudes toward reading and their own
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reading proficiency. Children are also affected by the instructional behavior
of their teachers.
Allington (1980), discovered that teacher-pupil interaction was
different for good and poor readers. He found that teachers are more likely
to interrupt poor readers who err when reading aloud than good readers
who err similarly. As a result, the actual instructional time allocated for
reading tasks is much less for the poor readers. In general, research (e.g.,
Kennedy & Halinski, 1978), has shown that good readers have a more
positive attitude toward reading than poor readers do. The poor attitude of
disabled readers may have a negative effect on reading achievement.
High interest in reading tends to be associated with high achievement, and
low interest in reading tends to be associated with failure in reading. The
failure in reading therefore must have relevance with the quality of
teachers, insufficient infrastructures, and professionalism. Reading must
be integrated with all sectors of education and as such teacher training is
important to deal with such problem.
An Indonesian researcher, such as Artsiyanti (2010) mentioned that
in Indonesia, most of the students got some problems in mastering English
language. Firstly, teachers rarely speak English in the classroom. The
second, Lessons are emphasized on grammar (and not in conversation),
but students are rarely given direction such as how and what the functions
of the grammatical elements that they are learning. Third, the
Vocabularies, which given by teachers ware not very useful in daily
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conversations. The last, the material of English lesson in junior high school
and high school was unsustainable. The students stated that there was a
repetition of the material (such as tenses) that had been taught at junior
high school, but the functions and applications were unclear enough.
Some of above problems, commonly found by all students in Indonesia,
the English language became important to learn but it is rather difficult for
students to learn especially junior high school students even in senior high
school or vocational school English language becomes a test of
determining their graduation.
The vitality of reading also applies for vocational secondary school
in South Sulawesi Province. An example of this is the vocational high
school of computer students of Makassar who are required to read the
written text of English language. This is because there is a lot of
information and knowledge about computers written in English. The public
have perceived that the students' performance in reading skill is still
unsatisfactory. The students of Computer Department in “SMK Computer
Mutiara Ilmu Makassar are regarded to have very poor reading ability and
they possess very little interest in English reading text. The vocational
school need to be the object of research and investigation in order to find
the existing problems that may inhibit the attainment of goals stipulated in
such institution. Researchers and educational practitioners in this region
need to consider improvement of vocational education in order to provide
better education for all people regardless their social and economic
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background. The result of research may be useful at the institution and
therefore the students’ literacy skills could be improved.
In this case the researcher was investigate whether reading text
with familiar and unfamiliar topic affect their comprehension over the
English expository text. This is crucial for such institution because
Computer Department will deal a lot of text written in English. Basically, if
students read a lot of English texts, they will get more language input from
the reading activity. Students can also enrich their vocabularies that can
help them understand the science of computer. Finally, the students of
computer school need the reading skill in English in order to equip them
with knowledge on computer as demanded by the school. The integrating
theory and practice in order to improve the students’ reading performance
to enable them pursue education not only at tertiary level in their own
country but also pursue education overseas.
B. Research Questions
The present study attempts to explore whether students’ familiarity
and unfamiliarity over the topic of particular English text bridges
comprehension. Therefore, the following are formulated as research
questions (RQ).
1. What is the relationship between familiar and unfamiliar textual topic
and students’ comprehension at vocational high school of Computer
Mutiara Ilmu Makassar?
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2. How do topic familiarity and unfamiliarity affect students’
comprehension at vocational High School of Computer Mutiara Ilmu
Makassar?
C. Objectives of The Research
The main objectives of the research is to find out the profiles of
students’ reading comprehension ability in the two types of text, familiar
and unfamiliar topic, so that conclusion can be made in which aspect of
reading the teacher can be recommended to improve their teaching
performance that leads to students’ improvement in reading. In particular,
the objective of current research are formulated as follows:
1. To explore whether there is a relationship between familiarity and
unfamiliarity of textual topic and students’ comprehension of students
of vocational high school of computer Mutiara Ilmu Makassar.
2. To elaborate arguments as to why text familiarity or unfamiliarity affect
students’ comprehension over the text.
D. Significance Of The Research
The present study deals with the relationship between topic
familiarity and unfamiliarity and students’ comprehension. The research
will have significant contribution to the development of research in EFL
reading in Indonesian context in general and in South Sulawesi Province
in particular. The finding from this research will add the existing literature
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regarding roles of text genre towards text comprehension. At least, the
present research contributes to the development of research in EFL
context in Indonesia so that it can bridge the research and classroom
pedagogical practices. The present research is expected to bring a
positive teaching implication to improve students’ reading skills at the
institution where the research is undertaken. Finally, the research will
benefit both teachers and students in terms of teaching and learning
improvement to enable them (students) comprehend textbooks in various
disciplines. At least, teachers from this institution can learn from the
research to improve their teaching methodologies in reading to enable
their students pursue education at higher level.
E. The Scope of the Research
The focus of the present study is the relationship between familiar
and unfamiliar topic of the English texts and students’ comprehension. The
concept of familiarity and unfamiliarity will be based on the subject
perception over the expository text that will be selected for this study. The
familiarity of text may derive from lexical item already possessed by
students during the data collection process. The familiarity may also derive
from students’ better awareness due to their experience in reading an
English text. The subject familiarity and unfamiliarity will be crosschecked
with their level of comprehension on the given English text. Finally,
14
familiarity over the text may also derive from available reading strategies
used to assess the text.
F. Organization of the Chapters
In this paper consists of three chapters. Chapter One comprises the
background, problem statement, objective of the research, significance of
the research, scope of the research, and organization of the paper and
research terms. Chapter Two consists of literature review that consist of
previous research and theoretical background (reading skill and schema
theory). Chapter Three includes research design, research instruments,
technique of data collection, and technique of data analysis.
G. Research Terms
1. Reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning is
the process in which the reader combines their prior knowledge with
the additional information from a text, draw the meaning of words, and
connect it to reach the clear understanding of 8 9 the written text
(Pang, et al., 2003:14).
2. Familiar is something or someone is easy to recognize because of
being seen, met, heard, etc. before. We can say that we know about
something or someone well. (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary & Thesaurus).
15
3. Familiarity is a measure of how frequently a linguistic item is thought
to be used, or the degree to which it is known. This may be measured
by asking people to show on a RATING SCALE whether they think
they use a given word or structure never, sometimes, or often. Word
familiarity has been used as a way of selecting vocabulary for
language teaching. (Richards Jack C and Schmidt Richard,2002: 198).
4. Topic is in language teaching, a curriculum, course or syllabus in
which content and teaching and learning activities are centered around
topics or themes, such as family, leisure, music, etc. Other aspects of
the course (skills, grammar, etc.) are all linked to the core topics of
the course. (Richards Jack C and Schmidt Richard, 2002: 198). In this
study, the writer focus on topic in reading skill.
5. Schema Theory is The theory that in comprehending language
people activate relevant schemata allowing them to process and
interpret new experiences quickly and efficiently. Schemata serve as a
reference store from which a person can retrieve relevant existing
knowledge and into which new information is assimilated. When
encountering a topic in reading or listening, the reader activates the
schema for that topic and makes use of it to anticipate, infer, and
make different kinds of judgments and decisions about it. Schema
theory plays an important role in theories of second language reading
and listening comprehension. (Richards Jack C and Schmidt Richard,
2002). Then they continuous, they consist in two types of schema
16
theory that are: 1).content schemata and 2). Formal schemata. A
difference is sometimes made between content schemata and
formal schemata. Content schemata deal with general background
knowledge related to the topic such as might be associated with the
topic of an earthquake. Formal schemata deal with the rhetorical
structure of language and a person’s knowledge of the structure of a
particular genre, such as news reports or journal articles.
17
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter addresses fundamental information regarding previous
research that have been conducted in relation to the topic of the research.
This part clearly shows the gaps that make the present research is
different from the previous research. It also deals with theoretical
discussion that addresses the background information regarding familiar
and unfamiliar topic of reading. In addition, it also addresses the whole
conception about familiar and unfamiliar topic based on experts and
researcher. Every part sums up the whole ideas that will clearly show the
core component of each sub titles.
A. Previous Related Studies
There has been an overwhelming of research already done in
relation to topic familiarity and unfamiliarity and students comprehension..
These studies have already provided significant implication on the
teaching of Reading subject in various EFL contexts notably in Indonesia.
Despite the massive development of research on this issue,
researchers all over the world are still exploring the arguments as to why
relationship between familiarity and unfamiliarity of text topic contribute to
comprehension. Therefore, the present study attempts to fill the gap and
explore the role of familiar topic in L2 reading. However, most of the
research centers on the discussion of reading difficulty and reading
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strategies. Little attention has been paid to reading especially in relation to
text familiarity. Therefore, the present study attempts to fill the gap and
explore the role of text familiarity in L2/EFL reading. The present research
presents those research findings so that researchers have the scenario
about segment of reading that needs to further explored and investigated.
Chang (2006) investigated the effects of topic familiarity and
linguistic difficulty on the reading strategies and mental representations of
nonnative readers of Chinese. The research design employed a qualitative
research design because the researcher intended to reveal the holistic and
deep information about Chinese students in handling familiar topic. The
results suggest that subjects in all four groups predominantly engaged in
local-level processing with the exception of two types of global-level
processing: monitoring one’s comprehension and generation of inferences.
While monitoring efforts were motivated by both topic familiarity and
linguistic difficulty, inferencing events were primarily facilitated by topic
familiarity. In addition, topic familiarity was also found to have a facilitative
effect on the mental representations of the reading passages whereas no
effects due to linguistic difficulty was found.
Another important research about topic familiarity is by Chansri
(2008) who included gender perspectives. In this research, Chansri
(2008) investigated the relationship between topic familiarity, gender
differences, vocabulary, and English reading comprehension of students at
the university level in Thailand. By utilizing questionnaires and interviews
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as the research instrument, he came up with the finding that showed
positive relationship between the reading comprehension test of familiar
and unfamiliar topics and on the vocabulary test. In addition, the
participants also obtained a higher mean score on the topics that were
familiar to them than on the topics that were not familiar to them,
regardless of gender. This research confirmed that female participants
performed better than the mean score of the male participants on female-
related topics. On the reading comprehension test of familiar and
unfamiliar topics, the male participants obtained better score than the
mean score of the female participants on male-related topics. This
research confirmed that gender related readers helped in enhancing
comprehension.
Cultural context has also been under investigation on research
regarding familiar and unfamiliar topic. In this context, Erten and Razi
(2009) conducted research about “The effects of cultural familiarity on
reading comprehension”. The result of this study concluded that firstly,
cultural familiarity facilitates comprehension. Secondly, although reading
activities do activate schematic knowledge and promote strategic reading
behaviors, the influence of cultural familiarity still needed. Therefore, if
readers lack the relevant cultural schema, reading activities cannot fully
compensate for the discrepancy or help readers comprehend a text.
Research focusing on content familiarity of text has also been done
in the context of English as a foreign language in a Spanish institution.
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Martínez (2014), for example, conducted her research on the analysis of
the effect of content familiarity and gender on English as a foreign
language reading comprehension with Spanish University Students. The
result of the study showed that gender and content familiarity significantly
affected the students' overall comprehension of the texts. This study
showed that the linguistic threshold hypothesis as both the elementary
level and intermediate level readers of the study could read and
understand better when the text was familiar, irrespective of their language
knowledge and also it seems to support the interactive view of L2 reading
comprehension.
A more recent investigation of the relationship between topic
familiarity and comprehension has been under documentation in another
context of English as a foreign language. Yu-Jiao (2014), for example,
conducted a research on the effect of topic familiarity on L2 Incidental
vocabulary acquisition (IVA) in reading- an experimental study based on
path analysis”. This research explores the relationship between topic
familiarity, reading comprehension and L2 incidental vocabulary
acquisition with the help of path analysis SPSS 17.0. The result of this
research showed that topic familiarity has a significant influence on
reading performance and reading performance has a significant effect on
vocabulary learning and then topic familiarity has an indirect influence on
incidental vocabulary acquisition. The research confirmed that the
acquisition of vocabulary may occur through topic familiarity.
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A more dynamic investigation of the relationship between topic
familiarity and comprehension has been under investigation with the
involvement of test taking strategies. Lee (2011), conducted research on
second language reading topic familiarity and test score: test-taking
strategies for multiple-choice comprehension questions. The substance of
the study refers to describing what students do when they are taking
reading comprehension tests by asking students to verbalize their
thoughts. The research came up with the finding that the strategies used
by participants in the test-taking situation to process text were similar
regardless of topic familiarity. Besides that this study contributed toward
L2 reading assessment by presenting the test-taking strategies in regard
to different topic familiarity and by demonstrating the validity of multiple-
choice reading tests.
Research involving pre-reading activity and topic familiarity has also
been under investigation in the field of reading research. Rouhi A. &
Asghari F. (2011) conducted a research on the effect of topic familiarity
and pre-reading activities on reading comprehension and lexical
inferencing”. A review of the research literature indicated that superiority
of +F–P group over the –F+P group in terms of both reading
comprehension and lexical inferencing tests further implied that providing
readers with pre-reading activities on an unfamiliar topic could barely
make up for the lack of topic familiarity in either reading comprehension or
lexical inferencing.
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Investigation of topic familiarity and gender perspective has been
performed in the context of English as a foreign language. Jalilehvand et
al (2014) conducted a study an content familiarity and gender-neutral texts
in foreign language reading comprehension. The result from this study
was a two-way interaction effect between familiarity and gender. It was
found that females scored higher on familiar texts whereas males
outperformed the females on the unfamiliar texts. The study confirmed that
gender differences contribute to students’ performance in reading
comprehension. There was no account reported as to why females
outperformed the males in that context. One could be the main reason was
probably due to reading experience where males have more exposure to
reading text before the research was conducted.
The most recent development of reading research involving topic
familiarity has been performed in the context of English as a foreign
language. Mahmoudi & Mahmoudi (2017), conducted a study entitled,
“Can Topic Familiarity Override Language Proficiency in Reading
Comprehension?”. The obtained results indicated that topic familiarity
cannot override language proficiency in reading comprehension; that is,
low-proficiency students could not catch up with high proficiency students
even in familiar topics. The research confirmed that proficiency in the
language had stronger implication to understand text than familiarity of the
topic.
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Based on the research perspective involving topic familiarity and
comprehension, researcher from all over the world are convinced about
the effectiveness of text familiarity and comprehension. As mentioned in
the previous research, there has been a positive relation between topic
familiarity and students’ comprehension and thus these studies will have
significant teaching implication both in the context of English as a second
language and as a foreign language. In addition, some researchers
believe that there is correlation between familiar topic, schema theory,
gender, and vocabulary in reading comprehension. Despite a range of
studies that have been performed, little has been addressed regarding
what types of text genres contribute to comprehension.
In order to contextualize the research on reading particularly in
relation to text familiarity and comprehension, the present study explores
the relationship between text familiarity, unfamiliarity, and students’
comprehension. The focus of the present study is on the vocational
secondary school located in Makassar as the capital of the province of
South Sulawesi. The setting will be on SMK Computer Mutiara Ilmu
because the institution also impose the subject of Reading as a core
component in the curriculum. The study is expected to contribute to the
development of research on the field of reading particularly in relation to
text familiarity.
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B. Theoretical Background
1. Concept of Reading
a. Definition Reading
Experts in the field of language teaching and learning have
provided a wide range of reading definitions. Most available definitions are
based on the concept of reading that derive from both top-down and
bottom-up process of reading. Therefore, the meanings are often identical
because these definitions relate to the concept of reading as cognitive
process. The following definitions of reading are based on the notion of
reading as cognitive process, which take into account the process of
information transfer.
Reading is a process of manipulating phoneme-grapheme
relationships as described by a structural linguist Leonard Bloomfield
(Dubin & Bycina, 1991). The bottom-up model of reading, basically,
fostered practices in reading instruction which built up learners decoding
abilities from the bottom up, starting with the smallest units, single letters,
letters blends , and building up to words and phrases. With the emergence
of the more recent model, that is, the top-down model, this model of
reading which viewed that reading takes place by matching sounds and
letters became outdated
Anderson (1999) stated that reading is as an interactive, fluent
process which involves the reader and the text in building comprehension
of meaning. Such interactive processing also implies the interaction
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between reader and text. Recently, researchers view the reading
comprehension process as an interaction between the reader’s
background knowledge and text. Schema theorists have examined the
importance of background knowledge in the system called bottom-up and
top-down processing in order to facilitate reading comprehension.
Reading is an indirect communication between the author and the
reader, using the linguistic symbol and the prior knowledge by reader has
had to produce reading comprehension. From the previous conception of
reading, it may be understood that reading is a complex process which
involves the coordination of a multitude of skills. Strategic readers can be
distinguished from the less-skilled readers by their methods of interacting
with text. The mental processes of good readers must be understood in
order to make assumptions concerning the nature of reading.
b. Definition of Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension processes was one of the goal of self-
reading skills. According to Tankersley ( 2003: 90 ) stated that in reading
comprehension, there are three factors which influence the level of
reader’s comprehension among other things, the first factor is the reader
has command of the linguistic structures of the text. The second factor is
the reader is able to monitor and reflect his or her own level of
understanding while reading the material. And The third factor and most
important criterian influencing the comprehension is the reader has
adequate background in the content and vocabulary being presented.
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Elizabeth (2003:15) stated that comprehension is the process of
deriving meaning from connected text. It involves word knowledge
(vocabulary) as well as thinking and reasoning. It means that Indeed the
reader's understanding in reading foreign language text is not based on
the content of his writing but the knowledge, they have already had it.
According to Research and Development (RAND) Reading Study Group
(RRSG, 2002) in Snow (2010) stated that the process of simultaneously
constructing and extracting meaning through interaction and engagement
with print. As addition, Watter Kerrin, et al. (2016:3) stated that Reading
comprehension is the act of interpreting written information from a text; this
involves using prior knowledge to interfere information, making a
representation in mind about the text and its content, and then applying
this information to a new situations.
c. The psycholinguistic model toward reading for English foreign
learner
Reading process is an interactive between readers and writers
through writing text media under the control of psycholinguistics. Good
reader is the reader to understand fully what he has read. Understanding
greatly aided by reflection or thinking about what they read. Coady
mentioned that the basic of psycholinguistics in the process of
comprehension by the reader can be seen from consolidation of three
important things, namely the aspects of the reader’ background
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knowledge Interact with the concept of the reader' ability to produce
comprehension and process strategy (Michael and Richards, 1989: 219).
we can see in figure 1.
Figure 1. Coady’s Model Of The ELS/EFL Reader
The first, the conceptual abilities refer to intellectual ability, it is the
ability needed to perform various mental activities such as thinking,
reasoning, and problems solving. Actually, Individuals need to use the
intelligence and for the right reasons for assessing or determining
something. So, it should be emphasized, that the reading skills is not only
to know the vocabulary one by one from the reading text but it also needs
to be reasoning. The second, knowledge background refers prior
knowledge by the reader. According to Coady in Michael and Richards,
(1989:220) noted that knowledge background is important variable, we
have seen many students with western knowledge background of some
kind learn English faster On average compared with those without the
background knowledge. Coady mentioned also the interest and
BACKGROUND
KNOWLEDGE
PROCESS
STRATEGIES
CONCEPTUAL
ABILITIES
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background knowledge will bring through for the learner to understand at a
plausible rate and keep him embroiled in The material despite the
difficulties syntax. And the last, process strategy refers to actions taken to
achieve specific objectives to obtain comprehension.
d. Establishing Reading Goals
Establishing a goal for reading is a prerequisite for monitoring the
reading process and planning appropriate strategies for understanding the
text. By setting goals, students are able to generate hypotheses and
formulate expectations which will guide their reading. Anderson and
Armbruster (1982) suggested that surveying the text and determining the
goal can improve both enjoyment and comprehension. Seeing a definite
need for goals, Stauffer (1969) emphasized the importance of goal setting
in his Directed Reading-Thinking Activity. Because of setting goals,
students gain experience in structuring the specific objectives, which will
guide and aid them in reading. Reading must be goal-directed because
readers must determine strategies for utilizing texts in various ways and
must establish appropriate goals.
Once goals are formulated, students will be able to make use of
their knowledge of the topic to stimulate the background knowledge
required for comprehension.. These goals of reading either explicitly or
implicitly can influence students’ understanding of text. In general, good
readers are constantly determining reasons for reading, performing an
overview and determining the intention of the author before they begin to
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read. Finally, setting the purpose of reading will confirm better
understanding of text. This cognitive process requires readers to depend
heavily upon their experiential background to comprehend what they are
reading. Therefore, students need to make themselves familiar with the
topic by increasing their vocabulary and reading awareness.
e. Teaching Reading Comprehension for Senior High School
In teaching English for EFL senior high schools, the students need
some strategies to comprehend the English text, so that messages
delivered by the author can be understood by the reader. Refer to
guideline English curriculum of reading comprehension for teacher
(PDST: professional development service for teacher) mentioned that in
fact the process of reading comprehension is seen instead of having
started reading. But before we read until reading resolved. As a reader
apply pre-reading for previewing text and post-reading for obtaining the
Information is needed.
In Indonesia, English for senior high lever has aim based on
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2006) is understanding students
interpersonal, ideational, and textual meanings in various written text.
Written text is in the form of descriptive, narrative, recount, procedure,
report, news item, anecdot, exposition, explanation, and discussion.
(Yuniarti, 2013:3).
Next Pardo (2004) stated that separating guideline into pre-reading,
when reading and post-reading, for the teacher can outline exercises for
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each phase that will enhance students comprehension and furthermore
give chances to teacher to exhibit procedures that readers apply at each
stage. He mentioned also comprehension is a procedure in which readers
build up signification by socialize with text by applying the reader' prior
knowledge and past experience, the output of the text and the
establishment of the reader pick up relationship to the content of text.
English teacher should teach strategy comprehension to their students
because it is mental processes.
f. Level of Reading Comprehension
Generally, there are three level toward reading comprehension.
Basaraba et all. (2012:352) stated that there are three levels of
comprehension, namely: the first is literal. the second is Inferential and the
last Evaluative.
1) Literal Comprehension
This first level, students are required to know the vocabularies and
synthetic in the reading text and also understand the meaning presented.
According to Rupley and Blair (in Basaraba et al., 2012:352) mentioned
that literal comprehension have two strategies, namely recall and
recognition. Recall is the ability to provide an idea (e.g., main idea or
detail) that was part of passage. Recognition is the ability to recognize
whether specific information is provided in a passage.
Guideline of English curriculum of the reading comprehension for
teacher (PDST: professional development service for teacher) mentioned
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that in the level literal comprehension of the four strategies. First, creating
images is “ to use the senses to help them to draw conclusions, make
predictions, interpret information, remember details and assist overall
comprehension”. (PDST: professional development service for teacher).
Second, skimming is “To involve glancing quickly through a text to gain a
general impression of the content. Graphics, italics and headings are
useful cues when skimming a text”. (PDST: professional development
service for teacher). Third, scanning is glancing through material to locate
specific details, such as names, dates, places or some particular content.”
(PDST: professional development service for teacher). Fourth, self
questioning is to encourage readers to constantly think of questions
before, during and after reading to assist them to comprehend text. Self-
formulated questions provide a framework for active reading and
engagement as students go in search of the answers.” (PDST:
professional development service for teacher).
2). Inferential Comprehension
Inferential comprehension is the reader comprehend for making
meaning toward text . At this level, the reader applies the information
available to predict the readings, draw conclusions and the reader can
explain the information from what he has read. so that readers can find
the attachment between the idea of reading text. make interpretations
about the author’s intended meaning and/or understand the relationships
between the elements presented in the text (Basaraba et al , 2012: 352).
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Guideline of English curriculum of reading comprehension for
teacher (PDST: professional development service for teacher) mentioned
that in the level literal comprehension of the four strategies. First,
connecting is to comprehend text by making strong connections between
their prior knowledge and the new information presented in text. (PDST:
professional development service for teacher). Second, comparing is “
closely linked to ‘Connecting’. When making connections to the text, self,
other texts and the outside world, pupils also make comparisons. There is
an emphasis on identifying similarities and differences.” (PDST:
professional development service for teacher). Third, inferring is “the
readers to comprehend text by making strong connections between their
prior knowledge and the new information presented in the reader to move
beyond the literal text and make assumptions about what is not explicitly
stated in the text. It can involve predictions, conclusions and
interpretations that are neither confirmed nor rejected.” (PDST:
professional development service for teacher). Fourth, predicting helps
readers to activate their prior knowledge about a topic, so they begin to
combine what they know with the new material in the text. Predictions are
based on clues in the text such as pictures, illustrations, subtitles and plot.”
(Reading Booklet. PDST: professional development service for teacher).
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3). Evaluative comprehension
In the last level, the reader is required to give criticism and explain
their understanding, so that this level is a follow up of the literal and
inferential. As applying the last level some of the action can be doing
(Reading Booklet. PDST: professional development), such as:
Synthesising is piecing information together as students read a text, to
keep track of what is happening. Next, determining the important important
information from phrase, sentence, paragraph, chapter or whole text.Then,
summarizing and paraphrasing is reducing larger texts to focus on
important elements and re-stating/re-writing text in own words using key
words to capture main focus. Finally, Self Questioning is providing a
framework for active learning as students engage with the text to find
answers.
2. The concept of Schema theory
a. Definition of Schema Theory
Actually schema theory is introduced by Frederic Bartlett (1932).
Bartlet (1932:2) stated that remembering consist of perceiving study, and
all of thinking, they are cognitive process and part of individual. This
Theory is the involvement of background knowledge and experience in the
past as an initial interpretation of the understanding. Schema theory
started from theory remembering by Bartlett, in his study about
experimental and social Psychology. It was foundation of schema theory.
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besides that, in his study claimed that two method from remembering.
Namely, repeated reproduction and serial reproduction. repeated
reproduction : The same individual repeatedly reproduces the same story,
than Bartlett Centered to how people remember the story and how their
memories will change over time, finally their ability for retelling. serial
reproduction used the children’s game of rumor or telephone. The first
person whispers a word or phrase into the ears of a second person, until it
reaches the last player, The last player says the word or phrase out loud.
From the this, we can hear how much it has changed from the first whisper
at the beginning. Another book by Bartlett, his book’s (1958) namely
Thinking: An Experimental and social study. Without, it’s book not enjoy
the first book “Remembering”. It is called Human Chain ( Roediger, 2003).
Then related with the definition of schema theory is the active role
of the organization as the influence of the past, it means that there is an
active role organizing the background knowledge or experience of the past
could be the foundation of one's understanding (Bartlett:1932).
Continued Goodman (1976)’s schema theory is the model
“guessing games”, that refers to the human which consist of memory high
level structure like structure abstract in heir mind. Continued Coady
(1979)’s basic psycholinguistic model is elaborate in three important
aspect they are conceptual abilities, process strategies, and background
knowledge for producing reading comprehension (in Michael and
Richards C. Jack, 1987: 219). Also, Richards C. Jack (1987: 220) stated
35
that schema theory is the process of interpretation which guided by the
principle that every input is mapped against some existing schema and
those all aspects of the schema must be compatible with input
information. Finally, schema theory is abstract structure in brain of human
which organized by the comprehension of existing or past experience with
new knowledge and comprehension. Then, according to Brown (2011)
mention that The hallmark of the theoretical schema is The text of reading
does not give meaning by itself but, In the reader's brain there is already
information, experience, culture, emotions that are abstract shapes. This is
called the schema theory.
From the all, the writer conclude that schema theory is interactive
between readers with text readings. Readers read using abstract schema
(combination prior knowledge, experience, culture) in their minds. So that
it can get the available information of meaning in the text.
b. Types of Schema Theory
Michael and Richards (1987: 223), stated that just two type of
schema theory, they are formal schemata and content schemata. There
are three major types of schema theory, they are formal of schema theory,
content of schema theory and cultural of schema theory (carrel,
1983.1987, carrel and Eisterhold:1983). As general, there are three types
of schema theory, namely (Yousef et al.,2014; Hui et al., 2007). The
explanation of the each types are:
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1). formal of schema theory or textual schema is defined as knowledge
background which refers to comprehend the linguistic, organization
between text, rhetorical organization. Formal schemata is knowledge
background of the reader and comprehension about rhetorical
organization structure of the text (Michael and Richards, 1987: 223).
Formal schemata are the organizational forms and rhetorical structures
of written texts (Hui et. al., 2007). Formal schemata or textual schema
is knowledge of linguistic structure, rhetorical structure and knowledge
of the text how it is organized and what the main features of a
particular genre of written ( Yousef et. al., 2014). Recently, Weliati
(2015), stated that Formal schemata is The structures rhetorical and
text organizational. Like language structures, vocabulary, grammar and
level of formality differently. It described as expectation in our
attempts to understand a meaning abstract, encoded, internalized,
coherent patterns of meta-linguistic, discourse and textual organization.
2). Content of schema theory is knowledge background including text
area, such as text topic. Content schemata refers to the background
knowledge of the content area of a text, or the topic of a text talks
about (Hui et. al, 2007). Generally content schemata contain in
formation about topic text (Zhang : 2010). Next, Weliati (2015) stated
that content of schema theory refers on knowledge background
discusses the contents of the text and topics in the text, such as
familiar topics, knowledge background, and experience aspect.
37
3). Linguistic of schema theory included knowledge background about
linguistic, like vocabulary and grammar. Hai (2007) stated that linguistic
schema is the foundation of other schemata, because linguistic
knowledge plays an essential part in text understanding. Then, Weliati
(2015) stated that This schema is the main foundation of other schema
because it has an important role in understanding the text. without
knowledge of language (linguistic)the reader does not know the
meaning of the text.
However, dissimilar with Brown (2001), defined that there are two
types of schema theory, as follow first, content schemata refers to
knowledge about people, the world, culture, and the universe. and
second, formal schemata is knowledge about discourse structure of the
text.
c. Schema Theory in Reading Comprehension
The process of the occurrence of schema theory for reading
comprehension has been presented by several experts. One of them,
Michael and Richards C. Jack (1987: 221) stated that two basic modes of
information possessing they are bottom up and top down. Bottom up (data
driven) is processing is evoked by the incoming data, the features of data
enter the system through the best fitting. Top down (conceptually driven)
occurs as the system makes general predictions based higher level,
general schemata and then searches the input for information to fit into
these partially satisfied, higher order schemata. Hui (2007) stated that in
38
psychologists distinguished three kinds of processing: bottom-up model,
top-down model and interactive model.
Brown (2007) stated that there are three processes that cover
how reading skill. Firstly, bottom-up processing refers to how readers read
by knowing the meaning of every word in the text to get the idea.
Secondly, top-down processing is the process in which readers are aware
of core information submitted by the author although the reader is not
familiar with all the vocabulary contained in the reading text. Thirdly,
interactive reading processing is Readers combine between Bottom-up
Processing and Top-down Processing. The reader can know linguistic
structure include the meaning each vocabulary and comprehend discourse
knowledge
In addition, Mikulecky (2008:1) identifies that all of a person’s prior
knowledge, experience, and values are organized in categories, or
schemata. Finally, Knowledge has been obtained and the experience that
is passed through will be stored in the human brain in the form of abstract
structures which are called schemata theory. The schema theory admits
the importance of background knowledge in in the comprehension
process. Experts often argue that the background knowledge is essential
in visualizing the object being described in the text.
So previous information affects new information that involves the
schemes stored in our minds. According to Rumelhart (1976: 6) there are
three kinds in the modification of schema theory in learning process, as
39
follows. Firstly, accretion refers to the process of encoding with new
information with an existing schema. This process is the interpretation of
new information with the existing scheme, this is called the process of
interpretation. it is as the basis for reconstruction of information
processing to change the system, answering questions that cannot be
answered before. It like cognitive dissonance (Adekoya, 2013). Secondly,
tuning or Schema Evolution refers to the function of applying the scheme
is slowly improving. So the combination of new information and
experience can not be fully accommodated in the existing scheme, As a
result the scheme should be more consistent with the new
experience.Thirdly, restructuring or Schema Creation refers to the process
of creating a new scheme from the new information.
d. Reading as Cognitive Process
As part of receptive skill, reading has been widely perceived as a
process of cognition that works within the mind. As a cognitive process,
reading involves processes that constitute a beginning state, an
intervening transformation, and an end state (Bernhardt, 1991). Taking
into account Just and Carpenter’s (1987) view, a reading process involves
what information in the text that accounts for as a point of departure, how
long the process takes, what information used during the process, and
what the reader has learned when the process is finished. This implies that
understanding cognitive process means examining the reading process as
40
an interpersonal problem-solving task that takes place within the brain
knowledge structures (Bernhardt, 1991).
Reading is simply a receptive language process that requires
cognitive process. Goodman (1998), stated that reading is a
psycholinguistic process that starts with a linguistic surface representation
encoded by a writer and ends with meaning which the reader constructs.
As such, there is an essential interaction between language and thought in
reading. The writer encodes thought as language and the reader decodes
language to thought. Goodman (1998) argues that proficient readers, for
example, are both efficient and effective in constructing the meaning that
they can assimilate or accommodate that bear some level of agreement
with the original meaning of the author. As a cognitive process, reading
constitutes a social process that involves cultural transmission (Bloome &
Greene, 1984).
Language comprehension is generally viewed in cognitive theory
as consisting of active and complex processes in which individual
construct meaning from written information (Anderson 1985; Byrnes 1984;
Call 1985; Howard 1985; Pearson, 1985; Richards 1983). The mental
processes necessary for comprehending aural and written text are
sufficiently similar to comprehension of both can generally be discussed as
a common phenomenon. Anderson (1985) distinguishes comprehension
into three interrelated processes that include perceptual processing,
41
parsing, and utilization. The meaning of each interrelated process may be
elaborated in subsequent paragraphs.
In perceptual processing, learner’s attention focusses on oral or
written text with portion of the text being retained in short term memory.
The capacity limitation of short term memory prevents specific word
sequences from being retained longer than a few seconds. This happens
due to incoming infromation that tends to replace the old information that
had been retained in short term memory. While the text is still in short term
memory some initial analysis of the language code may begin and
encopding process gradually convert the text to meaningful
representations. During this process, attention may be directed selectively
to aspect of the tasks or the context that will be useful in comprehension.
(O’Malley & Chamot, 1999).
In parsing, words and phrases are used to construct meaningful
mental representation of the text . Individuals first decode individual words
by matching the aural or visual pattern of the word with its representation
in the declarative knowledge stored in long term memory (Gagne, 1985).
The result of decodning is lexical access, or a matching between words in
short term memory and a type of dictionary in long-term memory that
enables to identify the meaning of individual words. There are existence of
variations in the amount of information retained in long term memory, the
way in which information in long term memory is organized (Rabinowitz
& Chi, 1987).
42
The third process is what they call as utilization where a learner
relates a mental representation of the meaning of the text to declarative
knowledge in long term memory. This propcess is referred to as
elaboration in other description of the reading process (Gagne, 1985). In
this process, declarative knowledge is stored in long term memory in
terms of either propositions or schemata. Utilization is the key to
comprehension process. In any message, according to this expert, there
may be an interplay between information that already stored and
information that is entirely new. Anderson (1985), refers to this as a
distinction between suppositions, ideas that writer or speaker presume we
already know and assertion, information the speaker or writer consider
either new or warranting emphasis. There are linguistic devices for
conveying that information which is supposed or asserted (O’Malley &
Chamot, 1999).
e. Comprehension in Reading
The theoretic views of comprehension in reading have been widely
acknowledged in the literature of reading to account for as bottom-up and
top down process. Johnston (1981), states that reading comprehension
involves conscious and unconscious use of various strategies. Carrell
(1998), reminded that new views of the nature of the reading process have
revitalized both theory and practice in second language reading. According
to this view, reading is an interaction of both top-down and bottom up
processes. These processes utilize background knowledge that can be
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termed as concept-driven. The interaction between top-down and bottom-
up process may be examined from the perspectives of theory, research
and instruction. Overall, the new insight of reading process has
emphasized the role of schema or background knowledge in the process
of reading comprehension. The study employs top-down process as the
theoretical framework that views the schema as element to be central of
inferring meaning from the text. The view is relevant to the existing study
that takes adult learners whose background knowledge is already
sufficient to derive meaning from the text by employing strategies for
understanding written texts.
The top down model is influenced by schema theory, which
emphasizes the importance of the reader’s background knowledge in the
reading process (Carrell, 1998). According to this theory, to comprehend
the text, readers make use of both the text and their background
knowledge. Therefore, interaction of the background knowledge and the
text is important for effective and efficient reading. According to some
experts, a number of processes repeatedly occur in readers’ mind while
reading. The schema or background knowledge under top-down process
makes sufficient account for comprehension of the text. With the help of
such strategies and with the use of pre-reading information readers will be
able to make some predictions about the text. The process of
comprehension begins at the sentence level where readers identify the
meaning and grammatical category of a word and text details. While the
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sentence provides information for further process, readers will check
whether the information fits again by employing both top-down and bottom
up process to make prediction about the text
The theoretical framework of the reading comprehension model is
presented in the following diagram based on top-down process. The
theoretical framework of comprehension in reading developed for this
study is what the so-called a schema-theoretic view that incorporates both
knowledge and input governed system. Goodman (1973) and Smith
(1971) addressed this view as the ‘psycholinguistic model of reading’. This
term is what Goodman also calls as ‘psycholinguistic guessing game’. The
very essential notion of this model is that the reader reconstructs a
message, which a writer has encoded as a graphic display (Goodman,
1972). The model is viewed as an act of the reconstruction of meaning as
being an on-going process of sampling from the input text involving
prediction. The better the reader is able to make correct prediction the less
confirming via the text necessary and the less visual perceptual
information the reader requires (Goodman, 1972) cited in Patricia et al.
(1998). This view is widely taken as an important reference in the field of
second language reading research.
Coady (1979), further elaborated this psycholinguistic view to
reading who claimed that the model of the EFL/ESL reader’s background
knowledge interacts with conceptual abilities. He incorporates conceptual
abilities with processing strategies that involve various components of
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reading ability including general language processing skills. Coady’s
framework of reading has provided essential reference to the present
study with EFL background because he is the one that integrates the
emphasis of background knowledge with EFL situation. The following is
Coady’s (1979) model of the reading process.
C. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Figure 2. The theoretical framework of this research
D. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
1. Schema theory is combination between prior knowledge, existing
information and experience in our mind, like abstract schema, in
interpreting new knowledge and information.
2. Students’ perception is students’ opinions about topic familiar in
reading text toward the students comprehension.
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3. Topic familiar is something has known well, closely with as.
4. Topic unfamiliar is something has not known with as even we never
find something that.
5. Students’ reading comprehension is the ability to understand the
meaning of the text and capable to get implicit of information in the
text.