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Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover
Investigation of antioxidative capacity in bovine seminal plasma–
Effects of Omega-3 fatty acids
INAUGURAL – DISSERTATION zur Erlangung des Grades eines
Doktors der Veterinärmedizin
- Doctor medicinae veterinariae -
( Dr. med. vet. )
vorgelegt von
Oguz Calisici Samsun / Türkei
Hannover 2010
Wissenschaftliche Betreuung: Prof. Dr. Heinrich Bollwein
Klinik für Rinder
1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. H. Bollwein
2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. H. Sieme
Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 17.05.2010
To Duygu and my Parents
Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2
2.1 Reactive Oxygen Species 2
2.1.1 Definition and existence of reactive oxygen species 2
2.1.2 Oxidative stress 4
2.1.3 Significance of oxidative stress in male reproduction 4
2.1.3.1 Sources of ROS in semen 4
2.1.3.2 Targets and pathological role of ROS in semen 6
Lipids of sperm plasma membrane and lipid peroxidation 7
Damage of DNA 10
Damage of proteins 10
Apoptosis 10
2.1.3.3 Physiological role of ROS in semen 11
2.2 Antioxidants 11
2.2.1 Enzymatic antioxidants 12
2.2.1.1 Superoxide Dismutase 12
2.2.1.2 Glutathione Peroxidase 13
2.2.1.3 Catalase 15
2.2.2 Non-enzymatic antioxidants 15
2.3 Seminal plasma and its antioxidative significance for male reproduction 17
2.3.1 Accessory glands and seminal plasma 17
2.3.2 Antioxidative properties of seminal plasma 18
2.4 Measurement of oxidative stress and antioxidants using chemiluminescence 19
3 OWN EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES 20
3.1 Establishment of a new assay for the determination of total antioxidative
capacity of bovine seminal plasma 20
3.1.1 Abstract 20
3.1.2 Introduction 21
3.1.3 Materials and Methods 22
3.1.3.1 Chemicals 22
3.1.3.2 Semen collection, dilution and freezing 22
3.1.3.3 Handling of seminal plasma 23
3.1.3.4 Antioxidant assays 23
Total Antioxidant Capacity 23
Instrumentation and automated measurement of TAC SOD and GPx 24
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) Assay 24
Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) Assay 25
Determination of protein concentrations 26
Measurements of intra- and inter-assay Variations 26
3.1.3.5 Flow cytometric analyses 26
Plasma Membrane Integrity and Acrosomal Integrity 27
Lipid Peroxidation (LPO) 27
Sperm Chromatin Structure Assay 28
3.1.3.6 Statistical analysis 28
3.1.4 Results 28
3.1.4.1 Reproducibility of TAC-, SOD- and GPx assays 28
3.1.4.2 TAC, SOD and GPx levels in seminal plasma 29
3.1.4.3 Volume and sperm concentration of ejaculates 30
3.1.4.4 Sperm quality 32
3.1.4.5 Relationships between antioxidant levels and between antioxidant levels
and sperm quality 34
3.1.5 Discussion 34
3.2 Effects of feeding omega-3-fatty acids on sperm quality of Holstein Friesian bulls
before and after cryopreservation: Effects on seminal plasma 37
3.2.1 Abstract 37
3.2.2 Introduction 38
3.2.3 Materials and Methods 39
3.2.3.1 Bulls 39
3.2.3.2 Dietary supplementation of bulls 39
3.2.3.3 Semen collection, dilution and freezing 40
3.2.3.4 Handling of seminal plasma and measurement of TAC, GPx and SOD 40
3.2.3.5 Flow cytometric analyses 41
Plasma Membrane Integrity and Acrosomal Integrity 41
Sperm Chromatin Structure Assay 41
3.2.3.6 Fatty acid extraction and analysis 41
3.2.3.7 Statistical analysis 42
3.2.4 Results 43
3.2.4.1 Fatty acid analysis 43
3.2.4.2 Dietary effects on sperm quality and fatty acid composition 43
3.2.4.3 Effect of feeding ALA on antioxidant levels of seminal plasma 45
3.2.4.4 Correlation between fatty acids and antioxidants 45
3.2.5 Discussion 46
4 SUMMARIZING DISCUSSION AND CONLUSIONS 49
5 SUMMARY 52
6 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 54
7 REFERENCES 56
8 APPENDIX 75
List of abbreviations AD acrosome-damaged sperm ALA α-linolenic acid AO acridine orange BP C-11 BODIPY581/591 BSA bovine serum albumin CAT catalase CuZn-SOD copper-zinc SOD CV coefficient of variation DFI DNA fragmentation index DHA docosahexaenoic acid DMSO dimethyl sulfoxide DNA deoxyribonucleic acid EPA eicosapentaenoic acid EDTA ethylene diamin tetra acetic acid FITC-PNA fluorescein isothiocyanate labeled peanut from Arachis h hour HRP horse radish peroxidase H2O2 hydrogen peroxide GPx glutathione peroxidase GRx glutathione reductase GSH glutathione GSSG oxidized GSH L litre LPO lipid peroxidation mg milligram ng nanogram min. minute ml millilitre mM millimole Mn-SOD manganese SOD NADH nicotinamin dinucleotid NADPH nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate NADP+ oxidized form of NADPH NBT nitro blue tetrazolium NO. nitrite oxide radical OH. hydroxyl radical ONOO- peroxinitrite anion O2
.- superoxide radical PBS phosphate buffer solution PHGPx phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase PI propidium iodide PMI plasma membrane integrity PMS phenazine methosulfate PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acid SFA saturated fatty acid RLU relative chemiluminescence units ROS reactive oxygen species ROO. lipid peroxyl radical RNS reactive nitrogen species
SD standard deviation SD-DFI standard deviation of DFI SOD superoxide dismutase TAC total antioxidant capacity TBHP t-butyl hydroperoxide μL micro litre 1O2 singlet oxygen
1
1 INTRODUCTION
Bovine semen has been cryopreserved since more than a half century for artificial
insemination and nowadays it is being widely used all over the world. However, it is well
known that the cryopreservation procedure is detrimental to sperm particularly because of
chemical and physical stress factors which are occurring during this process
(HAMMERSTEDT et al. 1990; WATSON 1995; CHATTERJEE and GAGNON 2001). One
important factor is oxidative stress which, in turn, affects biological membranes and DNA of
sperm (AITKEN and KRAUSZ 2001; BALL 2008). Bovine sperm themselves have only few
amounts of endogenous antioxidants for the protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS)
and the main antioxidant source is the seminal plasma (DAWRA and SHARMA 1985;
BILODEAU et al. 2000). Therefore, the development of sensitive techniques for monitoring
the activity of antioxidants in seminal plasma is of clinical importance. Sensitive
chemiluminescence techniques have been employed to monitor total antioxidant capacity of
human seminal fluid (SHARMA et al. 1999).
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) play an important role in regulating sperm membrane
fluidity and spermatogenesis (HAIDL and OPPER 1997; OLLERO et al. 2000). After
freezing and thawing, the portion of PUFA in sperm plasma membrane decreases
significantly due to lipid peroxidation (CEROLINI et al. 2001). Low portions of C20 and C22
PUFAs in sperm in old bulls were related to reductions in sperm quality and -fertilizing
ability (KELSO et al. 1997b).
In various feeding experiments polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have been supplied to
change the fatty acid composition of sperm membrane in order to improve sperm quality and
fertility. Indeed, the fatty acid profile of sperm membranes can be modified with diet and an
improvement of sperm quality was observed in a variety of livestock species including
chicken, turkey, boar and stallion (KELSO et al. 1997a; ROOKE et al. 2001; BLESBOIS et al.
2004; BRINSKO et al. 2005). However, it is possible that feeding of PUFAs reduces also the
antioxidative capacity of semen which, in turn, can (SURAI et al. 2000b; CASTELLINI et al.
2003) disturbs sperm quality in the case of excessive ROS production.
The aims of this study were: (i) to determine total antioxidant capacity of bovine seminal
plasma and its relationship with other antioxidants and sperm quality; (ii) to ascertain whether
feeding omega-3-fatty acid reduces the antioxidative status of seminal plasma.
2
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Reactive Oxygen Species
2.1.1 Definition and existence of reactive oxygen species
A free radical is any species capable of independent existence that contains one or more
unpaired electrons (HALLIWELL 1989). A radical can be neutral or positively or negatively
charged. HALLIWELL and GUTTERIDGE (1989) defined reactive oxygen species (ROS) as
a collective term which includes oxygen radicals (e.g. Superoxide radical and Hydroxyl
radical) as well as some highly reactive derivates of O2 that do not contain unpaired electrons
(non-radicals) such as hydrogene peroxide (H2O2), singlet oxygen (1O2) and hypochlorous
acid (HOCl). ROS have different abilities to react with many structural and functional
important molecules in living organisms.
There are some nitrogen-derived free radicals called reactive nitrogen species (RNS, e.g.,
nitrite oxide (NO.) and peroxinitrite anion (ONOO-) which are considered as a subclass of
ROS (SIKKA 2001). Some of ROS and RNS are summarized in Table 1-1.
The superoxide radical (O2.-) is the main free radical and an example of free radicals with
intermediate reactivity (FRIDOVICH 1983; SIKKA 2001). One-electron reduction of O2
produces the superoxide radical, O2-. This is frequently written as O2
.- where the dot denotes a
radical species, that is an unpaired electron. It is negatively charged and produced in
biological systems during electron transport (during respiration) in mitochondria. It can not
rapidly cross the lipid membrane bilayer (KRUIDENIER and VERSPAGET 2002). However,
superoxide is a precursor of other, more powerful ROS. It can participate in the production of
more powerful radicals as an oxidizing agent or by donating an electron and thereby reducing
Fe3+ and Cu2+ to Fe2+ and Cu+, as follows:
O2.- + Fe3+/Cu2+ Fe2+/Cu+ + O2 (step 1, reduction of ferric ion to ferrous).
Further reactions between transition metals (Fe2+ or Cu+) and H2O2 are the source of the
hydroxyl radical (OH.) and called as Fenton reaction:
H2O2 + Fe2+/Cu+ OH. + OH- + Fe3+/Cu2+ (step 2, fenton reaction).
3
The concerted action of O2.- and H2O2 to generate OH. (steps 1 and 2) is described as the
“Haber-Weiss” reaction:
O2.- + H2O2 OH. + OH- (net reaction).
The Haber-Weiss reaction is catalysed by transition metal ions, especially iron ions. The
hydroxyl radical is one of the biologically most important ROS intermediates and is a strong
oxidizing species with an estimated half life of about 10-9 seconds (HALLIWELL 1989;
HALLIWELL and GUTTERIDGE 1990). O2.- and H2O2 are not considered to be as reactive
as the hydroxyl radical. H2O2 is not a radical and relatively stable. H2O2 has high biological
diffusion properties (e.g. mitochondrial) (SIKKA 2001; ORRENIUS 2007) whereas the O2.-
can not cross biological membranes except in the protonated form (TURRENS 2003).
Table 1-1: Reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species modified from DARLEY-USMAR
et al. (1995).
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
Radicals Non-Radicals
Alkoxyl radical, RO. Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
Hydroxyl radical, HO. Hypochlorous acid, HOCl
Hydroperoxyl radical, HOO. Singlet oxygen, 1O2
Peroxyl radical, ROO. Ozone O3
Superoxide anion radical, O2.- Lipid peroxides, LOOH
Reactive nitrogen species (RNS)
Radicals Non-Radicals
Nitric oxide radical, NO. Nitrous acid, HNO2
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2. Dinitrogen trioxide, N2O3
Dinitrogen tetroxide, N2O4
Peroxynitrite, ONOO-
Alkyl peroxynirites, LOONO
4
2.1.2 Oxidative stress
All cells need O2 to produce efficient energy in mitochondria. The mitochondrial electron
transport system consumes more than 85 % of all oxygen consumed by the cell. On the other
hand, oxygen consumption generates by-products called ROS, because 1-3% of electrons
escape from the chain of that transport system and univalent reduction of molecular oxygen
results in superoxide formation (HALLIWELL 1990; HALLIWELL and CROSS 1994;
HALLIWELL 2006).
Aerobic cells are normally exposed to ROS but they can survive under toxic conditions of
oxygen because they have protector molecules against this oxygen toxicity, the antioxidants
(HALLIWELL 2006). Normally, continuous production of ROS and activated oxygen species
in the body is controlled tightly by antioxdants. If this sensitive equilibrium between oxidants
and antioxidants is disordered, oxidative stress occurs which, in turn, increases the rates of
cellular damage. SIES (1991; 1993) defined the oxidative stress as a disturbance in
prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor for prooxidant.
2.1.3 Significance of oxidative stress in male reproduction
2.1.3.1 Sources of ROS in semen
The production of ROS in sperm was noticed by MACLEOD (cited by AITKEN 1994) in
1943. However, a relationship between oxidative stress and male infertility was not observed
before the 1980s. The major reasons for the occurence of oxidative stress are depletion of
seminal antioxidants and an excess generation of free radicals by the spermatozoa themselves
(WATHES et al. 2007).
MACLEOD (1943) reported a toxic effect of O2 towards sperm. He noticed that the increase
of O2 concentration resulted in a more rapidly loss of sperm motility and suggested that H2O2,
generated by the cells themselves from O2, was an actual toxic agent. Three years later,
TOSIC and WALTON (1946) described deleterious effects of H2O2 on bovine sperm motility
and viability (cited by VERNET et al. (2004)). Preliminary studies showed that processes
used in assisted reproductive techniques like the removal of seminal plasma and
centrifugation, respectively, induce a sudden burst of ROS production in sperm (IWASAKI
and GAGNON 1992). All cells actively respiring generate ROS as a consequence of electron
5
leakage from intracellular redox systems, such as the mitochondrial electron transport system.
In addition, it is known that cells generate ROS as a by-product of enzymatic activities of
some oxidases (amino acid oxidase, xanthine oxidase), peroxidases (horseradish peroxidase,
thyroid peroxidase) and oxygenases (indolamine dioxygenase, cytochrome P450 reductase)
(AITKEN and BAKER 2004). In sperm two major systems are responsible for the ROS
production. The main system that produces ROS in sperm is the NADH dependent oxido-
reductase (diphorase) at the level of mitochondria (GAVELLA and LIPOVAC 1992;
KOPPERS et al. 2008). The other ROS producing system is the NADPH oxidase system that
has been shown to be present at the level of sperm plasma membrane (AITKEN et al. 1992).
TOSIC and WALTON (1950) have shown that in bovine semen, ROS are also generated via
the oxidative deamination of aromatic acids (TOSIC and WALTON 1950). In agreement with
the results of TOSIC and WALTON (1950), SHANNON and CURSON (1982) have detected
an activity of L-amino acid oxidase (belongs to the family of oxidoreductases) located in the
tail of bovine sperm.
There is evidence that immature spermatozoa are able to produce ROS that are negatively
correlated with sperm quality (OLLERO et al. 2001; AGARWAL and SALEH 2002). In
addition, peroxidase-positive leukocytes (mainly polymorphonuclear leukocytes and
macrophages) are other sources of ROS in semen (Figure 1-1) (OCHSENDORF and FUCHS
1997).
6
Figure 1-1: Role of oxidative stress in male infertility modified from SIKKA (2004) and
TREMELLEN (2008).
2.1.3.2 Targets and pathological role of ROS in semen
The harmful effects of ROS on sperm function can occur in many ways. AITKEN et al.
(1991) showed that there is an inverse relationship between ROS generation in semen and
fertility in vitro and in vivo. IWASAKI and GAGNON (1992) reported that the ROS level
correlates inversely with the percentage of motile spermatozoa.
Reactive oxygen species can attact all major classes of biomolecules, membrane lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids and carbohydrates (AITKEN et al. 1989; SIKKA et al. 1995; AITKEN
and BAKER 2004).
Oxidative Stress
Seminal Plasma
Balance between antioxidants and ROS
Antioxidants
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) Catalase (CAT) Vitamin A Vitamin E etc.
ROS-Generation System
NADPH oxidoreductase Cryopreservation Centrifugation Immature Germ Cells Cytoplasmic Droplets Leukocytes etc.
• Damage of Lipids (LPO) • DNA Damage • Protein Damage • Biomembrane Damage
Decreased Motility, Viability, Capacity, Acrosome Reaction
Infertility
7
Lipids of sperm plasma membrane and lipid peroxidation
The plasma membrane of mammalian sperm contains high concentrations of polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFAs) (LENZI et al. 1996). Almost 60% of fatty acids in bovine sperm is
docosahexaenoic acid (SALEM et al. 1986). It contains 22 carbons and six unsaturated double
bonds per molecule [22:6 (n-3)]. Counted from the end of the carbon chain its first double
bond is at the third carbon position (n-3). Thus, it is referred to as ω−3 fatty acid. The α-
linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA; 20:5 (n-3)] and DHA are the most
important, nutritionally-essential ω-3 fatty acids. The main dietary source of ω -3 fatty acids
are fish, plants and nut oils. DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid (LEPAGE and ROY 1986) are
found in cold-water fish. ALA is found in flaxseed, flaxseed oil, canola oil and soybean
(FRIEDMAN and MOE 2006).
The short chain polyunsaturated fatty acid ALA is a precursor of important long chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids such as DHA. It can not be synthesized by animal tissues, as they
lack desaturase enzymes for their synthesis, and so must be supplied in the diet (WATHES et
al. 2007). Furthermore, the mammalian body can convert ALA to another ω-3 using specific
desaturase enzymes (Figure 1-2) (FRIEDMAN and MOE 2006).
DHA plays an important role in regulating sperm membrane fluidity and spermatogenesis
(HAIDL and OPPER 1997; OLLERO et al. 2000). The amount of DHA in plasma membrane
of sperm is decreased during the process of sperm maturation and there is a cell-to-cell varia-
bility in the concentration of DHA in sperm (OLLERO et al. 2000).
8
Figure 1-2: The metabolic elongation pathway of omega-3 fatty acids modified from
FRIEDMAN and MOE (2006).
The fluidity of plasma membrane is important for fusion events associated with fertilization
(AITKEN and BAKER 2004). However, unsaturated fatty acids with two or more double
bonds are particularly susceptible to free radical attack. The reason for susceptibility of
unsaturated fatty acids to free radical attack is the presence of a double bond adjacent to a bis
allylic methylene (CH2) group (BROUWERS and GADELLA 2003). This makes the
methylene C-H bonds weaker. Therefore, hydrogen is more susceptible to abstraction on this
site. The initiation of lipid peroxidation cascade is induced by the abstraction of this weakly
bound hydrogen atom from the methylene group. Three distinct reaction steps have been
elucidated for lipid peroxidation: initiation, propagation and termination (AGARWAL and
PRABAKARAN 2005).
18:3n-3 (α-Linolenic acid)
18:4n-3
20:4n-3
20:5n-3
20:6n-3
Δ6 Desaturase
Elongase
Δ5 Desaturase
Sprecher Pathway
* Vegetable oils (soybean, canola,
flaxseed, etc.)
* denotes pirimary dietary source
* Cold water fish
OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS
9
After the initiation step, a lipid alkyl radical (alkylradical) is formed. The lipid alkyl radical
stabilizes by forming a conjugated diene radical and reacts easily with oxygen forming a lipid
peroxyl radical (ROO.) by the propagation step (Table 1-2). This can abstract other hydrogen
atoms of an unsaturated lipid, resulting in a free radical chain reaction and finally lipid
hydroperoxides (ROOH or named as LOOH) are formed. The transition metals such as iron
can accelerate the process of LPO. Propagation of LPO depends on the antioxidant defense
systems of spermatozoa and seminal plasma (AGARWAL and SALEH 2002). The last
process of LPO is the termination step. In general, the chain reaction stops at this step since
two radicals react and produce a non-radical species. Chain breaking antioxidants like
Vitamin E can speed up the termination by catching free radicals (BROUWERS and
GADELLA 2003; AGARWAL and PRABAKARAN 2005).
One of the naturally occurring products of LPO is malondialdehyde. Many authors have
determined its concentration to monitor the degree of peroxidative damage in spermatozoa
(AITKEN and FISHER 1994). AITKEN et al. (1989; 1994) showed that the results of a
malondialdehyde assay correlate well with defective sperm function in terms of motility and
the capacity of sperm oocyte fusion. It has been shown that bulls with higher sperm lipid
peroxidation have lower chance to sire calves (KASIMANICKAM et al. 2007). Furthermore,
sperm lipid peroxidation was negatively correlated with sperm plasma membrane integrity
(PMI) and DNA fragmentation index (KASIMANICKAM et al. 2007).
Table 1-2: Steps of lipid peroxidation adapted from AGARWAL and PRABAKARAN (2005).
1) Initiation: LH + R. L. + RH
2) Propagation: L. + O2 LOO.
LH + LOO. LOOH + L.
L. + O2 LOO.
3) Termination: L. + L. LL
LOO. + LOO. LOOL + O2
LOO. + L. LOOL
10
Damage of DNA
The integrity of DNA is important for the development of embryos (AITKEN and KRAUSZ
2001). Normally, the characteristic tight packaging of the sperm DNA and the antioxidants in
seminal plasma constitute two important protecting factors of sperm DNA integrity (TWIGG
et al. 1998a; TWIGG et al. 1998b).
If oxidative stress occurs as a result of an imbalance between excessive generation of ROS
and antioxidants, it is one of the most important causes of abnormal DNA structure
(ERENPREISS et al. 2006). DNA bases and phosphodiester backbones are very susceptible to
peroxidation. It has been suggested that high levels of ROS are responsible for high
frequencies of DNA strand breaks observed in the sperm of infertile men (FRAGA et al.
1996; AITKEN and KRAUSZ 2001). In bull, DNA fragmentation index of sperm evaluated
by SCSA was negatively correlated with fertility (BALLACHEY et al. 1987;
JANUSKAUSKA et al. 2001).
Damage of proteins
Amino acids containing thiol groups are very susceptible to oxidative stress. Damage of ROS
to proteins has been implicated in the oxidative inactivation of several metabolic enzymes
associated with aging (OLIVER et al. 1987). There is evidence that the protein oxidation of
sperm is associated with decreased sperm motility and fertilizing ability (CHEN et al. 2001;
DUTEAUX et al. 2004).
Modification of amino acid side chains to carbonyl derivates (i.e., aldehyde and ketones) and
fragmentation of polypeptid chains are some possible outcomes of protein oxidation reactions.
Determination of carbonyl content in proteins is a commonly used method to measure
oxidative protein damage (FAGAN et al. 1999).
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that is a physiologically occurring event
during an organism`s life cycle (HENGARTNER 1997). For example, apoptosis of testicular
germ cells occurs throughout life. In this way, the overproliferation of germ cells can be
controlled. Spontaneous apoptosis occurs in seminoferous epithelium and affects spermato-
11
gonia, spematocytes, and spermatids (KERR et al. 1972; BILLIG et al. 1995; RODRIGUEZ
et al. 1997).
ROS plays an important role in apoptosis induction under both physio- and pathological
conditions. The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, which in turn triggers caspase
activation, is mediated by direct or indirect ROS action. It has been recently shown that
apoptosis can be induced by cryopreservation. MARTIN et al. (2004) showed that cryopreser-
vation causes apoptotic like mechanism in bovine sperm.
2.1.3.3 Physiological role of ROS in semen
After ejaculation, spermatozoa undergo a series of physiological changes in female genital
tract. These changes called capacitation and acrosome reaction are triggered by the zona
pellucida of the ovum (AUSTIN and BISHOP 1958; HUNTER and RODRIGUEZ-
MARTINEZ 2004). In vitro studies demonstrated that administration of O2.- and H2O2
promotes capacitation and acrosome reaction and the addition of appropriate antioxidants
prevents them from undergoing these events (DE LAMIRANDE et al. 1997). ZINI et al.
(1995) have shown that low levels of NO. promote human sperm capacitation. Furthermore, it
has been shown that NO. plays a role in sperm hyperactivation and in zona pellucida binding
(DE LAMIRANDE et al. 1997; SENGOKU et al. 1998). Therefore, it has been mentioned
that the acrosome reaction and capacitation are redox-regulated (free radical regulated)
processes which allow the sperm to fertilize the egg.
2.2 Antioxidants
During the evolution living organisms developed specific mechanisms to protect themselves
from the deleterious effects of ROS and RNS (HALLIWELL 1990). Antioxidants are
substances that delay or prevent oxidation of that substrates (HALLIWELL 1990). They can
counteract the damaging effects of free radicals in three major manners. Three different
antioxidant defense systems are summarized in Table 1-3.
12
Table 1-3: Different levels of antioxidant defence in animal cells adapted from SURAI (1999).
First level of defence
Prevention of radical
formation
SOD, GPx, CAT, Glutathione (GSH) and Thioredoxin
systems and Metal-binding proteins
Second level of defence
Prevention and restriction
of chain formation and
propagation
Vitamins A, E, C, Caratenoids, Ubiquinols, Glutathione,
Uric acid
Third level of defence
Excision and repair
of damaged parts of
molecules
Lipases, Peptides, Proteases, Transferases, DNA-repair
enzymes etc
The antioxidative compounds are located in organelles, subcellular compartments or the
extracellular space. They can be classified as enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants:
- Enzymatic antioxidants: superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase
(GPx), catalase (CAT)
- Non-enzymatic antioxidants: vitamin E, vitamin A, Selenium, vitamin C etc.
2.2.1 Enzymatic Antioxidants
2.2.1.1 Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)
Superoxide dismutase was discovered by MCCORD and FRIDOVICH in 1969 (MCCORD
and FRIDOVICH 1969). This enzyme removes O2.- by catalyzing its dismutation, O2
- being
re-duced to H2O2 and O2 (2O2.- + 2H+ H2O2 + O2).
SOD scavenges both intracellular and extracellular O2.-, but it should be considered that SOD
in cells work in conjunction with H2O2-removing enzymes such as GPx or CAT to prevent the
13
action of H2O2, which in turn, promotes the formation of hydroxyl radicals (HALLIWELL
1989; AGARWAL et al. 2005).
The SOD reacts with O2.- molecules at an extremely rapid rate and speed up the dismutation
reaction remarkably, thus lowering the tissue concentration of O2.-. SOD in animal tisssues
exists in multiple forms, e.g., a copper-zinc SOD (CuZn-SOD; available in cytosol), a
mitochondrial manganese SOD (Mn-SOD), and an extracellular CuZn-SOD (FRIDOVICH
1995). The transition metals (Cupper, iron or mangan) are located at the active center of these
enzymes.
The SOD has been detected in spermatozoa and seminal plasma of different species and the
CuZn-SOD was the major form SOD. The presence of other forms is a matter of controversy
(ABU-ERREISH et al. 1978; MENNELLA and JONES 1980; ALVAREZ and STOREY
1984). In mouse, about 9 % of sperm SOD activity was attributed to the Mn-SOD probably
residing in the mitochondria (ALVAREZ and STOREY 1984). In contrast, KOBAYASHI et
al. (1991) did not detect Mn-SOD activity in human sperm and seminal plasma.
2.2.1.2 Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx)
The major enzymatic system for the control of cellular peroxide levels consists of glutathione
peroxidases and several ancillary enzymes required for the synthesis and reduction of
glutathione (GSH). The GPx enzyme is made up of four protein subunits, each of them
containing one atom of the selenium bound to a cysteine protein (selenocystein) at its active
site (FORSTROM et al. 1978). However, there are some seleno-independent isoenzymes of
GPx like GPx5 and GPx6 proteins. These isoenzymes contain a cystein residue instead of a
selenocystein residue (HALL et al. 1998; HERBETTE et al. 2007).
GPx reduces H2O2 and lipidic or nonlipidic-hydroperoxides while oxidizing two molecules of
its subtrate, glutathione (H2O2 + 2GSH GSSG (ozidized GSH) + 2H2O). GSH is a low-
molecular-weight thiol compound. As a simple tripeptide it is composed of glutamic acid-
cysteine-glycine. A high concentration of GSH (~5 mM in animal cells) is present in almost
every cell (HALLIWELL and GUTTERIDGE 1989). This takes place by reduction of GSSG
to GSH by glutathione reductase (GRx). GRx contains two protein subunits, each with the
flavin FAD at its active sites. FAD needs NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate) to reduce GSSG (MEISTER 1988) (GSSG + NADPH + H+ 2GSH + NADP+).
14
The NADPH is mainly provided in animal tissues by a complex metabolic pathway known as
the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (or called as Hexose Monophosphate Shunt). In this
pathway, NADPH stems from the reaction (Figure 1-3) catalysed by glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase (HALLIWELL and GUTTERIDGE 1989).
Figure 1-3: Schematic glutathione redox-cycle adapted from OCHSENDORF and FUCHS
(1997): H2O2 is reduced by GPx, glutathione (GSH) is oxidized and thereafter reduced by
glutathione reductase (GRx) utilizing NADPH. NADPH is available by the
Hexosemonophosphate-shunt system.
In somatic cells, 60-75 % of GPx activity is found in the cytoplasm and 25-40 % in the
mitochondria (ZAKOWSKI et al. 1978). At least four types of selenium-dependent GPx exist
in mammalian body, called GPx1, GPx2, GPx3, and GPx4. Selenium is essential for catalysis
in all four types of GPx (BRIGELIUS-FLOHE and TRABER 1999). The GPx4 is called
phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx) because of its ability to reduce
not only H2O2 but also fatty acid hydroperoxides to alcohols (FORESTA et al. 2002). On the
other hand, in the male genital tract, an selenium-independent isoenzyme of GPx (GPx5) has
GRx
GSSG
GSH
H2O2
NADPH
NADP+
Hexose Monophosphate Shunt-system
H2O
GPx
15
been identified at both protein and mRNA level (HALL et al. 1998; VERNET et al. 2004;
CHABORY et al. 2009).
In bovine seminal plasma a non-selenium-dependent GPx and a selenium-dependent GPx
have been detected (KANTOLA et al. 1988; BILODEAU et al. 2000). It has been reported
that the selenium-dependent GPx activity accounted for one third of total GPx activity and is
negatively correlated with the malondialdehyde level and acrosomal damage (SLAWETA and
LASKOWSKA-KLITA 1985; KANTOLA et al. 1988; SLAWETA et al. 1988).
2.2.1.3 Catalase
Catalase is present in all major body organs of animals, being especially localized in liver and
erythrocytes. It removes H2O2 within cells according to the following equation:
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
It consists of four protein subunits, each of which contains a heme (Fe (III)-protoporphyrin)
group bound to its active site (AEBI 1984). Each subunit also usually contains one molecule
of NADPH bound to it. This helps to stabilize the enzyme (KIRKMAN et al. 1987). Disso-
ciation of catalase into its subunits causes loss of its activity. Dissociations can occur easily
on storage, freeze-drying, or exposure of the enzyme to acid or alkali (HALLIWELL and
GUTTERIDGE 1989). The catalase activity of animal tissues is largely located in subcellular
organelles known as peroxisomes. Mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum contain little
catalase actvity. (MARKLUND et al. 1982; HALLIWELL and GUTTERIDGE 1989).
An activity of catalase has been found in seminal plasma of different species (BALL et al.
2000; BILODEAU et al. 2000; ZINI et al. 2002). However, its presence in sperm is a matter
of controversy (TRAMER et al. 1998). Catalase activity in human sperm and seminal plasma
was demonstrated using different methods (JEULIN et al. 1989; ZINI et al. 2002).
BILODEAU et al. (2000) noticed a low level of catalase activity in bovine seminal plasma but
they did not find any catalase activity in sperm.
2.2.2 Non-enzymatic antioxidants
In addition to enzymatic defence systems, there are extensive non-enzymatic antioxidant
compounds consisting of several different types of lipid and water-soluble small molecules
(SIKKA et al. 1995; AGARWAL et al. 2005). These molecules are able to scavenge free
16
radicals. Lipid-soluble scavengers are especially vitamin E and β-Carotene. Water-soluble
scavengers are vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and GSH. Furthermore, there are a lot of other
antioxidant compounds like selenium, zinc, uric acid, ceruloplasmin, taurine etc. (SIES 1993).
EVANS and BISHOP (1922) have discovered vitamin E as a “fertility vitamin (or fertility
factor)”. They showed that some plant oils reduced the occurrence of foetal mortality in diet-
restricted rats. This “fertility factor” was later isolated and characterized as tocopherol (BELL
1987). Vitamin E is a collective name of 8 fat-soluble vitamins (tocopherols and tocotrienols)
with antioxidant properties (HERRERA and BARBAS 2001). Of these, -Tocopherol has the
highest biological activity and is the most abundant form in nature (BRIGELIUS-FLOHE and
TRABER 1999). The ability of vitamin E to quench ROS and its hydrophobicity have led to
its common definition as the single most important essential lipid-soluble antioxidant
(BURTON 1994). When tocopherol quenches a lipid peroxyl radical, it is oxidated to the
tocopheroxy radical. Tocoperoxy radical accepts hydrogen to regenerate the tocopherol,
which makes this first oxidation step fully reversible. Vitamin E is present both in sperm
membranes and in seminal plasma (AGARWAL and PRABAKARAN 2005). Vitamin E and
Selenium act synergistically and protect the biomembranes from oxidative attack. Vitamin E
reduces alkyl peroxyl radicals of unsaturated lipids of cell membranes, thereby generating
hydroperoxides that can be removed by the Se-dependent peroxidases (MAIORINO et al.
1989; BRIGELIUS-FLOHE and TRABER 1999).
Carotene is the precursor of vitamin A, an important lipophilic antioxidant in animal tissues.
Carotenoid pigments such as β-Carotene are able to function as effective quenchers of ROS
(AGARWAL et al. 2005). β-Carotene was found to act synergistically with tocopherol and it
is capable of regenerating tocopherol from the tocopheroxyl radical (PALOZZA and
KRINSKY 1992). Large amounts of carotenoid pigments occur in male gonads and accessory
genital glands of mammals. The significance of vitamin A in developing and maintaining the
normal germinal epithelium in animals has been emphasized by several studies (PALLUDAN
1966). It is an essential vitamin for spermatogenesis in rats (HUANG and HEMBREE 1979).
Selenium, as a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase, is an important trace element and plays a
crucial role in enzymatic antioxidantive defence system. It is an essential trace element for
animals. Selenoenzymes (e.g. glutathione peroxidases, thioredoxin reductases) contain Se in
the form of selenocysteine, an amino acid that is identical to cysteine, except that selenium
17
replaces sulphur (PAPPAS et al. 2008). In spermatozoa, Selenium is abundantly localized in
midpiece region (CALVIN 1981). In rat sperm, Selenium deficiency causes reduction of
spermatogenesis and abnormal sperm morphology characterized by morphological midpiece
alterations (WU et al. 1979).
In spermatids, selenium-containing PHGPx occurs as an active peroxidase. In mammalian
tissues, the highest PHGPx acitivity was found in the testis (URSINI et al. 1995). It plays an
important role during spermiogenesis, maturation of spermatozoa and embryonic develop-
ment. On the other hand, this enzyme is transformed to an oxidatively inactivated protein in
mature sperm and is contributed as a main constituent of the mitochondrial capsule in the
midpiece (FORESTA et al. 2002). The activity of PHGPx is lower in sperm of infertile men
sperm compared to that of fertile men (FORESTA et al. 2002).
Although the GPx activity in bovine seminal plasma is higher than in spermatozoa (BROWN
et al. 1977; BILODEAU et al. 2000), selenium is found also in the spermatozoa in
considerable concentrations. In bulls, the Selenium concentration in seminal plasma is about
10 times higher than in serum (SAARANEN et al. 1986). Furthermore, it is known that the 75Se is faster incorporated into seminal plasma than into the spermatozoa of bulls (SMITH et
al. 1979). This may explain the fact that seminal plasma GPx levels increase rapidly after an
injection of Selenium to bulls (BARTLE et al. 1980).
2.3 Seminal plasma and its antioxidative role in male reproduction
2.3.1 Accessory glands and seminal plasma
Seminal plasma is the name for secretes originating from accessory glands (PETZOLT 2001).
Immature sperm complete their passage through the epididymis and get matured. Thereafter,
they will be transported via vas deferens and mixed with the seminal plasma before
ejaculation. There are developmental differences of accessory glands between species.
According to these differences, the amounts of secretions from the particular accessory glands
vary between species (DÖCKE 1963). Seminal plasma is produced by epididymidis, ampulla
ductus deferentis, prostate, vesicula seminalis, bulbo-urethral glands and urethral glands. The
size and secretory output of accessory glands are regulated by testosterone (PETZOLT 2001).
The amounts of seminal plasma vary considerably between species. The secretions of the
18
seminal vesicles and the prostate are qualitatively and quantitatively the most important ones
in domestic animals (DÖCKE 1963).
The main organic and inorganic constituents of bovine seminal plasma are sodium, potassium,
calcium and chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate, citrate, fructose, zinc, iron, copper
(ROTHSCHILD and BARNES 1954; KIRTON et al. 1964). These constituents maintain the
osmotic pressure in the semen and provide the required energy.
Seminal plasma plays crucial regulative roles in the processes prior to oocyte penetration of
the spermatozoa. The functions of seminal plasma are based on direct or indirect interactions
with spermatozoa (WABERSKI 1995):
direct functions: nutrition of spermatozoa, protection against oxidative and osmotic
stresses, regulation of motility, capacitation, gamete recognition and binding
indirect functions: enhancement of uterine contractions, relaxation of the tubal isthmus,
immune modulation of the uterus.
2.3.2 Antioxidant properties of seminal plasma
The major antioxidative defence mechanisms in cells are the enzymes SOD, GPx and CAT.
However, in spermatozoa, the cytoplasmic space available for these enzymes is very limited.
For example mouse fibroblasts have an intracellular water space of 150 µl/108 cells
(WOHLHUETER et al. 1978) whereas the total water space of human spermatozoa ranges
between 1.7 and 2.6 µl/108 cells (GLANDER and DETTMER 1978; FORD and HARRISON
1983). As sperm have only limited antioxidative defence mechanisms, seminal plasma is the
main antioxidant source in semen (BILODEAU et al. 2000). Deficiencies in this protective
milieu have been associated with oxidative stress and male infertility. For example, the
surgical ablation of the male accessory glands is associated with oxidative stress followed by
high levels of DNA damage in sperm and embryonic loss (O et al. 2006).
A variety of factors like diet can deplete the antioxidative status of seminal plasma. Feeding
experiments with more PUFAs have shown that the antioxidant status and sperm quality can
be impaired. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that the negative effects of PUFA
supplementation can be reversed with vitamin E addition (CASTELLINI et al. 2003).
19
2.4 Measurement of oxidative stress and antioxidants using chemiluminescence
The susceptibility of sperm to oxidative stress is an important factor of defective sperm
function and impaired fertility (AITKEN and CLARKSON 1987). Therefore, the
development of sensitive techniques for monitoring the activity of antioxidants and the levels
of ROS generation is of clinical importance. In general, the determination of the rate of ROS
production using different tests can be used to quantify oxidative stress (SHARMA et al.
1999; PASQUALOTTO et al. 2008). Nevertheless, due to a very short half-life of ROS,
clinical examination of ROS production is limited and needs attention under specific
controlled conditions (SIKKA et al. 1995).
Sensitive chemiluminescence techniques have been developed to monitor total antioxidant
capacity of seminal fluid and ROS generation in semen (AITKEN et al. 1992; AITKEN et al.
2004). Luminol is most commonly used in these chemiluminescence techniques. AITKEN et
al. (1992) suggested that the basic luminol signal depends upon the intracellular oxidation of
this probe by ROS of the whole ejaculate. The hydrogen peroxide oxidizes luminol through
mediation of an intracellular peroxidase. Furthermore, it was noticed that the addition of horse
radish peroxidase to the incubation medium resulted in an elevated signal since it allows
extracellular hydrogen peroxide to contribute to the chemiluminescence. This let to the
conclusion that the combination of luminol and horse radish peroxidase constitutes an
excellent assay for routine chemiluminescence analysis of ROS at intra- and extracellular
levels (SHARMA et al. 1999).
20
3 OWN EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
3.1 Establishment of a new assay for the determination of total antioxidative capacity of
bovine seminal plasma
3.1.1 Abstract
The aim of the present study was to establish an assay for the measurement of total
antioxidant capacity (TAC) of bovine seminal plasma. In addition, relationships between
TAC and other antioxidants in seminal plasma and parameters of sperm quality, respectively,
should be investigated. Eight consecutive ejaculates were collected from 9 Holstein-Friesian
bulls. TAC-, glutahione peroxidase- (GPx) and superoxide dismutase assays (SOD) were
modified for use in an automated 96-well microplate reader. Plasma membrane integrity
(PMI) and acrosomal damage (AD) were evaluated flow cytometrically before and
immediately after cryopreservation. The DNA fragmentation index (DFI) was determined
after cryopreservation by using sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA). The level of
membrane lipid peroxidation (LPO; oxidation of lipiphilic probe C11-BODIPY581/591) was
assessed without and with induction of LPO using t-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) before
cryopreservation, immediately (0h) and 3 hours (3h) after thawing. The intra-assay
coefficients of variation (CV) for TAC-, SOD- and GPx were 5.0 %, 3.5 % and 6.2 %,
respectively. The inter-assay CVs for the TAC-, SOD- and GPx were 8.3 %, 3.6 % and
8.3 %, respectively. Levels of TAC, SOD and GPx differed (P < 0.0001) between bulls but
not (P > 0.05) between ejaculates within bulls. A negative correlation (r=-0.76; P ≤ 0.05) was
observed between SOD and GPx, but no other relationships (P > 0.05) were detected between
antioxidants. TAC was negatively related with TBHP-LPO 0h (r=-0.85; P ≤ 0.01). Positive
correlations were found between SOD and LPO at 0h (r=0.71; P ≤ 0.05) and 3h (r=0.80;
P ≤ 0.05). There were no (P > 0.05) associations between DFI and antioxidants levels of
seminal plasma. The results of this study show that the total antioxidant capacity differs
between bulls and gives valuable information about the sensitivity of sperm against lipid
peroxidation of cryopreserved sperm.
21
3.1.2 Introduction
The cryopreservation procedure is detrimental to sperm particularly because of chemical and
physical stress factors which are occurring during this process (HAMMERSTEDT et al. 1990;
ASHWORTH et al. 1995). The susceptibility of cryopreserved sperm to damage induced by
reactive oxygen species (ROS) is well known (AITKEN and FISHER 1994; BILODEAU et al.
2002; AITKEN and BAKER 2004). Toxic levels of ROS can affect sperm quality and
function. In particular, two reasons for this susceptibility have been emphasized in the past.
These are the increased generation of ROS and the lower levels of antioxidants after
cryopreservation (AITKEN and FISHER 1994; BILODEAU et al. 2000). This imbalance
between production of ROS and cellular antioxidants is defined as oxidative stress (SIKKA et
al. 1995).
Mammalian sperm are endowed with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids within the
plasma membranes which are particularly susceptible to free radical attack and consequently
lipid peroxidation (POULOS et al. 1973; JONES and MANN 1977; JONES et al. 1979;
AITKEN and FISHER 1994; DE LAMIRANDE and GAGNON 1995; SIKKA et al. 1995).
Membrane lipid peroxidation (LPO) can lead to alterations of membrane fluidity and these
alterations have deleterious effects on sperm function, e.g. ability to fuse with oocytes
(STOREY 1997; BALL 2008).
It has been shown that bovine sperm themselves have only few amounts of endogenous
antioxidants for the protection against ROS and the main antioxidant source is the seminal
plasma (DAWRA et al. 1984; DAWRA and SHARMA 1985; BILODEAU et al. 2000).
Seminal plasma contains both enzymatic ROS scavengers, including superoxide dismutase
(SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), and low molecular weight scavengers
(i.e. vitamin E, selenium, ascorbic acid, and vitamin A) (SIKKA et al. 1995; AGARWAL and
SALEH 2002; AGARWAL et al. 2005).
The laboratory methods used to determine antioxidative enzymes in reproductive medicine
are not fully standardized. Moreover, differences in methodology exist between laboratories.
Therefore, diverse levels of antioxidants in bovine seminal plasma have been reported in the
past (BILODEAU et al. 2000). On the other hand, there are some convenient methods to
predict total antioxidant capacity of seminal plasma using commercially available assays. For
example, an assay has been developed for the determination of total antioxidative capacity
22
(TAC) in human using a chemiluminescence method (KOLETTIS et al. 1999;
WATERHOUSE et al. 2006). The TAC is an indicator for the total available antioxidant
protection in the seminal plasma and represents an integrated parameter rather than the simple
sum of measurable antioxidants. The TAC assay is a sensitive and widely used method to
measure antioxidant activity of body fluids (SHARMA et al. 1999). A negative correlation
between TAC of seminal plasma and infertility could be observed in men (SMITH et al. 1979;
KOLETTIS et al. 1999).
The aim of the present study was to establish the assay for the determination of total
antioxidative capacity in seminal plasma of bulls. By using this assay, variabilities in TAC
between and within animals were calculated. In addition, possible correlations between levels
of TAC and levels of specific antioxidants in seminal plasma and parameters of sperm quality
were verified.
3.1.3 Materials and methods
3.1.3.1 Chemicals
Chemicals were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich Co (Steinheim, Germany), unless otherwise
indicated.
3.1.3.2 Semen collection, dilution and freezing
Eight consecutive ejaculates were collected twice-weekly using an artificial vagina from 9
Holstein-Friesian bulls (3.5 ± 0.8 yrs) of an AI station located in the northern part of Germany
(Masterrind GmbH, Verden). Concentration (Z2™ COULTER COUNTER® Cell and Par-
ticle Counter, Beckman Coulter GmbH, Krefeld, Germany), volume and total sperm number
of each ejaculate were determined directly after collection. A portion of each ejaculate (with a
total sperm number of 450x106 sperm) was diluted to a final concentration of 60x106
sperms/ml using a Tris-egg yolk based extender (DEHNING 2008) and the remaining part
was kept undiluted for the separation of seminal plasma. After dilution of ejaculates at 20 °C,
they were packaged in 30 French straws (0.25-ml). Ten straws were taken for analysis of
sperm quality before cooling and after cryopreservation. The remaining twenty straws were
slowly cooled to 5 °C over a period of 180 min and frozen to -110 °C within 390 seconds on
23
racks in a freezer (Model K, Hede Nielsen, Horsens, Denmark). Frozen samples were placed
directly into liquid nitrogen and stored at least 24 hours until analysis.
3.1.3.3 Handling of seminal plasma
Five mililiters of each ejaculate were centrifuged at 3000 g for 10 min at 4 oC and the
supernatant was frozen and stored at -20 °C at least 24 hours until analysis. Samples of
seminal plasma were measured within 6 months. Before measurement, frozen samples of
seminal plasma were thawed at room temperature and diluted 100-fold with phosphate
buffered solution (PBS; 50 mM/l, pH 7.4) for the assessment of total antioxidant capacity
(TAC) and GPx activity and 1000-fold for the determination of superoxide dismutase (SOD)
levels.
3.1.3.4 Antioxidant assays
Total antioxidant capacity
Total antioxidant capacity of seminal plasma was measured using an enhanced chemilumi-
nescence assay according to KOLLETTIS et al. (1999) which was modified for use in an
automated 96-well microplate reader (Genios Pro-Basic W/O FP, Tecan AG, Switzerland).
The principle of this test is based on the suppression of light emission created by the oxidation
of the chemiluminescence substrate luminol by antioxidants. The recovery of the initial
chemiluminescence in samples was compared with Trolox (6-hydroxyl-2,5,7,8 tetrame-
thylchroman-2-carboxylic acid) as a control, which is a water-soluble tocopherol analogue.
Luminol (5-amino-2.3, -dihydro-1.4-phthalazinedione) stock solution (3.1 mM/l dissolved in
dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)) and para-iodophenol (40 µM/l dissolved in DMSO) stock
solution were prepared for signal reagent and stored at room temperature. The stock solutions
were protected from light. H2O2 (8.8 M) was stored at 4 oC until analysis. Horse radish
peroxidase (peroxidase type VI-A from horse radish) with 1% bovine serum albumin (BSA)
was prepared as 100 U/ml aliquots and stored at -20 oC. It was thawed and diluted 1:30 in
PBS before measurements. Signal reagent was prepared by adding 110 µl Luminol, 10 µl
para-iodophenol and 30 µl H2O2 (8.8 mM/l) to Tris buffer (0.1 M, pH 8.0). All procedures
were carried out at room temperature unless otherwise indicated. The trolox solution was
24
prepared as 1 mM aliquots in PBS and stored at -20 °C until analysis. It was thawed before
measurement and diluted further with PBS to concentrations of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 25 µM.
Instrumentation and automated measurement of TAC, SOD and GPx
The TAC assay was modified for use in an automated 96-well microplate reader and was
performed via a fully automatic multi pipetting system (Tecan Genesis AWS 200/8, Tecan
AG, Switzerland). The multi pipetting system was combined with a microplate reader via a
software (Gemini, Version 4.2.17.304, Tecan AG, Switzerland). This system automates the
pipetting and has advantages of accurate estimation time between pipetting and measuring,
and of rapid sample evaluation.
In the kinetic mode of the microplate reader, 30 µl horse radish peroxidase (HRP) and 30 µl
signal reagent were added to 230 µl of PBS in a disposable microplate (Greiner Bio-One,
Frickenhausen, Germany). The microplate was measured 240 seconds in order to equilibrate
to the desired level of chemiluminescence output of 50.000 relative chemiluminescence units
(RLU).
After the equilibration measurement, 10 µl of diluted seminal plasma was added to the signal
reagent and chemiluminescence was measured. Ten microliters of Trolox were added simul-
taneously as a standard solution at concentrations between 3 to 75 µM for the calibration of
TAC.
The pipetting was conducted with 4 needles of the robotic system. The needles were always
washed after one pipetting. Therefore, there was a time difference of 24 seconds between each
4 wells of disposable microplate. Since the suppression of chemiluminescence started imme-
diately after the pipetting of samples or trolox, this time difference was calculated for each of
the 4 wells and added to the recovery time of chemiluminescence separately. Results were
expressed in µM of Trolox equivalents.
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) assay
The SOD-like activity of seminal plasma was determined as described by EWING and
JANERO (1995). The assay based on spectrophotometric assessment of O2.- mediated nitro
blue tetrazolium (NBT) reduction. Nicotinamin dinucleotid (NADH) and phenazine
methosulfate (PMS) were utilized to generate O2.- which react with NBT to yield NBT-
25
formazan, a colored, water insoluble product. The SOD activity was then measured by
determining the degree of inhibition of NBT reduction (i.e reduction of NBT-formazan
production). One unit of SOD inhibits NBT reduction by 50 % of maximum inhibition under
the conditions of the assay.
All pipetting processes and measurements of microplates were performed with the automated
pipetting system as explained above. For this assay, a working solution in PBS containing
0.1 mM ethylene diamin tetra acetic acid (EDTA), 62 µM NBT (AppliChem, Darmstadt,
Germany), 78 µM NADH was prepared immediately before usage. The 1000-fold diluted
seminal plasma was pipetted into a 96-well-microplate (Sarstedt, Nümbrecht, Germany)
containing 200 µl working solution. A standard curve was constructed using SOD (SOD from
bovine liver, 4800 U/mg).
The reaction was initiated by adding 25 µl PMS solution (33 µM PMS, prepared in PBS).
Addition of PMS was carried out in the microplate reader. Change of the probe without any
sample solution was used as a blank control. The absorbance was measured at 560 nm. The
concentration of solutions in the microplate consisted out of 50 mM PBS containing 0.1 mM
ethylene diamin tetra acetic acid (EDTA), 50 µM NBT, 78 µM NADH, and 3.3 µM PMS
(final concentrations in 250 µl total volume).
Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) assay
Total GPx activity was determined by using an indirect coupled method of GUNZLER and
FLOHE (, 1985 #32). The method was modified for the use in an automated pipetting system.
The assay mixture contained 150 µl potassium phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7.0; 1 mM
EDTA), 25 µl sample, 25 µl glutathione reductase (GR; 2.4 U/ml in 0.1 M PBS pH 7.0) and
Glutathione (GSH; 10 mM in aqua bidest). This mixture was pre-incubated at 37° C for 10
min. Twenty five microliters of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH;
1.5 mM in 0.1 % NaHCO3 solution, AppliChem, Darmstadt, Germany) were added to the
mixture. The hydroperoxide-independent NADPH oxidation was monitored during 3 min by
the microplate reader at 340 nm. Thereafter, 25 µl t-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP; 12 mM) was
added. The change in absorbance of the reaction mixture was determined during 5 min at 340
min. The oxidation of NADPH to NADP+ was accompanied by a decrease in absorbance. The
rate of the decrease in absorbance is directly proportional to GPx activity in the sample. Units
26
of enzyme activity were calculated using the extinction coefficient of 6.22 mM-1 cm-1 for
NADPH.
Determination of protein concentrations
The total protein content of the extracts was determined by using the Bradford assay which
was conducted by the above mentioned robotic pipetting system as well (BRADFORD 1976).
The protein concentrations were used for the determination of the specific activities of SOD
and GPx enzymes.
Measurements of Intra- and Inter-assay Variations:
Intra-assay variation (replications of the same sample on the same day): TAC, GPx and SOD
assays were run 4 times with the same sample originating from one individual ejaculate.
Inter-assay variation (same sample observed on different days): Inter-assay variability was
evaluated by measuring TAC, GPx and SOD from aliquots of the same sample on 5 separate
days
3.1.3.5 Flow cytometric analyses
Flow cytometry was performed with an Epics XL-MLC flow cytometer (Beckman Coulter,
Fullerton, California, USA). Data were analyzed using EXPO32 ADC XL 4 Color™ software
(Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, California, USA). All measurements for plasma membrane
integrity, acrosomal integrity and LPO were done before cooling and immediately after
thawing. LPO was additionally evaluated after 3 h incubation at 37 °C. Sperm DNA integrity
was quantified by using the Sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA™) on cryopreserved
samples.
Cryopreserved sperm were thawed by placing the straws in a 37 °C water bath for 30 sec.
Sperm samples were diluted to concetration of 5x106 sperm/ml with Tyrode`s medium (100
mM NaCl, 3.1 mM KCl, 2.0 mM CaCl2, 0.4 mM MgCl2, 0.3 mM Na2HPO4, 1 mM Na-
pyruvate, 21.6 mM Na-lactate, 24.9 mM NaHCO3, 10 mM Hepes, 0.05 g/l penicillin, 0.5 g/l
PVA, 0.05 g/l PVP; pH: 7.4; 320 mOsm) for analyses by using FITC-PNA/PI and BODIPY
assays (ASHWORTH et al. 1995).
27
The green fluorescence emissions of FITC-PNA, C-11 BODIPY581/591 (BP) and acridine
orange (AO) were collected by a 530/30 nm filter (FL1) and the red fluorescence of AO and
PI by a 650 nm long pass filter (FL3). After FITC-PNA/PI and BP measurements, the
collected data for 10.000 events were stored as list mode files and analyzed with EXPO 32
Analysis™ software. Data handling for SCSA™ was performed with the Data Analysis
Software DAS Version 4.19, Germany (BEISKER 1994).
Plasma membrane integrity and acrosomal integrity
FITC-PNA (fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated peanut agglutinin) / PI (propidium
iodid) dual-staining was used to distinguish the sperm according to integrities of plasma
membranes and acrosomes as described by FISCHER et al. (2010).
Five microliters of FITC-PNA (100 µg/ml) and 3 µl PI (2.99 mM) were added to 492 µl of
diluted sperm suspension. This procedure was carried out for sperm samples before (b) and
after (a) cryopreservation. Sperm samples were incubated at 37 °C for 15 min and remixed
just before measurement. Acrosome-damaged sperm (AD) and PMI were analysed after
nonsperm events were gated out of analyses as determined on forward and sideward scatter
properties.
Lipid peroxidation (LPO)
Lipid peroxidation was evaluated on diluted sperm before cooling and on thawed sperm using
C11-BODIPY581/591 (4,4-Difluoro-5-(4-phenyl-1,3-butadienyl)-4-bora-3a,4adiaza-s-inda-cene-
3-undecanoic acid) as a fluorescent lipid probe (NEILD et al. 2005). C11-BODIPY581/591
(Mobitec GmbH, Göttingen, Germany) contains a fatty acid analogue. This lipophilic probe
incorporates into the plasma membranes and its fluorescence shifts irreversibly from red to
green when peroxidized by ROS (NEILD et al. 2005; AITKEN et al. 2007).
Bodipy was added to the sperm suspension at a final concentration of 5 µM. PI was added to
sperm suspensions (at a final concentration of 29.9 µM) 15 min prior to being analyzed by
using flow cytometry. This procedure was carried out before cryopreservation (BPb) and 0h
(BP0ha) as well as 3h after thawing (BP3ha). At all these time points, aliquots of sperm
suspensions were treated with t-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP; 100 mM) to induce LPO (s).
28
Thereafter, sperm samples were mixed and incubated at 37 °C for 15 min and remixed just
before measurement.
Sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA)
The percentage of sperm showing a high degree of DFI-values and the standard deviation of
DFI (SD-DFI) were determined by SCSA as described by EVENSON and JOST (2000).
Thawed sperm samples were diluted to concentration of 2x106 sperm/ml with TNE buffer (pH
7.4, 0.01 M Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 1 mM EDTA). The sperm suspension (200 ml) was
treated with 400 ml acid-detergent solution (pH 1.2, 0.08 N HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 0.1% Triton
X-100) for 30 s, and then stained with 1.2 ml (6 mg/L) purified AO in a phosphate–citrate
buffer (0.2 M Na2HPO4, 0.1 M citric acid, 0.15 M NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, pH 6.0). Samples
were examined after 3 min. incubation. Each sample was examined twice and mean values
were used for further analyses.
3.1.3.6 Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were carried out using the software packages StatView 5.0 and SAS (SAS
Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Normal distribution of data was proven by Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test. Values of antioxidant enzymes and sperm quality parameters were expressed as
means±standard deviations (SD). The coefficents of variation (CV = standard
deviation/mean × 100) for antioxidant and sperm quality parameters were calculated from all
72 ejaculates. Variance component estimates were performed for GPx, SOD, TAC, PMI, AD
and BP values.
Pearson`s correlation coefficients were used to compare different antioxidants with each other
and to relate mean values of each antioxidant parameter for each bull with corresponding
mean value of sperm quality parameter. P-values ≤ 0.05 were considered as significant.
3.1.4 Results
3.1.4.1 Reproducibility of TAC-, SOD- and GPx assays
The intra-assay coefficients of variation for the TAC-, SOD- and GPx assays were 5.0 %,
3.5 % and 6.2 %, respectively. The inter-assay coefficients of variation for the TAC-,
SOD- and GPx assays were 8.3 %, 3.6 % and 8.3 %, respectively.
29
3.1.4.2 TAC, SOD and GPx levels in seminal plasma
The TAC level calculated from all 72 seminal plasma samples of 9 bulls was 390±191
µmol/L Trolox equivalents. The levels of TAC ranged from 90 µmol/L to 843 µmol/L Trolox
equivalents with a CV of 49 %. The total SOD activity of all samples was 8032±1242 U/ml
and ranged from 5042 U/ml to 10860 U/ml with a CV of 16 %. The level of GPx activity was
27±12 nmol NADPH oxidized/min/mg of protein and ranged from 12 to 57 nmol NADPH
oxidized/min/mg of protein with a CV of 44 % (Table 2-1).
Table 2-1: Glutathione peroxidase (GPx)-acitivity, superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activity
and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in bovine seminal plasma. Values are means±SD and
were calculated from 8 consecutive seminal plasma samples of 9 bulls.
The factor bull (P < 0.0001), but not the factor ejaculate (P > 0.05) affected TAC-, SOD- and
GPx values significantly. The relative effects of the factor bull on TAC, SOD, GPx values
Bull GPx activity
[nmol NADPH
oxidized/min/mg of protein]
SOD-like
activity [U/ml]
TAC [Trolox
equivalents
µmol/L]
1 17.11±1.95 9117±156 239.2±39.1
2 13.86±1.40 9314±128 224.7±21.0
3 30.59±4.22 8652±593 659.8±98.4
4 21.90±1.96 9166±1076 509.2±26.3
5 23.55±2.28 7407±671 118.5±14.5
6 48.13±4.56 7110±844 380.2±71.0
7 23.29±3.07 7944±380 650.7±139.2
8 21.48±1.49 7833±357 386.0±29.2
9 43.93±10.03 5744±259 339.2±106.8
All bulls 27.09±11.72 8032±1173 389.7±187.6
30
were higher than 80 %, while the factor ejaculate contributed not more than 3 % to the total
variability of TAC, SOD and GPx values (Table 2-2).
Table 2-2: Variance component estimates for the effects of the random factors, bull,
ejaculate and other factors on glutathione peroxoidase (GPx) activity, superoxide
dismutase (SOD)-like activity and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in bovine seminal
plasma.
3.1.4.3 Volume, sperm concentration and total sperm number of ejaculates
The 72 ejaculates showed a volume of 7.5 ± 1.8 ml (range: 3.5 to 11.5 ml; CV=25 %) and a
sperm concentration of 1.5 ± 0.4 x 109 ml-1 (range: 0.9 to 2.6 x 109 ml-1; CV=24 %) (Table
2-3). CV values from individual bulls ranged for volume from 8 % to 32 % and for
concentration from 10 to 28 %. Total sperm number of all studied samples was 11.1±4.0
with a CV of 36 % (range: 5.5 to 20.6 x 109). The CV of total sperm number of bulls ranged
from 21 % to 41 %.
Negative correlations were observed between sperm concentration and BPb (r=-0.75;
P ≤ 0.05), BP0ha (r=-0.81; P ≤ 0.01) and BP3ha (r=-0.68; P ≤ 0.05). No other correlations
(P > 0.05) between sperm concentration, ejaculate volume, total sperm number and sperm
parameters PMI, AD, BP, DFI and SD-DFI were detected.
Source of Variation Bull Ejaculate (bull) Other factors
GPx activity 88 % 2 % 10 %
SOD-like activity 80 % 3 % 17 %
TAC 86 % 2 % 12 %
31
Table 2-3: Ejaculate volume, concentration, plasma membrane integrity (PMI), acrosomal damage (AD) of bovine sperm samples.
Measurements of PMI and AD were performed before cryopreservation (b) and immediately (0h) and three hours (3h) after (a)
thawing. Values are means±SD from 8 consecutive ejaculates of 9 bulls except for DNA fragmentation index and standard deviation
of DNA fragmentation index (SD-DFI) values. The values of %DFI and SD-DFI were determined from 4 cryopreserved ejaculates
of 9 bulls. CV = coefficient of variation.
Bull
Sperm
Concen.
[x109 ml-1]
Ejaculate
Volume [ml]
Total sperm
number
[109/mL]
PMIb [%] PMI0ha [%] ADb [%] AD0ha [%] %DFI [%] SD-DFI
1 1.0±0.2 7.5±0.6 7.9±1.8 86.5±3.2 45.0±11.7 5.2±1.6 32.4±9.1 1.7±0.5 15.7±1.5
2 1.2±0.3 9.6±1.5 12.0±3.5 79.0±9.0 32.1±11.7 8.9±5.0 42.7±11.5 2.2±0.8 13.9±0.9
3 1.6±0.4 6.8±1.4 11.1±4.5 85.3±3.4 30.3±7.8 4.2±0.9 33.6±12.3 1.4±0.2 15.0±0.3
4 1.6±0.3 9.3±1.4 14.9±3.6 78.5±5.4 25.6±18.8 9.0±2.6 50.4±20.2 3.1±0.6 14.8±1.6
5 1.5±0.3 8.3±0.7 12.5±2.7 84.1±5.8 27.0±10.6 6.4±2.5 42.0±9.8 2.4±0.6 17.0±1.6
6 1.7±0.4 6.2±1.1 11.0±4.0 79.9±4.9 30.5±16.6 6.3±2.1 42.2±18.4 2.1±0.2 19.4±1.9
7 1.4±0.4 5.9±1.9 7.8±2.3 68.5±8.5 22.3±9.6 7.2±1.1 53.9±9.7 2.3±0.8 16.3±1.3
8 1.4±0.3 7.2±1.9 10.5±4.2 79.6±7.5 33.7±11.4 14.3±4.3 45.7±10.2 2.3±0.6 15.0±2.0
9 1.7±0.2 7.1±2.1 12.3±4.4 80.6±5.4 27.5±12.0 8.1±3.0 37.2±11.3 1.1±0.5 15.2±3.1
CV 24.7 % 24.3 % 35.7% 9.6 % 43.2 % 51.0 % 33.6 % 37.9 % 13.2 %
All bulls 1.5±0.4 7.5±1.8 11.1±4.0 80.1±5.3 30.3±6.4 7.7±3.0 42.1±7.3 2.1±0.6 15.8±1.6
32
3.1.4.4 Sperm quality
The PMIb ranged from 50.9 % to 91.8 %, PMI0ha from 4.9 % to 64.5 %, ADb differed
between 2.4 % and 18.6 % and AD0ha between 16.9 % and 90.1 %. The %DFI0ha ranged
from 0.4 % to 3.7 % and the SD-DFI was 15.7±2.1 (range: 11.6 to 21.5). The BPb differed
between 6.8 and 18.1, and BP0ha between 3.8 and 60.5 (Table 2-4).
Table 2-4: Lipid peroxideation of sperm measured by C11-BODIPY581/591 (BP) quantified
by mean fluorescence intensity before (b), immediately (0h) and three hours (3h) after (a)
cryopreservation without or with stimulation (s) of lipid peroxidation by addition of t-butyl
hydroperoxide. Values are means±SD from 8 consecutive ejaculates of 9 bulls. CV =
coefficient of variation.
Before cryopreservation, the effects of the factor bull on PMI and AD were higher
compared to the effects of the ejaculate and other factors. After the cryopreservation
Bull BPb BPbs BP0ha BP0has BP3ha BP3has
1 20.6±17.4 15.0±3.7 14.0±2.3 14.8±0.7 26.9±13.1 38.3±7.6
2 14.2±5.5 17.7±7.2 11.9±2.3 14.0±1.0 24.1±6.3 37.2±9.3
3 12.8±5.3 16.7±6.7 10.4±2.4 12.3±1.4 22.0±5.9 35.9±10.7
4 13.2±5.2 17.0±7.3 10.6±2.5 13.1±0.9 21.7±6.5 31.2±10.9
5 11.7±5.6 15.0±7.4 9.8±2.6 14.0±0.9 16.8±2.2 30.7±9.3
6 12.8±4.9 16.2±7.1 9.6±2.0 13.9±1.3 17.3±2.2 35.9±6.2
7 12.4±4.0 15.6±6.7 9.9±2.2 12.6±1.4 17.9±2.5 31.4±6.5
8 13.2±5.3 15.5±4.9 9.3±1.2 13.3±1.2 17.7±3.3 30.6±8.0
9 12.8±5.2 15.0±2.9 9.1±1.1 13.1±1.3 17.4±2.6 35.0±9.7
CV 55.1 % 7.1 % 23.6 % 9.8 % 31.5 % 25.7 %
All bulls 12.9±2.7 16.1±1.0 10.1±1.5 13.3±0.8 19.4±3.6 33.5±3.0
33
variability in PMI- and AD-values were mainly based on other factors, while the effects of
factor bull decreased. The effects of the factor ejaculate were nearly the same before and
after cryopreservation.
Before cryopreservation, the effect of the factor bull on variation in BP values was lower
than the factor ejaculate and other factors (Table 2-5). Similarly to PMI and AD, the total
sum of effects of factors ejaculate and other factors on BP values were always greater than
the effect of the factor bull after cryopreservation.
Table 2-5: Variance component estimates for the effect of the random factors bull,
ejaculate and other factors on plasma membrane integrity (PMI), acrosomal damage AD,
lipid peroxidation of sperm measured by C11-BODIPY581/591 (BP) before (b) and
immediately (0h) as well as three hours (3h) after (a) cryopreservation without and with
stimulation (s) of lipid peroxidation with t-butyl hydroperoxide in bovine sperm.
Source of
Variation
Bull Ejaculate
(bull)
Other
factors
PMIb 39.0 % 24.9 % 36.1 %
PMI0ha 12.4 % 20.1 % 67.5 %
ADb 48.2 % 12.2 % 39.6 %
AD0ha 15.1 % 15.7 % 69.2 %
BPb 6.7 % 54.7 % 38.6 %
BPbs 0.0 % 67.6 % 32.4 %
BP0ha 31.6 % 41.7 % 26.7 %
BP0has 26.7 % 18.0 % 55.3 %
BP3ha 22.8 % 15.4 % 61.8 %
BP3has 5.2 % 53.1 % 41.7 %
34
3.1.4.5 Relationships between antioxidant levels and between antioxidant levels and
sperm quality
A negative correlation (r=-0.76; P ≤ 0.05) could be observed between SOD and GPx, but
no relationships (P > 0.05) between all other antioxidants.
Sperm concentration was positively correlated with GPx (r=0.78; P ≤ 0.05) in seminal
plasma. TAC was negatively related with BP0has (r=-0.85; P ≤ 0.01). There was a positive
correlation between SOD and BP0ha (r=0.71; P ≤ 0.05) and a positive relationship between
SOD and BP3ha (r=0.80; P ≤ 0.05). No correlations (P > 0.05) between all other antioxi-
dants and sperm parameters PMI, AD, DFI and SD-DFI, respectively, were detected.
3.1.5 Discussion
In the present study, an assay to measure total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of bovine seminal
plasma was established. Using the robotic pipetting system, measurements of TAC, as well as
GPx and SOD, were highly reproducible, with intra- and inter-assay CV < 10 %. In only few
studies reproducibility of antioxidant assays were investigated with interassay CVs of 4.7 %
for GPx in bovine seminal plasma (SMITH et al. 1979) and 31% for SOD-like activity
(BALL et al. 2000) in equine seminal plasma. In human seminal plasma, intra- and inter-
assay CV of TAC using enhanced chemiluminescence method were 5.0 and 13 %,
respectively (SALEH et al. 2001).
Levels of TAC, GPx and SOD varied among bulls with no significant variations between
ejaculates within bulls. KELSO et al. (1997a) noticed lower GPx and SOD activities in older
bulls ( >9 years old) compared to bulls with a middle age (5-6 years old) and young bulls (2-3
years old). As there was only a small range of the age of the bulls investigated in the present
study, there must be other factors responsible for the individual differences in these
antioxidants. It was shown that differences in antioxidant levels of semen can be under
genetic control (FOOTE and HARE 2000; MAIORINO et al. 2003). MAIORINO et al.
(2003) observed high variabilities of the sequences of GPx-4 genes in both fertile and infertile
men. As there are also differences in susceptibility of cryopreserved sperm to plasma
membrane damage between bulls (BOLLWEIN et al. 2008), differences in antioxidant levels
of seminal plasma could be responsible for this phenomenon.
35
GPx activity detected in bovine semen originates from the seminal plasma and not from
spermatozoa (BROWN et al. 1977; BILODEAU et al. 2000). We measured the activity of
seleno-dependent GPx using specific substrate TBHP. SLAWETA et al (1988) has used
hydrogen peroxide as a substrate for seleno-dependent GPx and found two-fold higher GPx
activity compared to our results. BILODEAU et al. (2000) determined both seleno-dependent
GPx and total GPx activity (using cumene hydroperoxide as specific substrate). Our results
were less than those reported by BILODEAU et al. (2000) that used TBHP as specific
substrate (27±12 vs 116±8 nmoles NADPH oxidized/min/mg). However, the age of studied
bulls was not mentioned by the latter authors. KELSO et al. (1997b) reported that levels of
total GPx activity (determined using cumene hydroperoxide as a substrate) ranged between
5.4 and 17.6 µmoles NADPH oxidized min-1/ml and the levels decreased with the age of the
bulls. It has been reported that the total GPx activity of the seminal plasma contained one
third (SLAWETA et al. 1988) to half (BILODEAU et al. 2000) of seleno-dependent GPx
activity. Therefore, we conclude that the levels of seleno-dependent GPx reported in our study
are similar with those which reported by other authors (SLAWETA et al. 1988; KELSO et al.
1997b).
Sperm are highly susceptible to oxidative substances such as H2O2, O2.- and HO. because of
the high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in their plasma membranes (SIKKA et al.
1995; AITKEN and BAKER 2004). It has been shown that sperm lipid peroxidation is able to
cause disturbances in sperm function (JONES et al. 1979; AITKEN and CLARKSON 1987;
AITKEN et al. 1989). KASIMANICKAM et al. (2007) has recently reported that lipid
peroxidation of sperm in bulls was not correlated with levels of SOD and GPx in sperm. In
contrast, we found significant correlations between levels of seminal plasma antioxidants
(TAC and SOD) and LPO after thawing. This result indicates that antioxidants of seminal
plasma are utilized after excessive generation of ROS after thawing of bull sperm. Therefore,
we inferred that determination of antioxidants in bull seminal plasma might be a more
predictive tool for the evaluation of oxidative stress than determination of antioxidants in
sperm. For instance in human seminal plasma, low levels of antioxidants have been found in
infertile men by using the TAC assay (SMITH et al. 1979; KOLETTIS et al. 1999).
We noticed that after cyropreservation the effects of the random factor bull on the parameters
PMI and AD decreased, while the effects of the residual factors increased (Table 2-5). This
36
phenomenon could be explained by the stress factors occurring during and after the
cryopreservation process (HAMMERSTEDT et al. 1990; ASHWORTH et al. 1995;
WATSON 2000; BALL 2008). For example, the dilution of the ejaculates reduces the
concentration of seminal plasma antioxidants. Previous studies (GARNER et al. 1997;
GARNER et al. 2001) showed that the volume and sperm concentration of the ejaculates and
the final concentration of the seminal plasma in the extended semen play critial roles in
plasma membran integrity after thawing of the cryopreserved sperm. As there were
differences in the detrimental effect of dilution of ejaculates between bulls GARNER et al.
(2001) supposed an effect of the source of seminal plasma.
In conclusion, the results show that the automated chemiluminescence TAC assay can be used
to measure the antioxidant levels of bovine seminal plasma. The total antioxidative capacity is
characteristic for the individual bulls and negatively related with lipid peroxidation.
37
3.2 Effects of feeding omega-3-fatty acids on sperm quality of Holstein Friesian bulls
before and after cryopreservation: Effects on seminal plasma
3.2.1 Abstract
The aim of the present study was to study the effects of feeding alpha-linolenic (ALA) acid on
the antioxidative capacity of seminal plasma, fatty acid composition and quality of bovine
sperm. After semen was collected from 17 Holstein Friesian bulls twice weekly for 4 weeks,
beside the basal ration, nine bulls (ALA bulls; age: 3.2±1 yrs) were additionally supplemented
with 800 g rumen-resistant linseed oil (with a content of 50 % linolenic acid) and eight bulls
additionally fed with 400 g palmitic acid (PA bulls; age: 3.7±0.8 yrs). Both fat suppleme-
ntations were offered for 12 weeks and semen was collected like before supplementation.
Volume, sperm concentration and total sperm number of each ejaculate were examined. The
sperm quality was evaluated by flow cytometric assays for plasma membrane integrity (PMI)
and acrosomal damage (AD) before and after cryopreservation. Fatty acid content of sperm
was determined using gas chromatography in shock frozen sperm before and after fat
supplementation. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and
superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were determined in seminal plasma. Volume, sperm
concentration and total sperm number of each ejaculate did not differ (P > 0.05) between
ALA- and PA bulls during the experimental period. Feeding ALA increased (P < 0.05) the
docosahexaenoic acid content in bulls whereas the DHA content in PA bulls did not
(P > 0.05) change. This increase of DHA in ALA bulls did not (P > 0.05) affect the levels of
TAC, GPx and SOD in seminal plasma. Before cryopreservation PMI- and AD values were
not (P > 0.05) influenced by the additional feeding of fatty acids, neither by PA nor by ALA.
PMI increased and AD decreased after cryopreservation in ALA bulls as well as in PA bulls
during the experiment period (P < 0.005). The results of this study show that the feeding of
neither saturated nor polyunsaturated fatty acids affect the antioxidant levels in seminal
plasma. Both saturated as well as polyunsaturated fatty acids had positive effects on quality of
cryopreserved bovine sperm, although the content of docosahexaenoic acid in sperm
membranes increased only in ALA bulls.
38
3.2.2 Introduction
The integrity of sperm membrane is affected through cryopreservation (HAMMERSTEDT et
al. 1990; WATSON 1995). After freezing and thawing, the proportion of PUFA in the plasma
membrane of boar sperm decreased significantly due to LPO (CEROLINI et al. 2001). The
lipid composition of the plasma membrane is also a major determinant of motility and
freezability of sperm among species (HAMMERSTEDT et al. 1990; PARKS and LYNCH
1992; HAMMERSTEDT 1993). Furthermore, it was noticed that lower contents of C20 and
C22 PUFAs in the sperm of older bulls (KELSO et al. 1997b) and chickens (KELSO et al.
1996) were related to a decrease in the ability to fertilize oocytes. The decrease in PUFA
content was related to decreased antioxidant levels (GPx and SOD) in seminal plasma of
aging bulls during reproductive period (KELSO et al. 1997b).
Somatic cells contain several antioxidants, GPx, SOD and catalase in their cytoplasm. As
sperm are devoid of most of this cytoplasm, the main antioxidant source in semen is the
seminal plasma (BILODEAU et al. 2000). For example, it was shown that GPx and SOD in
seminal plasma play important roles in the inhibition of LPO (KELSO et al. 1996). Previous
reports have shown that enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants had positive effects on
sperm freezability (BILODEAU et al. 2001; FERNANDEZ-SANTOS et al. 2007; BANSAL
and BILASPURI 2008).
In bovine sperm, docosahexaenoic acid is the dominant PUFA as in most mammals (NEILL
and MASTERS 1972; POULOS et al. 1973; KELSO et al. 1997b). An important positive
effect of PUFA in sperm function has been attributed to its effect on the fluidity of the plasma
membrane (LENZI et al. 1996). In the last fifteen years, in various feeding experiments DHA
or its precursors have been supplied to change the fatty acid composition of sperm membrane
in order to improve sperm quality and fertility. Several different studies revealed that the fatty
acid profile of sperm membrane can be modified with diet and, thus, improvement in sperm
quality was demonstrated in a variety of livestock species including chicken (KELSO et al.
1997a), turkey (BLESBOIS et al. 2004; ZANIBONI et al. 2006), boar (ROOKE et al. 2001)
and stallion (BRINSKO et al. 2005). However, diets that contain more PUFAs are associated
with impaired antioxidant capacity of animal tissues, blood and semen (SURAI et al. 2000a;
CASTELLINI et al. 2003). After feeding of more PUFA, elevated LPO of sperm and blood
were noticed (SURAI et al. 2000a; CASTELLINI et al. 2003). Therefore, it has been
39
recommended that the dietary supplementation of PUFAs has to comprise additional
antioxidants (SURAI et al. 2000a; ZANINI et al. 2003; CEROLINI et al. 2005).
A recent study by ADEEL et al. (2009) showed that the feeding of sunflower oil and
sunflower seed (rich in PUFA) improves motility and plasma membrane integrity of post-
thawed buffalo sperm. Until now, however, there is no evidence for the transport of PUFAs
from the diet to spermatozoa and its effect on seminal levels of antioxidants in Holstein
Friesian bulls. Thus, the aim of the present study was to characterize the effects of feeding
alpha-linolenic (ALA) acid on antioxidative capacity of seminal plasma, fatty acid
composition of sperm and quality of sperm in Holstein Friesian bulls.
3.2.3 Material and Methods
3.2.3.1 Bulls
Two consecutive experimental periods (P1 and P2) were carried out with the same fat
supplementations. There were twenty bulls in both experimental periods (18 Holstein Friesian
bulls and 2 Red Holstein bulls). The first experimental period (P1; n=10) was conducted
between August and October 2007 and the second period (P2; n=10) was conducted between
December 2007 and March 2008. The bulls were housed in an AI station (Masterrind GmbH;
Verden, Germany). Two bulls from the first treatment period and one bull from the second
treatment period had to be excluded due to illness. Nine bulls in the ALA group were 3.2±1.0
years and bulls in the PA group were 3.7±0.8 years old.
3.2.3.2 Dietary supplementation of bulls
The bulls in both groups were fed with a basal diet consisting of hay-silage (15 kg/day),
concentrate (2 kg/day; Hansa Landhandel GmbH, Zeven) and 300 g/day of a mineral feed
(MOVIpress KaGiGro, HS HEMO Qualitätsfutter GmbH & Co. KG, Lindhorst).
The basal ration of the ALA group was supplemented with 800 g coated alpha-linolenic acid
per day (net alpha-linolenic acid = 400 g, Noba Vetveredeling B.V., Geesthacht). The fat
supplement contained at least 70 % PUFA (Oleic acid: 10-22 %, Linoleic acid: 12-18 %,
alpha linolenic acid: 56-71 %). The ration of the PA group was supplemented with 400 g
palmitic acid (Bergafat®, Berg und Schmidt GmbH, Hamburg) to achieve the same energy
40
density for both groups. This supplement was a fractioned palm fat with a high percentage of
palmitic acid (palmitic acid: minimum 75 %, stearic acid minimum 10 %, myristic acid: ca.
1.5 %, oleic acid: ca. 10 %, linoleic acid: ca. 2 %, eicosanoic acid (C20:0): ca. 0.5 %). Both
fat supplements were fed in two equal portions twice a day. After semen was collected from
17 Holstein Friesian bulls twice weekly for 4 weeks, beside the basal ration, both fat
supplementations were offered for 12 weeks.
3.2.3.3 Semen collection, dilution and freezing
Semen was collected twice a week over 16 weeks (4 weeks before the start of the dietary
treatment and 12 after the dietary treatment). Concentration (Beckman Coulter, Krefeld),
volume and total sperm number of each ejaculate were determined directly after collection.
Progressive motility was estimated using microscopy at 37 °C at 200 x magnification
(Olympus model BH2, Hamburg, Germany).
A portion of each ejaculate with a total sperm number of 450x106 was diluted to a final
concentration of 60x106 cells/ml using a Tris-egg yolk based extender (DEHNING 2008).
Five mililiters of each ejaculate was kept undiluted for the separation of seminal plasma.
After the dilution of ejaculates at 20 °C, they were packaged in 30 French straws (0.25-ml).
Ten straws were taken for sperm analyses before cooling and after cryopreservation. Twenty
straws were slowly cooled to 5 °C over a period of 180 min and frozen to -110 °C within 390
seconds on racks in a freezer (Model K,Fa. Hede Nielsen, Horsens, Denmark). Frozen
samples were placed directly into liquid nitrogen and stored at least 24 hours until analysis.
3.2.3.4 Handling of seminal plasma and measurement of TAC, GPx and SOD
Each ejaculate (5 ml) was centrifuged at 3000 x g for 10 minutes at 4°C and the supernatant
was stored at -20 °C at least 24 hours until analysis. Samples of seminal plasma were
measured within 6 months. Before measurement, frozen samples of seminal plasma were
thawed at room temperature and diluted 100-fold with phosphate buffer solution (PBS; 50
mM/l, pH 7.4) and immediately assessed for total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and glutathione
peroxidase (GPx) activity. The samples were diluted further 10-fold with PBS for the
superoxide dismutase (SOD) assay. The measurements of TAC, GPx and SOD were carried
out as previously described (see 3.1.3.4). TAC, GPx and SOD were measured from samples
41
before feeding (4 weeks) and in the last four weeks of feeding (from 9 to 12 weeks of
feeding).
3.2.3.5 Flow Cytometric analyses
Plasma membrane integrity and acrosomal integrity
Flow cytometric analyses were performed as described in 3.1.3.5. The integrities of the
plasma membrane and the acrosome were evaluated by FITC-PNA / PI assay (FISCHER et
al. 2010). Five microliters of FITC-PNA (100 µg/ml) and 3 µl PI (2.99 mM) were added to
492 µl of diluted sperm suspension in Tyrode`s medium (100 mM NaCl, 3.1 mM KCl, 2.0
mM CaCl2, 0.4 mM MgCl2, 0.3 mM Na2HPO4, 1 mM Na-pyruvate, 21.6 mM Na-lactate, 24.9
mM NaHCO3, 10 mM Hepes, 0.05 g/l penicillin, 0.5 g/l PVA, 0.05 g/l PVP; pH: 7.4; 320
mOsm). This procedure was carried out on extended sperm before and after cryopreservation.
Sperm samples were incubated at 37 °C for 15 min and remixed just before measurement. The
percentages of acrosome-damaged sperm (AD) and sperm with an intact plasma membrane
(PMI) were determined after nonsperm events were gated out of analyses as evaluated on
scatter properties only.
Sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA)
The percentage of sperm showing a high degree of DNA fragmentation (% DFI) and the
standard deviation of DFI (SD-DFI) were determined by SCSA (see 3.1.3.5) as described by
EVENSON and JOST (2000).
3.2.3.6 Fatty acid extraction and analysis
The investigation of the gas chromatic analysis of sperm fatty acids was carried out by Frauke
Dehning at the Department of Physiological Chemistry (DEHNING 2008). Fatty acid
composition of sperm was determined in shock frozen sperm at trial weeks 1 and 16.
After the collection, the ejaculates were centrifuged (2500 x g, 10 min, 4 °C) to separate
sperm from the seminal plasma. The sperm pellets were stored (nine months) until analysis at
-20 °C.
42
The extraction of lipids from sperm was performed with chloroform /methanol (1:2, v/v)
according to BLIGH and DYER (1959). After extraction, fatty acids were separated in form
of their methylester derivatives using the method described by LEPAGE and ROY (1986).
The identification of fatty acid methyl esters was performed by gas chromatography on a
capillary column (Zebron ZB-WAX plus; Phenomenex Inc, Torrance, CA, USA) 30 mm x
0.25 mm (0.25 µm film thickness). The separation of fatty acids was carried out using the
following temperature program: 120 °C for 2 min, increase to 190 °C (25 °C/min) and to
250 °C (10 °C/min). The latter temperature was kept for 30 min. Peak values were detected by
flame ionization. The percentage of fatty acids was calculated by comparison of the total fatty
acid peak area with that of the fatty acid standard (heptadecanoic acid).
3.2.3.7 Statistical analysis
The investigations lasted 16 weeks, four weeks before and twelve weeks after the start of the
feeding. For the statistical analyses of time dependent changes and differences between both
animal groups in sperm quality during the study period, for all sperm quality parameters mean
values each out of four weeks were calculated. Levels of antioxidants were investigated
before feeding and last four weeks of feeding. Normal distribution of data was proven by
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Values of antioxidants and sperm quality parameters were
expressed as means±standard deviations (SD). Means of percentages of fatty acids from two
ejaculates at trial weeks 1 and 16 ware calculated. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
followed by Fisher's LSD test (least significant difference test) was conducted to investigate
the effects of diets on sperm quality, antioxidant levels and fatty acids compositions.
From the data of the pre-feeding period, pearson`s correlation coefficients were calculated to
compare the mean values of antioxidants in seminal plasma (TAC, GPx and SOD) and the
percentages of fatty acids in sperm membranes. P values ≤ 0.05 were considered as significant
and 0.05 < P ≤0.01 was considered as tendencial.
Statistical analyses were carried out using the software packages StatView 5.0 and SAS (SAS
Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA).
43
3.2.4 Results
3.2.4.1 Fatty acid analysis
The investigations of fatty acid composition of sperm and of semen parameters were carried
out by DEHNING (2008). Additionally to the study of DEHNING (2008), correlations
between fatty acids and antioxidants levels in seminal plasma were evaluated in the present
study (Table 3-3).
Before feeding of bulls, DHA was the unique detectable omega-3 fatty acid in the plasma
membrane of sperm with a portion of 40.13% of all fatty acids. The portions of the saturated
fatty acids palmitic acid (C16:0), myristic acid (C14:0) and stearic acid (C18:0) were 22.4 %,
12.1 % and 8.6 %, respectively. Oleic acid (C18:1 n-9) was the only found monounsaturated
fatty acid (6.0 %). Linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6) accounted for 3.5 %. Furthermore, eicosatrienoic
(C20:3 n-6) and ecosadienoic acid (C20:2 n-6) accounted for 3.3 % and 1.1 %, respectively.
3.2.4.2 Dietary effects on sperm quality and fatty acid composition
After feeding with ALA, the DHA level of sperm increased (P < 0.03), but no change
(P > 0.05) occurred in DHA levels after the supplementation of PO. The same (P > 0.05)
alterations in DHA level were detected during both feeding periods, P1 and P2. Therefore,
only the averages of the data of the trials P1 and P2 are shown (Table 3-1). There was a non
significant decrease of palmitic acid in ALA bulls (4 %) and a non significant increase of this
fatty acid in PA bulls (4 %). The feeding of PO led to a higher (P < 0.05) portion of palmitic
acid compared to the supplementation of ALA.
Sperm concentration, ejaculate volume, total sperm number of ejaculate did not change
(P > 0.05) in ALA- and PA bulls during the experimental period. The PMIb values stayed
constant (P < 0.05) during the study period, while PMIa increased (P < 0.005) by 11 % in
ALA bulls and by 9 % in control group during the study period (Table 3-1). There were no
alterations (P > 0.05) in ADb in both groups, while ADa decreased during the study period in
both groups (P < 0.005). The %DFI- and SD-DFI values were not affected (P > 0.05) by the
feeding of PO and ALA.
44
Table 3-1: Effects of diets containing palmitic acid (PO) or alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) on sperm concentration (concentration), volume
of the ejaculate (volume), total sperm number, plasma membrane integrity (PMI), acrosomal damage (AD), DNA fragmentation index
and standard deviation of DNA fragmentation index (SD-DFI) of bovine sperm samples. Measurements of PMI and AD were
performed before (b) and immediately after thawing (0ha). The %DFI and SD-DFI were determined after thawing of samples. Values
are means±SD from 8 consecutive ejaculates (twice weekly for 4 weeks) of PO (n=8) and ALA (n=9) bulls before (4 weeks) and
during feeding.
PO ALA Diet week Before 1-4 5-8 9-12 Before 1-4 5-8 9-12
Concentration
[109/ml] 1.5±0.3 1.5±0.3 1.5±0.3 1.5±0.3 1.5±0.3 1.4±0.3 1.4±0.3 1.4±0.3
Volume [ml] 7.7±1.8 7.3±1.7 7.9±1.7 7.2±1.7 7.1±1.4 7.4±1.8 7.6±1.5 7.1±1.7
Total sperm
number [109/ml] 11.3±3.5 11.0±3.4 11.8±3.7 10.4±3.3 10.4±2.9 10.2±3.4 10.6±2.7 9.7±3.2
PMIb [%] 83.6±5.0 85.0±4.2 85.3±4.4 84.8±4.4 79.7±8.3 82.6±7.3 83.3±6.8 82.6±7.4
ADb [%] 4.8±2.4 4.2±2.0 4.1±1.5 4.4±2.1 5.8±3.5 4.9±2.9 4.5±2.4 4.8±2.4
PMI0ha [%] 33.0±13.3 44.1±14.9* 42.0±15.0* 44.8±12.0* 28.6±10.5 39.3±13.6* 41.0±11.8* 41.6±13.7*
AD0ha [%] 39.4±16.1 29.1±14.3* 26.6±12.6* 26.3±9.9* 46.5±11.7 33.5±14.4* 28.7±9.6* 31.3±12.9*
%DFI [%] 3.2±1.8 3.9±1.6 3.6±1.9 4.5±1.9 3.7±1.9 3.6±1.7 3.3±1.6 4.6±2.2
SD-DFI 18.1±5.9 18.5±3.5 16.8±4.5 19.2±4.9 18.5±3.5 18.5±3.3 16.7±3.6 17.9±4.1
Values during the feeding period with asterisk (*) differ (P < 0.05) compared to the values before the feeding period.
45
3.2.4.3 Effect of feeding ALA on antioxidant levels of seminal plasma In both groups the levels of TAC, SOD and GPx did not change (P > 0.05) during the feeding
of PO and ALA (P > 0.05). The values of TAC, SOD and GPx did not differ (P > 0.05)
between PO - and ALA bulls during the study periods (Table 3-2).
Table 3-2: Effects of diets containing palmitic acid (PO) or alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) on
levels of total antioxidant capacity (TAC = µmol/L), glutathione peroxidise (GPx = nmol
NADPH oxidized/min/mg of protein) and superoxide dismutase (SOD = U/ml) in bovine
seminal plasma. Values are means±SD from 8 consecutive ejaculates (twice weekly for 4
weeks) of PO (n=8) and ALA (n=9) bulls before feeding and after 9 weeks (mean of weeks 9-
12) of feeding.
PO ALA Before feeding feeding Before feeding Feeding
TAC 570.0±283.7 503.4±209.2 553.5±194.9 653.4±206.9
GPx 65.5±20.8 65.6±23.3 66.4±16.9 64.4±19.0
SOD 11024.8±733.1 10835.0±810.3 10616.2±1084.1 10769.0±1503.5
3.2.4.4 Correlation between fatty acids and antioxidants
There were negative correlations (P < 0.05) between the values of TAC and percentages of
palmitic (C16:0) and myristic (C14:0) acid (P < 0.05). Levels of SOD in seminal plasma was
in tendency associated (P=0.09) with DHA (C22:6 (n-3)) in the sperm plasma membrane and
GPx was in tendency associated (P=0.06) with C18:2 (n-6). There were no (P > 0.05)
correlations between all other antioxidant levels in seminal plasma and the relative contents of
all other fatty acids in the sperm plasma membrane (Table 3-3).
46
Table 3-3: Relationships between antioxidants in seminal plasma (TAC = µmol/L, GPx =
nmol NADPH oxidized/min/mg of protein and SOD = U/ml) and relative contents of fatty
acids in plasma membrane of sperm (n=17).
Fatty
acid
C22:6
(n-3)
C22:0
C20:2
C18:2
(n-6)
C18:1
(n-9)
C18:0
C16:0
C14:0
TAC 0.26 -0.42 0.02 -0.37 0.35 0.29 -0.59* -0.56*
GPx 0.04 0.31 0.13 0.47a -0.37 -0.46 0.38 0.27
SOD 0.42a -0.03 0.39 -0.11 -0.11 -0.10 -0.39 -0.36
(*) P < 0.05, (a) 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10
3.2.5 Discussion
In the present study, no alterations in levels of antioxidants in seminal plasma were detected
by feeding of PA or ALA. Therefore, we suppose that amounts of antioxidants in the diet of
bulls are well-balanced. Previous studies have shown that increasing PUFA amounts in the
diet of different species may change antioxidant status of semen (SURAI et al. 2000b;
ROOKE et al. 2001; CASTELLINI et al. 2003; CEROLINI et al. 2005; ZANIBONI et al.
2006). CASTELLINI et al. (2003) reported in rabbit bucks that supplementation of long chain
fatty acis modified the fatty acid profile but concurrently reduced the total antioxidant
capacity of seminal plasma determined by using Oxy-adsorbent spectrofotometric assay. They
found that supplementation of neither vitamin E nor vitamin C restored oxidative stability of
semen in animals showing a rise of oxidative stress after of feeding fatty acids. Improvements
of sperm quality were observed only after adding a combination of both antioxidants, vitamin
E as well as vitamin C to the diet. ZANIBONI et al. (2006) even noticed in turkey fish oil
decreased susceptibility to peroxidation of sperm, but also only by feeding adequate vitamin E
supplementation. These findings, i.e., positive effects of fat supplementations only by
combining it with antioxidants, may be explained by the fact that sperm contain high levels of
PUFA.
47
The presence of high levels of PUFA requires efficient antioxidant levels to protect sperm
against lipid peroxidation (AITKENand BAKER 2004). In contrast to the above mentioned
studies, there are also reports which showed positive effects of fats on sperm quality without
additional antioxidant supplementation in stallion (BRINSKO et al. 2005) and in chicken
(KELSO et al. 1997a). The reason for this contradictory result may be the fact that in the
different studies various diets were used, which contained different fatty acids. As the various
types of fatty acids show different effects on sperm membranes they require different amounts
of antioxidants (BONGALHARDO et al. 2009). Furthermore, the above mentioned studies
were carried out in different species which show varying antioxidant levels. Bovine seminal
plasma contains higher antioxidant levels compared to equine (BALL 2008) and porcine
seminal plasma (OCHSENDORF and FUCHS 1997).
Antioxidants in seminal plasma play an essential role to maintain oxidative stability (SURAI
et al. 1997; SURAI et al. 2000a; AGARWAL et al. 2005; KASIMANICKAM et al. 2006). In
a recent study comparing antioxidants and fatty acid contents in human sperm, TAVILANI et
al. (2008) found that there is a negative relationship between SOD activity and levels of
palmitic acid in normospermic samples. They showed positive but non significant correlations
between SOD activity and DHA levels in sperm which is in accordance with our results. In
addition, it is known that the ratio of PUFA/saturated fatty acids in human sperm is an
important indicator of normospermic sperm. It was higher than that in asthenozoospermic
sperm (TAVILANI et al. 2006). In our study, there were significant negative correlations
between TAC levels in bull seminal plasma and levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA; palmitic
and myristic acid) of sperm. Phospholipids of mammalian sperm are important substrates for
respiration and particularly palmitic and myristic acid within phospholipids can be oxidized
for energy production (HARTREE and MANN 1961; SCOTT and DAWSON 1968). We
assume that the antioxidants of seminal plasma are not used for the protection of SFA in
sperm membrane.
There are studies on many species including stallion (BRINSKO et al. 2005), human
(CONQUER et al. 2000), fowl (BLESBOIS et al. 2004), boars (ROOKE et al. 2001) and
rabbit (CASTELLINI et al. 2003) showing positive effects of feeding PUFAs on sperm
quality, but until now the mechanism how long chain PUFAs affect sperm quality is not quite
clear (CEROLINI et al. 2005; KELSO 1997a; SURAI 2000b). Our report is the first to show
48
that the supplementation of ALA increases the DHA content in bull sperm. However, there
was no specific effect of DHA on sperm quality before cryopreservation and after thawing.
This finding is in accordance with those of PAULENZ et al. (1999) who showed in boars that
dietary supplementation of n-3 PUFAs by feeding of cod liver oil increased the DHA in
sperm membranes but did not improve the tolerance to cold shock and freezing. In contrast,
ROOKE et al. (2001) observed an increase of boar sperm quality after feeding tuna oil.
Similarly, BRINSKO et al. (2005) noticed that feeding stallions DHA rich diets would
improve freezeability of sperm. It is noteworthy here to mention that, content of PUFA and
levels of antioxidants differ between species. Bovine semen shows a higher DHA content
(PARKS and LYNCH 1992) and higher GPx (BILODEAU et al. 2000) levels compared to
equine (SAARANEN et al. 1989; BALL et al. 2000) and porcine semen (SAARANEN et al.
1989). The latter two species have higher levels of docosapentaenoic acid [DPA; 20:5 (n-6)]
(PARKS and LYNCH 1992) in sperm and lower GPx levels in seminal plasma compared to
bulls. Such a species difference in content of fatty acids and antioxidants could be a reason for
different effects of PUFA supplementation on sperm quality.
One limitation of our study was the lack of a control group without any fat supplemantation.
On the other hand, we carried out the same fat supplementations at two different times and
achieved the same results. The interesting findings of this study were the positive effects of
both fat sources on post thawing sperm plasma membrane- and acrosomal integrity. Diets
enriched with n-3 or n-6 fatty acids affected sperm production in different species like in
chicken (SURAI et al. 2000b) or in stallion (BRINSKO et al. 2005). Many of them, for
example in stallion (BRINSKO et al. 2005) and boar (ROOKE et al. 2001), resulted in an
improvement of sperm quality (SURAI et al. 2000b; ROOKE et al. 2001). However,
discordant results have been reported (PAULENZ et al. 1999).
In summary, the content of antioxidants in seminal plasma was not affected by the additional
feeding of fatty acids, neither in saturated nor polyunsaturated forms. However, both types of
fatty acids led to an increase of sperm quality after cryopreservation.
49
4. SUMMARIZING DISCUSSION AND CONLUSIONS
Measurements of TAC, as well as GPx and SOD, were highly reproducible, with intra- and
interassay CV < 10% which are consistent with results of assays reported in other species
(SMITH et al. 1979; BALL et al. 2000; SALEH et al. 2001). Levels of TAC, GPx and SOD
differed significantly among bulls, with no significant variation among ejaculates. It is known
that seminal plasma concentrations of catalase in rabbit (FOOTE and HARE 2000) and of
SOD in stallion (BALL et al. 2000) varied among individual males. FOOTE et al. (2000)
noticed that variations in catalase enzyme among male rabbits are under genetic control.
Furthermore, it has been indicated that the sequences of GPx-4 genes were highly variable in
both fertile and infertile men (MAIORINO et al. 2003). Therefore, we consider that the
variation of antioxidant levels could have genetic reasons.
Sperm are highly susceptible to lipid peroxidation because of their high content of
polyunsaturated fatty acids composition. Recently, it has been reported that lipid peroxidation
of bull sperm was negatively associated with fertility parameters but not with levels of SOD
and GPx in sperm (KASIMANICKAM et al. 2007). In contrast, we found a negative
correlation between TAC levels in seminal plasma and induced LPO of sperm after thawing.
Furthermore, we observed positive correlations between SOD and LPO after thawing. These
findings indicate that seminal plasma antioxidants have protective effects against lipid
peroxidation during the cryopreservation and thawing process.
In the present study, variance components contributing to total variance of bull sperm quality
parameters were estimated. There was a decrease of the effect of the factor bull and an
increase of the residual factors on variabilities of PMI and AD after the cryopreservation
process. It is noteworthy that the cryopreservation process affects the antioxidant enzyme
distribution on sperm (STRADAIOLI et al. 2007; MARTI et al. 2008). In addition, volume
and sperm concentration of ejaculate and seminal plasma concentration in the final dilution
played a critical role concerning the viability of frozen-thawed sperm (GARNER et al. 1997;
GARNER et al. 2001). GARNER et al. (2001) postulated that at higher dilution rates
protective seminal plasma components are lacking, thus contributing to the damage of sperm
during cryopreservation and thawing. In the present study, dilution of ejaculates appears to be
a possible reason for post-thawing increase of residual effect in total variation. Negative
50
correlations between post-thawing sperm LPO and sperm concentration support our
hypothesis concerning dilution.
The aim of the second part of the study (see 3.2) was to investigate the effects of feeding
alpha-linolenic (ALA) acid (in comparison to palmitic acid; PO) on the antioxidative capacity
of seminal plasma, fatty acid composition and quality of bovine sperm. Supplementations of
ALA and PO did not affect the levels of seminal plasma antioxidants during the experiment.
This result can be attributed to the fact that antioxidants in the diet of bulls were sufficient to
protect sperm from ROS (ROOKE et al. 2001; CASTELLINI et al. 2003).
The intake of PUFA from the diet into the plasma membrane of sperm has been shown for
many species (CONQUER et al. 2000; ROOKE et al. 2001; CASTELLINI et al. 2003;
BLESBOIS et al. 2004; BRINSKO et al. 2005). Our report is the first one demonstrating that
feeding more ALA increases the DHA content in the bull sperm. Nevertheless, the positive
effects of fat supplementation on cryopreserved sperm were seen not only noticed for bulls
fed ALA, but also for the bulls supplemented with PA. Diets enriched with n-3 fatty acids
affected sperm production in different species (BRINSKO et al. 2005; SURAI et al 2000b).
Discordant results about the effects of fatty acids on post-thawing sperm quality have been
reported. BRINSKO et al. (2001) demonstrated that the additional feeding of n-3 fatty acids
improved the freezability of stallion sperm. In contrast, in boar, fish oil addition (3 %) to the
dairy ration of boar increased the DHA content of sperm (from 33 % to 45 %) and increased
total sperm number, but did not alter freezability (CEROLINI et al. 2001). It is noteworthy
that there are species differences in content of fatty acids and levels of antioxidants (POULOS
et al. 1973; MENNELLA and JONES 1980; KANTOLA et al. 1988). These make it difficult
to compare effects of fat supplementation on quality of bovine sperm with other species. We
suggest that both SFA and PUFA may affect the bull sperm quality, because both types of
fatty acids are important for sperm function. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (particularly DHA)
play a major role in reulating sperm membrane fluidity. DHA is also important during
spermatogenesis and epididymal sperm maturation (OLLERO et al. 2000). It is known that
there is a decrease in DHA content of sperm during the maturation. It has been also suggested
that DHA may induce apoptosis during maturation and play a role in the regulation of
spermatogenesis (OLLERO et al. 2000; OLLERO et al. 2001). SFAs in sperm (palmitic and
51
myristic acid) are important substrates for respiration and can be oxidized for energy
production (HARTREE and MANN 1961; SCOTT and DAWSON 1968).
There was a tendency for a correlation between SOD activity in seminal plasma and DHA
content in sperm (see 3.2) which is in accordance with previous reports (TAVILANI et al.
2008). In addition, we found a significant negative correlation between TAC of seminal
plasma and SFA. This result indicates that seminal plasma antioxidants are not used for the
protection of SFA in sperm membrane.
We conclude that the automated chemiluminescence TAC assay is a suitable method for
determining the antioxidant capacity of bull seminal plasma. The levels of TAC differ among
bulls and the TAC assay gives valuable information about the sensivity of sperm against LPO
after cryopreservation process. Both SFA as well as PUFA had positive effects on quality of
cryopreserved bovine sperm, although the content of DHA in sperm membranes increased
only in ALA bulls. The feeding of neither SFA nor PUFA affected the levels of antioxidants
in seminal plasma.
52
5. SUMMARY
Oguz Calisici
Investigation of antioxidative capacity in bovine seminal plasma– Effects of Omega-3
fatty acids
The first objective of the present study was to establish an assay to measure total antioxidant
capacity (TAC) of bovine seminal plasma. In addition, relationships between TAC and other
antioxidants in seminal plasma and sperm quality, respectively, were investigated. The second
objective of this study was to investigate the effects of feeding alpha-linolenic (ALA) acid on
the antioxidative capacity of seminal plasma.
In the first part of the study, eight ejaculates were collected twice weekly for 4 weeks from
nine mature Holstein-Friesian bulls. Assays to determine levels of TAC, glutahione
peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were modified for use in an automated,
96-well microplate reader. Plasma membrane integrity (PMI) and acrosomal damage (AD)
were evaluated by flow cytometry in sperm before cryopreservation and in frozen sperm
immediately after thawing. The DNA-fragmentation was determined on frozen-thawed sperm
using the sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA). Membrane lipid peroxidation (LPO;
oxidation of lipiphilic probe C11-BODIPY581/591) was quantified with and without induction of
LPO using t-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) before cryopreservation, 0 and 3 h after thawing.
For TAC, SOD and GPx, intra-assay coefficients of variation (CV) were 5.0, 3.5 and 6.2 %,
respectively, and inter-assay CV were 8.3, 3.6 and 8.3 %. Levels of TAC, SOD and GPx
differed among bulls (P < 0.0001), but not among ejaculates within bulls (P > 0.05). There
was a negative correlation (r=-0.76; P ≤ 0.05) between SOD and GPx, but there were no
(P > 0.05) other relationships between antioxidants. The TAC was negatively correlated with
TBHP-LPO at 0 h (r=-0.85; P ≤ 0.01) and there were positive correlations between SOD and
LPO at 0 h (r=0.71; P ≤ 0.05) and 3 h (r=0.80; P ≤ 0.05). There were no (P > 0.05)
relationships between DFI and antioxidant levels.
In the second part of the study, semen was collected from 17 Holstein Friesian bulls for four
weeks twice a week. Thereafter, the basal ration of nine bulls (ALA bulls; age: 3.2±1 yrs) was
53
supplemented with 800 g/day coated alpha-linolenic acid and the basal ration of eight bulls
(PA bulls; age: 3.7±0.8 yrs) was supplemented with 400 g/day palmitic acid (Bergafat®).
Both fat supplementations were fed for 12 weeks. Volume, sperm concentration, and total
sperm number of each ejaculate were determined. PMI and AD were evaluated by flow
cytometry before cryopreservation and after thawing. Levels of TAC, GPx and SOD were
determined in seminal plasma before and after fat supplementation. Fatty acid content in
shock frozen sperm samples was determined using gas chromatography before and after fat
supplementation. Feeding ALA increased (P < 0.05) the content of docosahexaenoic acid in
ALA bulls whereas the DHA content in PA bulls did not (P > 0.05) change. The increase of
DHA in ALA bulls had no (P > 0.05) effect on the seminal plasma levels of TAC, GPx and
SOD. Before cryopreservation, values of PMI- and AD were not (P > 0.05) affected by the
additional feeding of fatty acids, neither by PA nor by ALA. PMI increased and AD
decreased after cryopreservation in ALA bulls as well as in PA bulls during the study period
(P < 0.005).
In summary, a reliable assay for assessment of TAC in bovine seminal plasma was
established. The measurement of TAC gave valuable information about the sensivity of sperm
against lipid peroxidation of cryopreserved sperm. The feeding of neither saturated nor
polyunsaturated fatty acids affected the antioxidant levels in bovine seminal plasma. Both
types of fatty acids increased the quality of cryopreserved sperm, although the content of
docosahexaenoic acid in sperm membranes increased only in ALA bulls.
54
6. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Oguz Calisici
Untersuchung der antioxidativen Kapazität des bovinen Seminalplasmas– Effekte der
Fütterung von Omega-3 Fettsäure
Das erste Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, einen Test zu etablieren, um die totale
antioxidative Kapazität (TAC) im Seminalplasma von Bullen zu bestimmen und zu prüfen, ob
ein Zusammenhang zwischen TAC und anderen Antioxidantien im Seminalplasma und der
Spermaqualität besteht. Das zweite Ziel der Studie lag darin, zu überprüfen, ob die Fütterung
der mehrfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren die antioxidative Kapazität im Seminalplasma
beeinflusst.
Für den ersten Teil der Studie wurden von neun Bullen der Rasse Holstein Frisian über 4
Wochen je zweimal wöchentlich Ejakulate gewonnen. Die Untersuchungsmethoden von TAC,
Glutathion-Peroxidase (GPx) und Superoxid-Dismutase (SOD) wurden für den Gebrauch in
einem automatischen 96-Well-Mikroplatten-Reader modifiziert. Die
Plasmamembranintegrität (PMI) und die akrosomale Schädigung (AD) von frisch verdünntem
und kryokonserviertem Sperma wurden mittels Durchflusszytometrie bestimmt. Die
Bestimmung der DNA-Fragmentierung erfolgte an kryokonserviertem Sperma mit Hilfe des
Sperm-Chromatin-Struktur Assays (SCSA™). Die Membranlipidperoxidation (LPO) wurde
mit und ohne Induktion der LPO durch tertiäres Butylhydroperoxid (TBHP) vor der
Kryokonservierung, unmittelbar (0h) und 3 Stunden (3h) nach dem Auftauen quantifiziert.
Für die Bestimmungen von TAC, SOD und GPx lagen die Intra-Assay-Variations-
koeffizienten (CV) bei 5,0, 3,5 und 6,2 % und die Inter-Assay-Variationskoeffizienten (CV)
bei 8,3, 3,6 und 8,3 %. Der Gehalt von TAC, SOD und GPx unterschied sich zwischen den
Bullen (P < 0,0001) aber es bestanden keine (P > 0,05) Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen
Ejakulaten. SOD und GPx korrelierten negativ (r=-0,76; P ≤ 0,05) miteinander. Es waren
keine (P > 0,05) Zusammenhänge zwischen den anderen Antioxidantien festzustellen. Eine
negative Korrelation gab es zwischen TAC und TBHP-LPO unmittelbar nach dem Auftauen
(r=-0,85; P ≤ 0,01). Die SOD-Werte korrelierten positiv mit den unmittelbar (r=0,71;
55
P ≤ 0,05) und 3 Stunden nach dem Auftauen erhobenen LPO-Werten (r=0,80; P ≤ 0,05).
Keine (P > 0,05) Zusammenhänge waren zwischen DFI und den Antioxidantien festzustellen.
Für den zweiten Teil der Studie wurden zunächst über einen Zeitraum von 4 Wochen 8
Ejakulate von 17 Holstein Frisian Bullen gewonnen. Anschließend wurde der Grundration
von 9 Bullen 800 g gecoateter Alpha-Linolensäure (ALA) pro Tag zugesetzt. Die Grundration
der 8 Bullen der Kontrollgruppe wurde mit 400 g Palmitinsäure (PO) pro Tag angereichert.
Die Fettsupplementation wurden über 12 Wochen durchgeführt. Das Volumen, die
Spermienkonzentration und die Gesamtspermienzahl jedes Ejakulates, sowie PMI und AD
vor und nach der Kryokonservierung wurden bestimmt. Die Seminalplasmagehalte an TAC,
SOD und GPx (vier Wochen lang vor Versuchsbeginn und vier Wochen lang am Ende des
Versuches) sowie die Fettsäureanteile in der Spermienmembranen wurden am Anfang (1.
Versuchswoche) und nach der Fettsupplementation (12 Wochen nach Versuchsbeginn)
ermittelt.
Durch die ALA-Fütterung erhöhte sich der Anteil von DHA (P < 0,05) in der Spermien-
membran, während der DHA-Anteil in den Spermien der PA-Bullen gleich blieb (P > 0,05).
Der DHA-Anstieg in der ALA-Gruppe hatte keine (P > 0,05) Auswirkungen auf die
Antioxidantien (TAC, SOD und GPx). Die vor der Kryokonservierung ermittelten PMI- und
AD-Werte änderte sich auch nicht (P > 0,05) durch die Fütterung der beiden Fettsäuren, ALA
und PO. Im Gegensatz dazu war nach dem Auftauen bei den Spermien beider
Fütterungsgruppen ein Anstieg von PMI und ein Abfall von AD nachweisbar (P < 0,005).
Zusammenfassend wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit eine verlässliche Methode zur Messung
von TAC in bovinem Seminalplasma etabliert. Der TAC-Wert lieferte wichtige Informationen
über die Sensibilität von Spermien gegenüber LPO bei der Kryokonservierung. Die Fütterung
von gesättigten als auch von mehrfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren hatte zwar keine Auswirkung
auf die antioxidative Kapazität in bovinem Seminalplasma, jedoch hatten beide
Fettsäuretypen einen positiven Einfluss auf die Spermaqualität.
56
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8. APPENDIX
Food Suplements
Mineral Feed
178620 MOVIpress KaRiGro Mineralfutter für Rinder
(HS HEMO Qualitätsfutter GmbH & Co. KG, Lindhorst)
Ingredients
Calcium: 14,5%
Sodium: 9,0%
Phosphor: 3,5%
Magnesium: 3,5%
Additives per kg
Vitamin A: 1.000.000 IU
Vitamin D3: 135.000 IU
Vitamin E: 3.000 mg (as Alpha-Tocopherol acetate)
Biotin: 10.000 mg
Zinc: 8.000 mg (as Zincsulfate Monohydrate)
Copper: 825 mg (as copper-(II)-Sulfate Pentahydrate)
Mangane: 1550 mg (as Manganese-(II)-Sulfate)
Iodine: 80 mg (as Calciumjodat Anhydrate)
Cobalt: 15 mg (as basic Cobalt-(II)-Carbonat Monohydrate)
Selenium: 80 mg (as Sodiumselenite)
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Concentrated Feed (Kraftfutter „Rinderspezialfutter“)
(Hansa Landhandel, Zeven)
Composition
Barley: 25.0%
Wheat (geschrotet): 25.5%
Coarse colza meal: 5.0%
Whear bran: 12.0%
Maize gluten: 7,0%
Melasseschnitzel: 20.0%
Sugar beet molasses: 3.0%
Calcium carbonat: 1.0%
Natrium chlorid: 0.5%
Rind AF 220103: 1.0%
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Dr. Heinrich Bollwein for entrusting me
with this work and for his continuous academic guidance, motivation, and patience.
I want to thank Prof. Dr. Marcus Pröpsting for his helpful suggestions.
Thanks to AI Station Masterrind, Verden for providing animals.
I want to thank all my friends in Hannover, above all to:
Martin Behr, Meik Becker, Olivia Gooß, Anja Sipka, Kadir Erkan, Arinc Kayacelebi, Murat
Erdogan, Yigit Dadas, A. Selin Coskan and Kivanc Inan for sharing wonderful hours together.
Members of SV Can-Arkadas for wonderful hours before, during and after our soccer
competitions.
My special thanks to my brother Ufuk Calisici and his wife Birgit Rupp, Stefan and my
uncles Mustafa and Bünyamin Kargin for their help in Germany.
I am grateful to my wife Duygu for giving me motivation and strength.
I would like to express my deepest thanks to my parents Fatma and Arslan Calisici, my
beloved grandparents Haci Mehmet Kargin and Emsal Kargin for their support during my
education.
(Ögrenimim süresince vermis olduklari destekten dolayi annem Fatma Calisici, babam Arslan
Calisici ve cok sevdigim dedem Haci Mehmet Kargin ve anneannem Emsal Kargin`a en icten
duygularimla tesekkür ederim).