Theories  of  Poten-al  and  the  Crea-on  of  Inequality  

Danny  Dorling  

King’s  College  London  June  23rd  2015  

Meet  Toby  Morris  

Toby  is  a  illustrator  I  have  never  met,  but  his  work  increases  my  poten-al.    You  can  see  it  at:  h"p://thewireless.co.nz/ar3cles/the-­‐pencilsword-­‐on-­‐a-­‐plate    

Meet  Richard  and  Paula    

A  huge  range  of  factors  will  influence  what  happens  to  Richard  and  Paula,    not  least:  chance.  But  how  they  look  will  also  maQer  –  we  could  study  iden-cal  twins  if  we  were  interested  in  how  much  looks  maQered.  

Of  course  individual  effects  are  of  very  small  importance  compared  to  the  societal  factors  shown  above  –  but  people  are  obsessed  by  individuality.  

 However,  you  cannot  have  a  control  group  of  iden-cal  twins  who  do  not  look  similar,  

so  in  these  cases  ‘twin  studies’  cannot  be  made  independent  of  ‘looks  studies’.  

Society  maQers  most  –  we  did  not  have  to  work  two  jobs  per  person  un-l  recently.      

But  if  you  want  know  why  individualist  aQributes  (like  looks)  maQer  as  well  as  society,    consider  how  o[en  unarmed  black  Americans  are  shot  by  the  police.  

 hQp://www.theguardian.com/us-­‐news/2015/jun/01/black-­‐americans-­‐killed-­‐by-­‐police-­‐analysis  

 

Of  course,  issues  like  school  and  family  maQer  most  -­‐  but  individual  factors  do  too.  Skin  colour  is  a  special  case,  but  what  about  sex,  and  height,  and  weight,  and  hair  colour,  and  the  prominence  of  cheekbones  and  chin,  and  distance  between  the  eyes?  They  affect  our  snap  judgments  about  how  intelligent  

people  are  and  what  they  might  or  might  not  be  good  at,  but  also  affect  our  more  considered  judgments:  See  Study  of  June  8th    2015:  hQp://www.ioe.ac.uk/newsEvents/

113498.html  or  a  John  Hade  video:  hQps://www.youtube..com/watch?v=rzwJXUieD0U  

Societal  factors  mater  most.  And  history:  grades  are  only  a  recent  inven-on.  There  will  also  be  numerous  correla-ons  between  physical  characteris-cs  and  

expected  performance.  And  expected  performance  will  affect  actual  performance,  see  the  Rosenthal–Jacobson  study  (telling  teachers  children  are  able  then  helps  teaching)    h"ps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmalion_effect  

When  it  comes  to  people,  the  word  poten&al  has  come  to  mean  very  different  things  to  different  readers.  The  UN  Conven3on  on  the  Rights  of  the  Child  states  that  “educa-onal  establishments  should  be  well  funded  and  governments  should  take  all  necessary  steps  to  create  an  environment  where  all  children  can  grow  and  reach  their  full  poten&al.”  One  reac-on  to  this  use  of  that  phrase  at  that  point  is  to  cast  doubt  on  the  idea  that  many  children  have  much  poten-al  and  to  then  suggest  that  just  a  few  need  to  be  sought  out  and  specially  nurtured.      

Circumstances  maQer  and  are  influenced  by  where  you  live.  More  parents  are  more  o[en  sick  in  areas  of  depriva-on.  They  are  no  internships  in  other  areas,  whether  you  can  afford  to  take  an  internship  or  not.    From  very  early  on  in  life,  through  to  young  adulthood  all  kinds  of  factors  are  at  play  that  determine  who  wins  and  who  loses  monetarily.  The  most  monied  get  most  ‘educated’  and  get  the  highest  grades.  But  what  kind  of  an  educa-on  is  that  really,  and  for  what  end?      

However,  more  compelling  evidence  suggests  that  we  have  the  poten-al  to  think,  dream  and  become  beQer  than  this.  But  that  poten-al  is  collec-ve,  not  individualis-c,  and  will  not  be  fully  realized  while  we  are  so  diverted  by  the  search  for  the  ‘golden  child’  –  the  mythical  individual  with  the  greatest  inherent  poten-al  of  all.    

THE RICHEST 1% WOULD OWN THIS

Some  genes  might  give  you  a  slight  edge  over  other  people  for  something,  but  you’re  likely  to  not  be  so  good  at  something  else.  This  is  what  you  would  expect  from  evolu-on.  There  are  no  super-­‐genes.  Some  genes  can  cause  gene-c  disorders  that  result  in  handicaps,  and  that  is  why  those  genes  are  rela-vely  rare.  Advantageous  genes  are  common  precisely  because  they  are  advantageous.    And:    “Although  the  striking  visual  similarity  of  iden3cal  twins  reveals  the  gene3c  penetrance  of  facial  appearance,  a  comparison  of  gene3cally  iden3cal  irises  reveals  just  the  opposite  for  iris  pa"erns:  the  iris  sequence  is  an  epigene3c  phenotypic  feature,  not  a  genotypic  feature.”  

hQp://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~jgd1000/gene-cs.html  

When  you  look  at  varia-on  in  how  we  behave  and  what  we  are  capable  of,  you  realize  that  our  poten-al  is  frequently  limited  by  our  culture.  In  many  cultures  in  Africa  most  people  become  fluent  in  several  languages,  in  England  it  is  an  excep-onal  ability  –  much  less  excep-onal  in  much  of  Europe.  So  to  improve  language  skills,  we  shouldn't  strive  to  iden-fy  children  with  excep-onal  language  ability  at  an  early  age,  but  look  at  what  we  are  doing  that  inhibits  language  ability.      The  same  can  be  said  for  musical  ability  and  mathema-cal  ability.    

Inequality  is  created,  maintained  and  defended  by  the  theory  that  different  people  are  of  greatly  different  worth;  that  their  children  have  hugely  varying  poten&als;    that  inequality  is  inevitable;    and  that  all  is  roughly  for  the  best  in  the  best  of  all  possible  worlds  –    we  should  not  expect  greater  equality  to  be  possible  –    just  a  liQle  fairer,  sor-ng  out  by  merit.    

Those  who  think  gene-c  influences  are  very  important  know  that  geography  maQers  too.  But,  if  you  are  interested  in  debunking  myths  see  Figure  2  of  this  paper  to  see  how  liQle  they  really  do  know  (they  are  not  mapping  what  they  think  they  map):  “Visual  analysis  of  geocoded  twin  data  puts  nature  and  nurture  on  the  map:  Molecular  Psychiatry  (2012)  17,  867  –  874.      

Does  this  map  have  much  to  do  with  ‘ADHD’  at  all,  as  implied  by  the  highlight-­‐ed  text,  or  is  it  showing  some-­‐thing  else?    

Look  at  the  equa-on  in  the  paper,  and  then  at  a  map  of  what  geographers  (ironically)  call  popula3on  

poten3al.  

There  is  currently  a  huge  gulf  between  cartoonists  taking  their  readers  on  a  tour  of  the  current  extremes  of  economic,  social  and  educa-onal  inequali-es;  and  researchers  trying  to  measure  inherent  poten-al  in  case  some  level  playing  field  were  ever  established  and  in  case  we  are  ever  locked  in  individual  boxes  in  future  and  can’t  cooperate  (the  Matrix  Movie  nightmare)  –  in  reality,  rather  than  in  The  Matrix,  you  are  truly  more  clever  together…  

Sparking  debate  about  income  gaps,  the  damage  they  do,  and  how  to  narrow  them  

IS  NZ  FAIR  COMPETITION?:    MANUREWA  INTERMEDIATE    SCHOOL  ENTRY  

It  doesn’t  take  a  great  deal  of  imagina-on  to  beQer  see  what  maQers,  but  a  Cyril  Burt  

inspired  educa-on  is  not  keen  on  imagina-on:  

 

See:  h"p://www.inequality.org.nz/  

Children  aged  15/16  1993-­‐99  by  school  type  &  GCSEs  

Charts  are  drawn  in  propor-on  to  total  numbers  of  children  aQending  each  type  of  school  and  shaded  by  the  shares  awarded  par-cular  grades  -­‐  Data  source:  Analysis  of  na-onal  school  league  tables  for  Britain  1993-­‐00  

Figure  3.5  Educa-on…the  sor-ng  out  of  children  (form  the  book  ‘The  Popula-on  of  the  UK’)  

Selec-ve  schools  tell  their  pupils  that  they  are  more  clever  than  other  children.  The  children  have  no  way  of  knowing,  so  believe  it.  They  are  

trained  in  exam  passing  (a  useless  skill  in  later  life),  which  is  said  to  prove  their  extra  cleverness.    

 

A  great  deal  of  the  differences  between  people  is  due  to  how  they  are  treated.    When  people  treat  you  as  dumb,  you  feel  dumb,  you  act  dumb.    When  they  smile  at  you  as  they  serve  you  it  is  easy  to  begin  to  feel  superior.      There  is  a  quote  from  Pygmalion  (which  became  My  Fair  Lady):    “the  difference  between  a  lady  and  a  flower  girl  is  not  how  she  behaves,  but  how  she's  treated.”      The  'Pygmalion  effect'  is  an  example  of  a  self-­‐fulfilling  prophecy,  as  happens  with  selec-ve  educa-on.  This  involves  spending  much  more  money  on  the  supposedly  more  poten-ally  clever.      It  turned  out  that  the  sor3ng  hat  lies…  

There's  nothing  hidden  in  your  head      

The  Sor3ng  Hat  can't  see,      

So  try  me  on  and  I  will  tell  you      

Where  you  ought  to  be.  

 “the  difference  between  a  lady  and  a  flower  girl  is  not  how  she  behaves,  but  how  she's  treated.”  (George  Bernard  Shaw,  16th  Nov.  1913)…  “Children  from  poorer  

families  perceived  by  teachers  as  less  able,  says  study”  The  Guardian,  June  9th  2015  

There  is  also    ‘a  “voluminous”  literature  regarding  differences  in  experiences  between  sexes’  in  how  people  are  treated  and  react.  Sadly  it  is  not  know  by  those  who  write  papers  3tled  (see  p.600):  “Demonstra3ng  the  Validity  of  Twin  Research  in  Criminology”,  Criminology,  52,  4,  588-­‐626,  2015,  doi:  10.1111/1745-­‐9125.12049  

…these  studies  are  ‘silly’  (not  valid).  By  ‘silly’  I  mean  ‘fraught  with  problems  ‘….          

Children  are  labelled  in  ways  that  cause  terrible  damage  both  at  the  top  

and  boQom  of  many  socie-es  

Label Change

3% 'none' 0.9

11% 'limited' -0.220% 'barely adequate'

-1.4

28% 'simple' 0.7

25% 'effective' -0.511% 'developed' 0.0

2% 'advanced' 0.5

Netherlands 2012

3.2

10.5

19.7

27.6

25.311.5

2.2100.0

Math-ematics

3.8

11

17.9

24.2

23.814.9

4.4100.0

Science

3.1

10.1

20.1

29.1

25.810.5

1.3100.0

Literacy

2.8

10.3

21

29.2

26.19

0.899.2

Netherlands 2006

2.3

10.7

21.1

26.9

25.811.5

1.7100.0 0.0

25% ‘effective’(down 1%)

20% ‘barely adequate’(down 1%)

28% ‘simple’(up 1%)

3% ‘none’ (up 1%)

11% ‘developed’(unchanged)

2% ‘advanced’ (unchanged)

11% ‘limited’(unchanged)

Source: (OECD 2012) (derived from figures in table below)

Notes: ‘None’ implies none as can be measured. ‘Limited’ implies possessing very limited knowledge. ‘Barely adequate’ stands for barely adequate knowledge in the view of the assessors. ‘Simple’ means understanding only simple concepts. ‘Effective’ is a little less damning. ‘Developed’ is better again; but only those rated as ‘Advanced’ are said to be capable of the kind of thinking that might include ‘critical insight’. Note that in the PISA 2012 update these words are no longer used and three scores have to be summed. The OECD PISA assessments put children in 7 levels by ability. The adjectives used here are extracted from PISA's own 2006 descriptions of what these bands represented as published in OECD (2007) The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), OECD’s latest PISA study of learning skills among 15-year-olds, Paris: OECD, derived from figures in table 1, p 20: Updated using data from 2012 that is available here: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014024_tables.pdf for “mathematics literacy scale” descriptions Exhibit M1, figures Table M1for “science literacy scale” descriptions Exhibit S1, figures Table S1 for “reading literacy scale” descriptions Exhibit R1, figures Table R1

Figure 1: Children in the Netherlands ranked by ability (%) according to the OECD, 2012 (showing changes since 2006)

Children  are  damaged  by  -red  stressed  carers,  by  family  rela-onship  breakdowns  and  s-ll  some-mes  by  illness,  accident  or  tragedy.  They  can  be  disadvantaged  by  the  month  in  which  they  are  born,  where  there  is  a  school  system  which  is  compe--ve  at  an  age  when  a  few  months  difference  can  be  significant.  A  compe--ve  school  system  is  very  destruc-ve.  Repeatedly  judging  some  children  as  failures  is  highly  damaging.    

Perceptions of the economic climate after the crash, in 2009, by income, UK (%)

Less than £20,000

£20k-£40k

£40k-£60k

£60k-£100k £100k+

All indiv-iduals

The economic situation in the world:

Good or very good 6 3 2 1 0 4

Neither good or bad 17 18 12 8 8 16

Bad or very bad 77 79 85 91 92 80

The economic situation in the UK:

Good or very good 8 5 4 4 0 6

Neither good or bad 17 15 13 4 11 15

Bad or very bad 76 80 83 92 89 80

The financial situation in your household:Good or very good 28 44 54 64 63 40

Neither good or bad 47 42 35 36 34 43Bad or very bad 25 14 11 1 3 18

Source: 2009 Survey of Public Attitudes and Behaviours towards the Environment, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs – collected February–March, ONS 2012, Social Trends 41, Income and Wealth, Table 1.

Very difficult 6%

Difficult to manage 15%

Coping 48%

Living comfortably

31%

Source: Derived from ONS (2006) Social Trends (No 36), London: Palgrave Macmillan, table 5.15, p 78, mean of 1984, 1994 and 2004 surveys.

Note: Respondents were asked ‘Which of the (above) phrases comes closest to your feelings about your household’s income these days?’. Excludes those who did not answer.

Figure 11: Households’ ability to get by on their income in Britain, two decades before the crash, 1984–2004

The  different  likelihoods  of  being  able  to  achieve  different  things  depends  on  where  you  live,  which  country,  which  town  and  which  part  of  that  town.  This  is  something  that  we  can  map  and  the  maps  show  drama-c  differences.  There  are  also  drama-c  differences  depending  on  whether  children  are  being  brought  up  in  households  that  describe  themselves  as  'living  comfortably',  just  'coping',  'difficult  to  manage'  or  'very  difficult  to  manage’.    

What  sort  of  upbringing  can  you  give  children  if  you  are  that  stressed?  How  many  rows  and  tensions  occur  just  over  money?  What  psychological  damage  does  that  do  to  children?  

Income

Standard ofliving

High

High

Standard of livingthreshold

Incomethreshold

Asset wealthyAsset wealthyAsset wealthy

Not poor

Rising

Vulnerable

PoorCorepoor

Exclusively wealthy

Low

Low

Not poor

Poor

Vulnerable

Rising

KEY

Source: Adapted from David Gordon’s original and much replicated drawing. See publication details of various of the works (where earlier versions appear) at the Townsend Centre for International Poverty Research, University of Bristol (www.bris.ac.uk/poverty/).

Note: It is because a change in income usually precedes changes in standard of living, that we tend to spiral anti-cockwise within this figure, sometimes just in small eddies.

Figure 8: Circling from exclusion to inclusion and back again (model)

When  you  ask  people  who  have  achieved    what  they  aQribute  their  success  to;  those  that  are  not  so  conceited  as  to  say  “it  must  be  my  genes”,  o[en  men-on  chance  events  they  could  not  have  planned.    

Studies of depression in adolescent girls in North America, 1984–2010 (see table 7, page 274 of the first edition of this book for details):

0.56 Correlation Coefficient (ignoring last observation)2.2600 Test Statistic; 0.024 p value0.46 mean percentage point rise per year 1983–2000

0.7 Correlation Coefficient (including last observation)3.2447 Test Statistic; 0.001 p value0.48 mean percentage point rise per year 1983–2009

Year Rate (%) Observations Born (year) Age Study # Location

1984.5 7.6 776 65–74 10–20 2 USA1983.5 2.3 2852 66–79 6–16 6 Canada1987.5 3.8 1710 69–74 14–18 8 USA1987.5 3.7 1710 69–74 14–18 9 USA1984.5 2.2 792 71–72 13 10 USA

1990 5.6 336 73–81 9–17 17 USA1990 3.4 542 73–81 9–17 18 USA

1990.5 2.4 2762 74–83 8–16 20 USA1994 12.5 1847 75–82 12–19 22 Canada1995 13.9 4023 78–83 12–17 26 USA1994 4.5 558 79–82 12–15 29 USA-Anglo1994 6.5 665 79–82 12–15 30 USA-African-American1994 11.4 429 79–82 12–15 31 USA-Mexican-American

1994.5 4.2 4984 80–84 9–16 34 USA1994.5 4.2 1691 80–84 9–16 35 USA1999.5 9.7 1886 82–96 4–17 41 Puerto Rico

2009 15.2 5625 94 15 New USA (SAMHSA)

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Source: Re-analysis of Costello, E.J. et al (2006) ‘Is there an epidemic of child or adolescent depression?’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol 47, no 12, pp 1263-71. The data shown above are for those studies where the children lived in the USA, the US territory of Puerto Rico, or Canada. The final study was published in 2012 by Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) and based on combined data from the 2008 to 2010 SAMHSA National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

Note: Each circle represents a study; the area of the circle is drawn in proportion to study size. An additional very recent study has been added to the figure which was not included in the first edition of this book.

Figure 21: Adolescent girls assessed as depressed (%) as reported in various studies in North America, 1984–2010

 Achievement  and  

failure  have  liQle  to  do  with  innate  

poten-al,  but  far  more  to  do  with  circumstance,  

which  is  why  it  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  

predictable.      

Given  this  and  that,  the  likelihood  is  so  

and  so.  But  also  there  are  the  unpredictable  

events.  The  teacher  that  you  happened  to  like,  even  if  many  

children  didn't.    

Bell  curves  are  fabricated  

Label

'None'

'Limited''Barely adequate''Simple''Effective''Developed''Advanced'

1.0 0.9 1.1 -2.1-0.6 -0.2 0.1 -2.1-0.6 -1.4 1.2

1.7-0.2 0.7 1.83.4-0.4 -0.5 -0.9

-0.1

0.2 0.0 -2.3 -0.90.5 0.5 -0.9 -0.10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Nether-landsOECD UK USA

0.0

2.03.0

-1.0

1.0

-2.0

% change 2006–2012 (note, scale = 2x above)

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

OECD Nether-lands

UK USA

‘None’‘Limited’‘Barely adequate’‘Simple’‘Effective’‘Developed’‘Advanced’

2012

Source: Data originally given in OECD (2007) The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), OECD’s latest PISA study of learning skills among 15-year-olds, Paris: OECD, derived from figures in table 1, p20. Updated using http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014024_tables.pdf (see Figure 1 notes)

Figure 2: Distribution of children by ability, according to the OECD, 2012 (%)

There  is  no  point  in  searching  for  supposedly  brilliant  children.  Any  group  on  which  you  spend  more  -me,  money  and  effort  is  likely  to  do  beQer.  Look  first  at  poverty  and  depriva-on  and  try  to  reduce  inequality.  Look  next  at  educa-on  and  study  what  happens  in  other  countries  where  they  achieve  beQer  results.  Should  we  start  formal  educa-on  later  and  have  less  tes-ng,  fewer  exams  and  less  selec-on?  A  much  higher  propor-on  get  into  university  now  than  ever  got  into  grammar  schools  with  the  eleven  plus  exam.    

People  are  rarely  handed  great  innate  ability.  

Rate of prescribing antidepressants by NHS Board: Defined Daily Doses per 1,000 population (aged 15+), Scotland, 1992–2014:

92-93

94-95

96-97

98-99

00-01

02-03

04-05

06-07

08-09

10-11

12-13

13-14

Scotland 19 26 37 48 62 76 84 88 97 112 123 130

Ayrshire & Arran 19 26 37 51 65 81 90 95 107 123 136 145 Borders 20 26 35 43 54 68 78 84 93 110 123 132 Dum. & Galloway 21 27 39 48 64 78 83 85 92 105 118 125 Fife 21 26 36 47 60 74 80 84 93 109 121 129 Forth Valley 22 29 42 53 65 81 88 91 98 114 125 132 Grampian 15 20 28 37 48 59 67 71 78 92 103 108 Greater Glasgow 19 27 39 53 68 84 94 103 113 129 139 157 Highland 15 22 31 41 54 66 71 75 80 93 103 107 Lanarkshire 19 27 37 49 63 80 88 95 105 123 137 128 Lothian 20 27 37 46 57 70 75 78 85 99 110 115 Orkney 22 26 34 39 45 58 64 65 73 86 99 109 Shetland 14 20 29 40 52 53 55 61 70 81 96 104 Tayside 20 26 37 49 65 79 87 91 98 113 121 128 Western Isles 18 25 33 43 54 63 69 73 82 96 105 108

Note: In 2006/07, NHS Argyll & Clyde was dissolved as an NHS Board and its CHPs were absorbed into NHS Greater Glasgow and NHS Highland. From 2006/07 onwards 'Inverclyde and Renfrewshire' CHP became part of NHS Greater Glasgow & Clyde, and 'Argyll & Bute' CHP became part of NHS Highland. Beware changes in these Health Boards between those two years.

0102030405060708090100110120130140

92-

93 9

3-94

94-

95 9

5-96

96-

97 9

7-98

98-

99 9

9-00

00-

01 0

1-02

02-

03 0

3-04

04-

05 0

5-06

06-

07 0

7-08

08-

09 0

9-10

10-

11 1

1-12

12-

13 1

3-14

Source: NHS Quality Improvement Scotland (2007) NHS quality improvement Scotland: Clinical indicators 2007, Glasgow: NHS Quality Improvement Scotland, Table 1.1, p. 12.Updated using: ISD Scotland (2015) Better Information, Better Decisions, Better Health: Data Tables, NHS Scotland (http://www.isdscotland.org/Health-Topics/Prescribing-and-medicines/Publications/data-tables.asp?id=1309#1309)

Note: The NHS uses financial years when reporting on prescribing rates. The measure shown is what is called standardised defined daily doses (the commonest amount prescribed in mg/day for each anti-depressant drug) per 1,000 people aged 15+. In the first edition of this book the latest data available was for 2005–6.

Figure 25: The rate of prescribing anti-depressants by the NHS in Scotland, 1992–2014.People  are  becoming  

more  and  more  anxious  over  -me,  especially  in  the  most  unequal  of  countries  where  they  are  most  o[en  judged.  

Selected measures of inequality and healthy behaviour – all countries for which data exists on all measures, latest comparable data:

AustraliaNetherlandsSwedenNorwayFranceCanadaFinlandIrelandGermanyUKDenmarkUSJapan

Top 1% income

share

9.26.37.17.98.1

12.17.5

10.510.912.9

6.419.3

9.5

Cycle/Walk

(%)

651322625123113342434

3.516

Popu-lation(mil)

2217

95

6334

55

8262

6310127

Cycle (%)

126

943192

102

180.5

9

Walk (%)

525232222112211242216

37

Obesity (%)

281212101525162315251335

4

Alcohol (litres)

10977

138

1012121011

97

Cigar-ettes

1034801715534854809671

10061045

750141310281841

Life expectancy

in 2008

81.580.381.480.681.280.779.979.980.279.778.877.982.7

Prop

ortio

n of

the

popu

latio

n w

ho c

ycle

or w

alk

to w

ork

as th

eir m

ain

form

of t

rans

port

0%

20%

40%

60%

10%

30%

50%

0 5 10 15Inequality: Income share of the best-off one percent of the

population (% all income taken by this group)

20 25

Netherlands

DenmarkSweden

Finland

Germany

NorwayFrance

UK

JapanCanada

IrelandAustralia

US

Source: Paris Top income dataset figures as accessed in January 2015, cycling and walking for Japan http://www.tokyobybike.com/2013/10/how-many-japanese-cycle-to-work.html

Note: The figures for Japan are only for workers, not students, and are low because the train is the main means of transport for so many in Japan. Area proportional to population.

Note: Data sources as above except obesity data, which is % of population obese aged 15 years and over in 2012 (source http://www.oecd.org/els/health-systems/Obesity-Update-2014.pdf ). Cigarettes is number of cigarettes smoked per adult per year in 2007 (source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_cigarette_consumption_per_capita)Alcohol consumption measured in equivalent litres of pure ethanol per capita per year 2008 –2012 (source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_alcohol_consumption_per_capita). Life expectancy source is http://www.oecd.org/berlin/47570143.pdf

Figure 26: Healthy behaviour and income inequality, walking and cycling 2006-2010, affluent countries.

New  possibili-es  emerge  when  

and  where  people  work  together  and  control  the  

richest  in  their  socie-es  so  that  the  rich  take  a  

smaller  share  of  the  cake.  

 One  possibility  is  not  having  a  car-­‐  bound  culture.  

That  is  collec3ve  cleverness.  How  did  the  Dutch  

manage  it  if  they  are  really  as  

portrayed  by  the  “IQ”  tests?  

Poten-al  is  about  Poli-cs  

“The  idea  that  poverty  is  passed  down  from  genera-on  to  genera-on  in  our  genes  is  the  last  refuge  of  scoundrels.  For  a  conserva-ve  elite,  it  is  clearly  convenient  to  claim  that  welfare  and  educa-on  spending  make  no  difference  because  poor  people  are  intrinsically  feckless.  It  also  allows  them  to  imagine  their  own  wealth  and  status  is  part  of  the  natural  order.    No  wonder,  then,  that  Michael  Gove  and  his  adviser  Dominic  Cummings  began  cour-ng  the  gene-c  determinists.”  

See  more  at  “No  genes  for  literacy  Posted  on  February  28,  2015  by  reclaimschools  

hQp://reclaimingschools.org/2015/02/28/no-­‐genes-­‐for-­‐literacy/  

Let’s  end  with  Toby  Morris  again.  Here  we  see  Toby  reaching  the  boQom  of  his  ‘tower  of  inequality’,  published  worldwide  in  April  2015.  Toby  wants  to  know  what  to  do:  

hQp://thewireless.co.nz/ar-cles/the-­‐pencilsword-­‐inequality-­‐tower  

Here  is  what  not  to  do:  “Policymakers  and  educators  don’t  need  gene-cs  to  help  them  make  a  beQer  

environment  for  all  our  children.  What  is  lacking  is  the  poli-cal  will.”  Steven  Rose,  TES,  24/1/,2014          hQps://www.tes.co.uk/ar-cle.aspx?storyCode=6395645  

The  word  ‘genes’  features  26  &mes  in  The  Second  edi&on  of  ‘Injus&ce’    

Much  more  can  be  achieved  by  co-­‐opera-on  than  by  compe--on.  We  all  have  skills  and  abili-es,  and  just  being  cheerful,  pleasant  and  

kind  are  some  of  the  most  valuable  abili-es  of  all.    

We  all  need  to  help  each  other  –  because  none  of  us  are  that  special.    

And  we  can  so  easily  get  things  so  very  wrong  due  to  the  fact  that  we  do  not  vary  greatly  in  ability  (poten-al  or  realized)…    and  we  can  also  

get  things  right  by  repeatedly  asking  for  help.    

Thank  you  for  your  pa-ence  (and  help!)  The  End