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buccaneering on Tortuga was augmented by theEnglish capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655. Theearly English governors of Jamaica freely granted

letters of marque to Tortuga buccaneers and to theirown countrymen, while the growth of Port Royalprovided these raiders with a far more profitable andenjoyable place to sell their booty. In the 1660s, thenew French governor of Tortuga, Bertrand d'Ogeron,similarly provided privateering commissions both to hisown colonists and to English cutthroats from PortRoyal. These conditions brought Caribbeanbuccaneering to its zenith.

Henry Every is shown selling his loot in this engravingby Howard Pyle. Every's capture of the Grand MughalshipGanj-i-Sawaiin 1695 stands as one of the mostprofitable pirate raids ever perpetrated.

A new phase of piracy began in the 1690s as Englishpirates began to look beyond the Caribbean for

treasure. The fall of Britain's Stuart kings had restoredthe traditional enmity between Britain and France, thusending the profitable collaboration between EnglishJamaica and French Tortuga. The devastation of PortRoyal by anearthquake in 1692 further reduced theCaribbean's attractions by destroying the pirates' chief
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market for fenced plunder.[33]

Caribbean colonialgovernors began to discard the traditional policy of "nopeace beyond the Line," under which it was understood

that war would continue (and thus letters of marquewould be granted) in the Caribbean regardless ofpeace treaties signed in Europe; henceforth,commissions would be granted only in wartime, andtheir limitations would be strictly enforced.Furthermore, much of the Spanish Main had simplybeen exhausted;Maracaibo alone had been sackedthree times between 1667 and 1678,

[34]whileRo de la

Hacha had been raided five times and Tol eight.[35]

Bartholomew Roberts was the pirate with mostcaptures during the Golden Age of Piracy. He is nowknown for hanging the governor ofMartinique from theyardarm of his ship.

At the same time, England's less favored colonies,includingBermuda,New York,andRhode Island,hadbecome cash-starved by theNavigation Acts,which

restricted trade with foreign ships. Merchants andgovernors eager for coin were willing to overlook andeven underwrite pirate voyages; one colonial officialdefended a pirate because he thought it "very harsh tohang people that brings in gold to these
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provinces."[36]

Although some of these pirates operatingout of New England and the Middle Colonies targetedSpain's remoter Pacific coast colonies well into the

1690s and beyond, the Indian Ocean was a richer andmore tempting target. India's economic output waslarge during this time, especially in high-value luxurygoods like silk and calico which made ideal piratebooty;

[37]at the same time, no powerful navies plied the

Indian Ocean, leaving both local shipping and thevarious East India companies' vessels vulnerable toattack. This set the stage for the famous

pirates,Thomas Tew,Henry Every,RobertCulliford and (although his guilt remainscontroversial)William Kidd.

Between 1713 and 1714, a succession ofpeacetreaties was signed which ended the War of theSpanish Succession.With the end of this conflict,thousands of seamen, including

Britain's paramilitaryprivateers, were relieved ofmilitary duty. The result was a large number of trained,idle sailors at a time when the cross-Atlantic colonialshipping trade was beginning to boom. In addition,Europeans who had been pushed by unemployment tobecome sailors and soldiers involved in slaving wereoften enthusiastic to abandon that profession and turn

to pirating, giving pirate captains for many years aconstant pool of trained European recruits to be foundin west African waters and coasts.

In 1715, pirates launched a major raid on Spanishdivers trying to recover gold from a sunken treasure
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galleon near Florida. The nucleus of the pirate forcewas a group of English ex-privateers, all of whomwould soon be enshrined in infamy:Henry

Jennings,Charles Vane,Samuel Bellamy,and EdwardEngland.The attack was successful, but contrary totheir expectations, the governor of Jamaica refused toallow Jennings and their cohorts to spend their loot onhis island. With Kingston and the declining Port Royalclosed to them, Jennings and his comrades founded anew pirate base atNassau,on the island of NewProvidence in the Bahamas, which had been

abandoned during the war. Until the arrival ofgovernorWoodes Rogers three years later, Nassauwould be home for these pirates and their manyrecruits.

Shipping traffic between Africa, the Caribbean, andEurope began to soar in the 18th century, a model thatwas known astriangular trade,and was a rich target

for piracy. Trade ships sailed from Europe to theAfrican coast, trading manufactured goods andweapons for slaves. The traders would then sail to theCaribbean to sell the slaves, and return to Europe withgoods such as sugar, tobacco and cocoa. Anothertriangular trade saw ships carry raw materials,preserved cod, and rum to Europe, where a portion of

the cargo would be sold for manufactured goods, which(along with the remainder of the original load) weretransported to the Caribbean, where they wereexchanged for sugar and molasses, which (with somemanufactured articles) were borne to New England.
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Ships in the triangular trade made money at eachstop.

[38]

Born to a noble family inPuerto Rico,RobertoCofres was the last notably successful pirate in theCaribbean.

As part of the peace settlement of theWar of theSpanish succession,Britain obtained the asiento,aSpanish government contract, tosupply slaves toSpain's new world colonies, providing British tradersand smugglers more access to the traditionally closedSpanish markets in America. This arrangement alsocontributed heavily to the spread of piracy across thewestern Atlantic at this time. Shipping to the coloniesboomed simultaneously with the flood of skilledmariners after the war. Merchant shippers used the

surplus of sailors' labor to drive wages down, cuttingcorners to maximize their profits, and creatingunsavory conditions aboard their vessels. Merchantsailors suffered from mortality rates as high or higherthan the slaves being transported (Rediker, 2004).
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Living conditions were so poor that many sailors beganto prefer a freer existence as apirate.The increasedvolume of shipping traffic also could sustain a large

body of brigands preying upon it. Among the mostinfamous Caribbean pirates of the time, wasEdwardTeach or Blackbeard,Calico JackRackhamandBartholomew Roberts.Most of thesepirates were eventually hunted down by the RoyalNavy and killed or captured;severalbattles werefought between the brigands andthe colonial powers on both land and sea.

Piracy in the Caribbean declined for the next severaldecades after 1730, but by the 1810s many piratesroamed the waters though they were not as bold orsuccessful as their predecessors. The most successfulpirates of the era wereJean Lafitte andRobertoCofresi.Lafitte is considered by many to be thelastbuccaneer due to his army of pirates and fleet of

pirate ships which held bases in and around the Gulf ofMexico.Lafitte and his men participated in the War of1812battle of New Orleans.Cofresi's base wasinMona Island,Puerto Rico,from where he disruptedthe commerce throughout the region. He became thelast major target of the international anti-piracyoperations.

[39]

North America[edit]
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Dan Seavey was a pirate on theGreat Lakes in theearly 20th century.

River piracy,in late 18th-mid-19th century America,was primarily concentrated along theOhio

River andMississippi River valleys. In 1803, atTowerRock,theU.S. Armydragoons,possibly, from thefrontier army post up river atFort Kaskaskia,ontheIllinois side opposite St. Louis, raided and drove outthe river pirates.

Stack Island was also associated with river piratesandcounterfeiters in the late 1790s. In 1809, the last

major river pirate activity took place, on the UpperMississippi River, and river piracy in this area came toan abrupt end, when a group offlatboatmen raided theisland, wiping out the river pirates. From 17901834,Cave-In-Rock was the principaloutlaw lair andheadquarters of river pirate activity in theOhioRiver region, from whichSamuel Mason led a gang of

river pirates on the Ohio River.River piracy continued on the lower Mississippi River,from the early 1800s to the mid-1830s, declining as aresult of direct military action and locallaw
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enforcement andregulator-vigilante groups thatuprooted and swept out pockets ofoutlaw resistance.

Great Lakes piracy occurred, from 19001930, on Lake

Michigan,through the exploits of"Roaring" DanSeavey.

Suppression of piracy[edit]

Caribbean[edit]

Hanging ofCaptain Kidd.

The elimination of piracy from European watersexpanded to the Caribbean in the 18th century, West

Africa and North America by the 1710s and by the1720s even theIndian Oceanwas a difficult location forpirates to operate.

England began to strongly turn against piracy at theturn of the 18th century, as it was increasinglydamaging to the country's economic and commercialprospects in the region. ThePiracy Act of 1698 for the"more effectual suppression of Piracy"

[40]made it easier

to capture, try and convict pirates by lawfully enablingacts of piracy to be examined, inquired of, tried, heard
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and determined, and adjudged in any place at sea, orupon the land, in any of his Majestys islands,plantations, colonies, dominions, forts, or factories.

This effectively enabled admirals to hold a courtsession to hear the trials of pirates in any place theydeemed necessary, rather than requiring that the trialbe held in England. Commissioners of these vice-admiralty courts were also vested with full power andauthority to issue warrants, summon the necessarywitnesses, and to do all thing necessary for thehearing and final determination of any case of piracy,

robbery, or felony. These new and faster trialsprovided no legal representation for the pirates; andultimately led in this era to the execution of 600 pirates,which represented approximately 10 percent of thepirates active at the time in the Caribbeanregion.

[41]Being an accessory to piracy was also

criminalised under the statute.

Capture of the Pirate Blackbeard, 1718depicting the

battle betweenBlackbeard andLt. Maynard inOcracoke Bay.

P
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