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    By Engr. Leo D. Hermano

    Materials Engineering Technical Report

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    Table o f Cont ents

    I . Descr ip t ion

    I I . History

    I I I . Proper t iesIV . Processes

    V. App l icat ions and Technolog ica l

    AdvancementsVI .Advantages / Disadvantages

    VI I .Conclus ion

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    T i tan ium i s a chemica l e lemen t w i th t he symbo l

    Ti and a tom ic number 22 , w i th l ow dens i t y andi s a s t rong , l us t rous , co r ros ion - res i s tan t

    t rans i t i on me ta l w i th a s i l ve r co lo r .

    T i t an ium a l l oys a re me ta l s wh ich con ta in am ix tu re o f t i t an ium and o the r chemica l

    e lemen ts . Such a l l oys have ve ry h igh tens i l e

    s t reng th and toughness . They a re l i gh t i n

    we igh t , have ex t rao rd ina ry co r ros ion res i s tanceand the ab i l i t y t o w i ths tand ex t reme

    tempera tu res .

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    T i tan ium was d i scove red i nc luded i n a m ine ra l

    i n Cornwa l l , G rea t B r i t a i n , i n 1791 by thec le rgyman and amateu r geo log i s t W i l l i am

    Gregor .

    He recogn ized the p resence o f a new e lemen t i ni lmen i te when he no t i ced b lack sand was

    a t t rac ted by a magne t .

    Ana l ys is o f the sand de te r mined the p resence o f

    two me ta l ox ides ; i r on ox ide (exp la in ing the

    a t t rac t i on to t he magne t ) and 45 .25% o f a wh i te

    meta l l i c ox id e he cou ld no t i den t i f y.

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    Wi l l i am Gregor repo r ted h i s f i nd ings to t he

    Roya l Geo log i ca l Soc ie t y o f Co rnwa l l and i n t heGerman sc ience j ou rna l C re l l ' s Anna len .

    Around the same t ime , F ranz -Joseph M l l e r von

    Re ichens te in p roduced a s im i l a r subs tance , bu tcou ld no t i den t i f y i t .

    The ox ide was i ndependen t l y red i scove red i n

    1795 by P russ ian chemis t Mar t i n He in r i chK lapro th in ru t i l e f r om Hungary.

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    Mar t i n He in r i ch K lap ro th

    found tha t i t con ta ined a

    new e lemen t and named i t

    fo r the T i tans o f Greekmy tho logy ; t hus the name

    t i tan ium.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
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    Ti tan ium sponge( f rom Kro l l P rocess)

    Wine- red ru t i l e c r ys ta l s ,B inn Va l ley , Swi tzer land( S i z e : 2 . 0 x 1 . 6 x 0 . 8 c m )

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TitaniumMetal_jpg.jpg
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    Ti tan ium crys ta l bar

    M inera l concen t ra te

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titan-crystal_bar.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TitaniumUSGOV.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TitaniumUSGOV.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titan-crystal_bar.JPG
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    A meta l l i c e lemen t , t i t an ium is recogn ized fo r

    i t s h igh s t reng th - to -we igh t ra t i o .

    I t i s a s t rong me ta l w i t h l ow dens i t y t ha t i s

    qu i t e duc t i l e (espec ia l l y i n an oxygen- f ree

    env i ronmen t ) , l us t rous , and me ta l l i c -wh i te i nco lor .

    The re la t i ve l y h igh me l t i ng po in t (more than

    1 ,650 C o r 3 ,000 F ) makes i t use fu l as a

    re f rac to ry me ta l .

    I t i s pa ramagne t i c and has fa i r l y l ow

    e lec t r i ca l and therma l co nduc t i v i t y .

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    Commerc ia l ( 99 .2% pu re ) g rades o f t i t an ium

    have u l t ima te tens i l e s t reng th o f abou t63 ,000 ps i ( 434 MPa) , equa l t o t ha t o f

    common, l ow-g rade s tee l a l l oys , bu t a re 45%

    l igh ter .

    T i tan ium i s 60% more dense than a lum in ium,

    bu t tw i ce as s t rong as common ly used 6061-

    T6 a lumin ium a l loy.

    Cer ta in t i t an ium a l l oys ach ieve tens i l e

    s t reng ths o f ove r 200 ,000 ps i ( 1 ,400 MPa) .

    However , t i t an ium loses s t reng th when

    hea ted above 430 C (806 F ) .

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    T i tan ium i s f a i r l y ha rd (a l t hough no t as ha rd

    as some g rades o f hea t - t r ea ted s tee l ) , non -magne t i c and a poo r conduc to r o f hea t and

    e lec t r i c i t y .

    Mach in ing requ i res p recau t i ons , as themate r i a l w i l l so f ten and ga l l i f sha rp too l s

    and p rope r coo l i ng me thods a re no t used .

    T i tan ium a l l oys have l ower spec i f i c s t i f f nessthan i n many o the r s t ruc tu ra l ma te r i a l s such

    as a lumin ium a l loys and carbon f ibe r .

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    T i tan ium meta l and a l l oy su r faces ox id i ze

    immed ia te l y when they a re exposed tooxygen a t 1 ,200 C i n a i r , and a t 610 C i n

    pu re oxygen , f o rm ing t i t an ium d iox ide .

    However , i t i s s low to reac t w i th wa te r anda i r, because i t f o rms a pass i ve and p ro tec t i ve

    ox ide coa t i ng tha t p ro tec t s i t f r om fu r the r

    reac t i on .

    When i t f i r s t f o rms , t h i s p ro tec t i ve l aye r i s

    on l y 12 nm th i ck bu t con t i nues to s l ow ly

    g row reach ing 25 nm th i ck i n f ou r yea rs .

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    The mos t no ted chemica l p rope r t y o f t i t an ium

    is i t s exce l l en t res i s tance to co r ros ion .

    L ike p la t i num, i t i s capab le o f w i t hs tand ing

    a t tack by d i l u te su l f u r i c ac id and hyd roch lo r i c

    ac id as we l l as ch lo r i ne gas , ch lo r i deso lu t i ons, and mos t o rgan i c ac ids .

    T i tan ium i s one o f t he few e lemen ts t ha t

    bu rns i n pu re n i t r ogen gas , reac t i ng a t 800C to f o rm t i t an ium n i t r i de , wh i ch causes

    embr i t t l ement .

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    T i tan ium i s a lways bonded to o the r e lemen ts

    in na tu re be ing the n in th -mos t abundan te lemen t i n t he Ea r th ' s c rus t (0 .63% by mass )

    and the seven th -mos t abundan t me ta l .

    I t i s p resen t i n mos t i gneous rocks and i nsed imen ts de r i ved f rom them (as we l l as i n

    l i v i ng th ings and na tu ra l bod ies o f wa te r ) .

    Of the 801 t ypes o f i gneous rocks ana l yzed

    by the Un i ted S ta tes Geo log i ca l Su rvey , 784

    con ta ined t i t an ium; i t s p ropo r t i on i n so i l s i s

    app rox imate l y 0 .5 t o 1 .5%.

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    I t i s w ide l y d i s t r i bu ted and occu rs p r imar i l y

    i n t he m ine ra l s ana tase , b rook i t e , i lmen i te ,pe rovsk i t e , r u t i l e and t i t an i t e ( sphene) .

    Of these m ine ra l s , on l y ru t i l e and i lmen i te

    have economic impor tance , ye t even they a red i f f icu l t t o f i nd i n h igh concen t ra t ions .

    Abou t 6 .0 and 0 .7 m i l l i on tonnes o f these

    minera ls have been mined in 2011 ,respec t i ve ly .

    Tota l reserves o f t i t an ium are es t imated to

    exceed 600 m i l l i on tonnes .

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    2011 Production of Rutile & IlmeniteCountry Thousand tonnes % of total

    Australia 1300 19.4South Africa 1160 17.3

    Canada 700 10.4India 574 8.6

    Mozambique 516 7.7China 500 7.5

    Vietnam 490 7.3Ukraine 357 5.3World 6700 100

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    T i tan ium i s con ta ined i n me teo r i t es and has

    been de tec ted i n t he sun and i n M- t ype s ta rs ;t he coo les t t ype o f s ta r w i th a su r face

    tempera ture o f 3 ,200 C .

    Rocks b rough t back f rom the moon du r i ng theApo l lo 17 m iss ion a re composed o f 12 .1%

    TiO2.

    I t i s a l so found i n coa l ash , p lan ts , and eventhe human body.

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    The p rocess ing o f t i t an ium meta l occu rs i n 4

    ma jo r s teps :

    1 ) reduc t i on o f t i t an ium o re i n to " sponge" ,

    a po rous fo rm;

    2 ) mel t i ng o f sponge , o r sponge p lus amas te r a l l oy t o f o rm an i ngo t ;

    3 ) pr imary fab r i ca t i on, where an i ngo t i s

    conver ted in to genera l m i l l p roduc ts

    such as b i l l e t , ba r , p la te , shee t , s t r i p ,and tube ;

    4 ) secondary fab r i ca t i on o f f i n i shed shapes

    f rom m i l l p roduc ts .

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    Because the me ta l r eac ts w i th oxygen a t h igh

    tempera tu res i t canno t be p roduced byreduc t i on o f i t s d iox ide .

    T i tan ium meta l i s t he re fo re p roduced

    commerc ia l l y by the K ro l l p rocess , a comp lexand expens i ve ba tch p rocess .

    The re la t i ve l y h igh marke t va lue o f t i t an ium

    is ma in l y due to i t s p rocess ing , wh i chsac r i f i ces ano the r expens i ve me ta l ,

    magnes ium.

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    The K ro l l p rocess i s a py rometa l l u rg i ca l

    i ndus t r i a l p rocess used to p roduce me ta l l i ct i t an ium. I t was i nven ted by Wi l l i am J . K ro l l i n

    Luxembourg .

    Pyrometa l l u rgy i s a b ranch o f ex t rac t i vemeta l lu rgy . I t cons is ts o f the therma l

    t rea tmen t o f m ine ra l s and me ta l l u rg i ca l o res

    and concen t ra tes to b r i ng abou t phys i ca l and

    chemica l t r ans fo rma t i ons i n t he ma te r i a l s t oenab le recove ry o f va luab le me ta l s .

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    Ref ined ru t i le (o r i lmen i te ) f rom the

    ore i s reduced

    wi th pe t ro leum-

    der ived coke in a

    f lu id ized bed

    reac to r a t 1000C.

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    The mix tu re i s then

    t rea ted w i th ch lo r ine

    gas , a f fo rd ing t i tan ium

    te t rach lo r ide T iC l4

    and o ther vo la t i lech lo r ides , wh ich are

    subsequent ly sepa-

    ra ted by con t inuous

    f rac t iona l d i s t i l l a t i on .

    D is t i l l a t ion Tower

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    Cont inuous Frac t iona l D is t i l l a t ion .

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    I n a separa te reac to r , the T iC l4 i s reduced by

    l i qu id magnes ium o r sod ium (15 -20% excess )a t 800 -850 C i n a s ta in less s tee l r e to r t t o

    ensu re comp le te reduc t i on :

    2 M g ( l ) + T i C l 4 ( g ) 2 M g C l 2 ( l ) + T i ( s ) [ T = 8 0 0 - 8 5 0 C ]

    Comp l i ca t i ons resu l t f r om pa r t i a l r educ t i on o f

    t he t i t an ium to i t s l ower ch lo r i des T iC l2 and

    T iC l3 .

    The resu l t i ng po rous me ta l l i c t i t an ium sponge

    is pu r i f i ed by l each ing o r hea ted vacuum

    d is t i l l a t i on .

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    The sponge i s j ackhammered ou t , c rushed ,

    and p ressed be fo re i t i s me l ted i n aconsumab le e lec t rode vacuum a rc f u rnace .

    The me l ted i ngo t i s a l l owed to so l i d i f y

    under vacuum.

    I t i s o f t en reme l ted to remove i nc lus ions

    and ensure un i fo rm i ty . (These me l t i ng s teps

    add to t he cos t o f t he p roduc t . ) T i tan ium i s abou t s i x t imes as expens i ve as

    s ta in less s tee l .

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    T i tan ium i s used i n s tee l as an a l l oy ing

    e lemen t ( f e r ro - t i t an ium) to reduce g ra in s i zeand as a deox id i ze r, and i n s ta in less s tee l t o

    reduce ca rbon con ten t .

    App l i ca t i ons fo r t i t an ium m i l l p roduc ts ( shee t ,p la te , ba r , w i re , f o rg ings , cas t i ngs ) can be

    found i n i ndus t r i a l , ae rospace , rec rea t i ona l ,

    and emerg ing marke ts .

    Powdered t i t an ium i s used i n py ro techn i cs as

    a sou rce o f b r i gh t -bu rn ing pa r t i c l es .

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    A t i t an ium cy l inde r,"Grade 2" qua l i t y

    Titanium dioxide is themost commonly used

    compound of titanium

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titanium(IV)_oxide.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titanzylinder.jpg
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    Abou t 95% o f t i t an ium ore ex t rac ted f rom the

    Ear th i s des t i ned fo r re f i nemen t i n to t i t an iumd iox ide (T iO2) , an i n tense l y wh i te pe rmanen t

    p igment used in pa in ts , paper , too thpas te ,

    and p las t i cs .

    I t i s a l so used i n cemen t , i n gems tones , as

    an op t i ca l opac i f i e r i n paper , and a

    s t reng then ing agen t i n g raph i te compos i te

    f i sh ing rods and go l f c l ubs .

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    Due to t he i r h i gh tens i l e s t reng th to dens i t y

    ra t i o , h igh co r ros ion res i s tance , f a t i gue

    res i s tance , h igh c rack res i s tance , and ab i l i t y

    to w i ths tand modera te l y h igh tempera tu res

    w i thou t c reep ing , t i t an ium a l l oys a re used i n

    a i r c ra f t , a rmor p la t i ng , nava l sh ips ,spacec ra f t , and m iss i l es .

    For t hese app l i ca t i ons t i t an ium a l l oyed w i th

    a lum in ium, vanad ium, and o the r e lemen ts i sused fo r a va r i e t y o f componen ts i nc lud ing

    c r i t i ca l s t ruc tu ra l pa r t s , f i r e wa l l s , l and ing

    gear , exhaus t duc ts (he l i cop te rs ) , and

    hyd rau l i c sys tems .

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    Mi l i ta ry Veh ic les (Armour P la t ing)

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    A i rc ra f t ca r r ie rs

    and

    Nava l pa t ro l sh ips

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    Space shu t t le and sa te l l i t es

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    I n f ac t , abou t two th i rds o f a l l t i t an ium meta l

    p roduced i s used i n a i r c ra f t eng ines and

    f rames .

    The SR-71 "B lackb i rd " was one o f t he f i r s t

    a i r c ra f t t o make ex tens i ve use o f t i t an ium

    wi th in i t s s t ruc tu re , pav ing the way fo r i t suse i n modern m i l i t a r y & commerc ia l a i r c ra f t .

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    An es t ima ted 59 me t r i c t ons (130 ,000

    pounds ) a re used i n t he Boe ing 777 , 45 i nthe Boe ing 747 , 18 i n t he Boe ing 737 , 32 i n

    the A i rbus A340 , 18 i n t he A i rbus A330 , and

    12 i n t he A i rbus A320 .

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    Au tomob i le

    Manufac tu r ing

    Auto manufacturers

    Porsche and Ferrari

    use titanium alloys inengine components

    due to its durable

    properties in these

    high stress engine

    environments.

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    Welded t i t an ium p ipe and p rocess equ ipmen t

    (hea t exchangers , t anks , p rocess vesse l s ,va l ves ) a re used i n t he chemica l and

    pe t rochemica l i ndus t r i es p r imar i l y f o r

    co r ros ion res i s tance .

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    The pu lp and paper i ndus t r y uses t i t an ium in

    p rocess equ ipmen t exposed to co r ros i ve

    med ia such as sod ium hypoch lo r i t e o r we t

    ch lo r i ne gas ( i n t he b leache ry ) . O the r

    app l i ca t i ons i nc lude : u l t r ason i c we ld ing ,

    wave so lde r i ng , and spu t te r i ng ta rge ts .

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    T i tan ium i s used i n many spo r t i ng goods :

    tenn i s racke ts , go l f c l ubs , l ac rosse s t i cksha f ts ; c r i cke t , hockey , l ac rosse , and foo tba l l

    he lme t g r i l l s ; and b i cyc le f r ames and

    componen ts .

    T i tan ium has occas iona l l y been used i n

    a rch i t ec tu ra l app l i ca t i ons : t he 40 m (131

    foo t ) memor ia l to Yur i Gagar in , the f i r s t man

    to t rave l i n space , i n Moscow, i s made o f t i t an ium fo r t he me ta l ' s a t t r ac t i ve co lo r and

    assoc ia t ion w i t h rocke t ry .

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    The Guggenhe im

    Museum B i lbao

    and the Cer r i tos

    Mi l l enn ium

    L ib ra ry were thef i r s t bu i ld ings in

    Europe and Nor th

    Amer i ca ,

    respec t i ve ly , tobe shea thed in

    t i t an ium pane ls .

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    Because o f i t s supe r io r s t reng th and l i gh t

    we igh t when compared to o the r me ta l st rad i t i ona l ly used i n f i r ea rms ( s tee l , s ta in less

    s tee l , and a lum in ium) , and advances i n

    me ta lwork ing techn iques , t he use o f t i t an ium

    has become more w idesp read i n t hemanu fac tu re o f f i r ea rms . P r imary uses

    inc lude p i s to l f r ames and revo l ve r cy l i nde rs .

    For t hese same reasons , i t i s a l so used i nthe body o f l ap top compu te rs , f o r examp le , i n

    App le ' s PowerBook l i ne .

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    Because o f i t s durab i l i t y , t i t an ium has

    become more popu la r f o r des igne r j ewe l r y(par t i cu la r l y , t i t an ium r ings ) . I t s i ne r tness

    makes i t a good cho i ce fo r t hose w i th

    a l l e rg ies o r t hose who w i l l be wear ing the

    jewe l r y i n env i ronmen ts such as sw immingpoo ls .

    The i ne r tness and ab i l i t y t o be a t t r ac t i ve l y

    co lo red makes t i t an ium a popu la r me ta l f o r use i n body p ie rc ing .

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    Jewe l r ies ,

    Accessor ies , e tc .

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    Because i t i s b iocompa t i b le (non - tox i c and i s

    no t re jec ted by the body ) , t i t an ium i s used i na gamut o f med ica l app l i ca t i ons i nc lud ing

    su rg i ca l imp lemen ts and imp lan ts , such as

    h ip ba l l s and socke ts ( j o i n t r ep lacemen t ) t ha t

    can s tay i n p lace fo r up to 20 yea rs .Thet i t an ium i s o f t en a l l oyed w i th abou t 4%

    alumin ium o r 6% A l and 4% vanad ium .

    T i tan ium i s a l so used fo r t he su rg i ca l

    ins t ruments used in image-gu ided surgery , as

    we l l as whee lcha i r s , c ru t ches , and any o the r

    p roduc ts where h igh s t reng th and l ow we igh t

    a re des i rab le .

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    A f rac tu re o f t heeye socke t was

    repa i red by

    s tab i l i z i ng the

    f rac tu red bonesw i th sma l l

    t i t an ium p la tes

    and sc rews .

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    T i tan ium has the i nhe ren t p rope r t y t o

    osseo in teg ra te , enab l i ng use i n den ta limp lan ts t ha t can rema in i n p lace fo r ove r 30

    yea rs .

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    Due to i t s ex t reme co r ros ion res i s tance ,

    t i t an ium con ta ine rs have been s tud ied fo r t helong - te rm s to rage o f nuc lea r was te

    (con ta ine rs l as t i ng ove r 100 ,000 yea rs a re

    poss ib le under p rope r manu fac tu r i ng

    cond i t i ons to reduce de fec ts i n t he p rocess ) .

    A t i t an ium "d r ip sh ie ld " cou ld a lso be p laced

    ove r o the r t ypes o f con ta ine rs t o f u r the r

    con ta in t he was te .

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    T i tanium i s non - tox i c even i n l a rge doses and

    does no t p lay any na tu ra l r o le i ns ide thehuman body.

    An es t imated quan t i t y o f 0 .8 m i l l i g rams o f

    t i t an ium is inges ted by humans each day , bu tmos t passes th rough w i thou t be ing abso rbed .

    I t does , however , have a tendency to b io -

    accumu la te i n t i ssues tha t con ta in s i l i ca .

    One s tudy i nd i ca tes a poss ib le connec t i on

    be tween t i tan ium and ye l low na i l syndrome

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    As a powder o r i n the fo rm o f me ta l shav ings ,

    t i t an ium meta l poses a s ign i f i can t f i r e haza rdand , when hea ted in a i r , an exp los ion haz ard .

    Water and carbon d iox ide based me thods to

    ex t i ngu i sh f i r es a re i ne f fec t i ve on bu rn ingt i t an ium; C lass D d ry powder f i r e f i gh t i ng

    agen ts mus t be used i ns tead .

    When used i n t he p roduc t i on o r hand l i ng o f

    ch lo r i ne , ca re mus t be taken to use t i t an ium

    on ly i n l oca t i ons where i t w i l l no t be exposed

    to d ry ch lo r i ne gas wh ich can resu l t i n a

    t i t an ium/ch lo r i ne f i r e .

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    T i tan ium can ca tch f i r e when a f resh , non -

    ox id i zed su r face comes i n con tac t w i th l i qu idoxygen .

    Such su r faces can appear when the ox id i zed

    su r face i s s t ruck w i th a ha rd ob jec t , o r whena mechan ica l s t ra in causes the emergence o f

    a c rack .

    Th is poses the poss ib le l im i ta t i on fo r i t s use

    in l i qu id oxygen sys tems , such as those

    found in the aerospace indu s t ry.

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    1 . ^ A n d e r s s o n , N . e t a l . ( 2 0 0 3 ) . " E m i s s i o n s p e c t r a o f T i H a n d

    T i D n e a r 9 3 8 n m " . J . C h e m . P h y s . 1 1 8 : 1 0 5 4 3 .

    B i b c o d e : 2 0 0 3 J C h Ph . 11 8 . 3 5 4 3 A . d o i : 1 0 . 1 0 6 3 / 1 . 1 5 3 9 8 4 8 .

    2 . ^ a b c d e f g h i " T i t a n i u m " . E n c y c l o p d i a B r i t a n n i c a .

    2 0 0 6 . R e t r i e v e d 2 0 0 6 - 1 2 - 2 9 .

    3 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m L i d e , D . R . , e d . ( 2 0 0 5 ) . C R C

    H a n d b o o k o f C h e m i s t r y a n d P h y s i c s ( 8 6 t h e d . ) . B o c a R a t o n( F L ) : C R C P r e s s . I S B N 0 - 8 4 9 3 - 0 4 8 6 - 5 .

    4 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j K r e b s , R o b e r t E . ( 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e H i s t o r y

    a n d U s e o f O u r E a r t h ' s C h e m i c a l E l e m e n t s : A R e f e r e n c e

    G u i d e ( 2 n d e d i t i o n ) . W e s t p o r t , C T : G r e e n w o o d P r e s s . I S B N 0 -

    3 1 3 - 3 3 4 3 8 - 2 .

    5 . ^ D o n a c h i e , M a t t h e w J . , J r . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T I T A N I U M : A T e c h n i c a l

    G u i d e . M e t a l s P a r k , O H : A S M I n t e r n a t i o n a l . p . 1 1 . I S B N 0 -

    8 7 1 7 0 - 3 0 9 - 2 .

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    6 . ^ a b B a r k s d a l e 1 9 6 8 , p . 7 3 8

    7 . ^ a b c d e f g " T i t a n i u m " . C o l u m b i a E n c y c l o p e d i a ( 6 t h

    e d . ) . N e w Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 6 . I S B N

    0 - 7 8 7 6 - 5 0 1 5 - 3 .

    8 . ^ a b c B a r b a l a c e , K e n n e t h L . ( 2 0 0 6 ) . " P e r i o d i c T a b l e o f

    E l e m e n t s : T i T i t a n iu m " . R e t r i e v e d 2 0 0 6 - 1 2 - 2 6 .

    9 . ^ a b c d e S t w e r t k a , A l b e r t ( 1 9 9 8 ) . " T i t a n i u m " . G u i d e t o

    t h e E l e m e n t s ( R e v i s e d e d . ) . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . p p . 8 1

    8 2 . I S B N 0 - 1 9 - 5 0 8 0 8 3 - 1 .

    1 0 . ^ M a t t h e w J . D o n a c h i e , J r . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T i t a n i u m : A T e c h n i c a lG u i d e . M e t a l s P a r k , O H : A S M I n t e r n a t i o n a l . A p p e n d i x J , Ta b l e

    J . 2 . I S B N 0 - 8 7 1 7 0 - 3 0 9 - 2 .

    11 . ^ a b c d e B a r k s d a l e 1 9 6 8 , p . 7 3 4

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    Thats all folks!

    Thank you for listening!