unit xii: classical myths and portraits of roman heroes · • to learn the comparison of...

Unit Objectives• To learn the comparison of adjectives

and adverbs

• To learn how to form adverbs fromthird declension adjectives

• To learn the third person reflexiveadjective suus, -a, -um and thereflexive pronouns

• To learn the dative with adjectivesconstruction

• To learn the use of quam with com-paratives and superlatives

• To learn the declensions and uses ofduß, tr±s, m¬lle, and m¬lia

• To become familiar with well-knownGreek and Roman legends

• To learn more about Roman social andeconomic conditions

Chr

istie

’s I

mag

es/S

uper

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In her luxurious home, filled with elaboratefurnishings, a Roman matron considers thepurchase of a beautiful necklace (mon¬le).Will it be hers or her daughter’s?

419

420 U N I T x i i c l a s s i c a l m y t h s a n d p o r t r a i t s o f r o m a n h e r o e s

L e s s o n L X I

Quattuor Aet¤t±s

Lesson

Objectives

• To learn about themythical ages ofhuman evolution

• To learn the regularcomparison of adjectives

• To learn the use of quam with comparatives

1 spring 2 of milk3 of bronze4 again5 better6 are changed 7 both

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Ant¬qu¬ d¬x±runt pr¬mam aet¤tem esse auream. S¤turnus erat r±x deßrumhominumque. Illß tempore poenae l±g±sque aberant, quod omn±s homin±si¥st¬ erant. N¥llae n¤v±s in mar¬ erant, nec tr¤ns mare l¤tum homin±sn¤vig¤bant. Bellum numquam erat nec m¬lit±s nec arma. In ßtiß v¬tamhomin±s ag±bant, nam omn±s terrae concordi¤ et p¤ce lig¤tae sunt. Homin±sin agr¬s nßn labßr¤bant; terra nßn culta ipsa fr¥mentum et omnia ¥tilia dabat.Urb±s nßn erant. Neque hiems neque aest¤s erat; semper erat v±r1. Fl¥minalactis2 et v¬n¬ erant. Quod omn±s agr¬ comm¥n±s erant, termin¬ agrßrum nßnerant. Ali±nßs agrßs homin±s nßn cupi±bant.

S¤turnß expulsß, Iuppiter r±x erat. Nunc incipit secunda aet¤s, quae exargentß est, d¥rior quam pr¬ma, gr¤tior tamen quam tertia. Tum aest¤s ethiems esse incipiunt; quattuor sunt tempora ann¬. Tum pr¬mum in agr¬slabßr¤re homin±s incipiunt.

Tertia aet¤s ex aere3 erat. D¥rior erat quam secunda.Qu¤rta aet¤s, quae ex ferrß est, d¥rissima omnium est. Poenae gravissimae

statuuntur; homin±s tamen interficiunt et rapiunt. Nautae in omn¬ mar¬ adultima loca n¤vigant et ¥tilia petunt quae in vari¬s terr¬s continentur. Bell¬snumquam intermiss¬s, homin±s terr¤s ali±n¤s vincere m¤t¥rant. Nihil sacrumest; omnia rapiuntur. Homin±s in agr¬s labßrant; nam labor omnia vincit.

Haec d¬cunt auctßr±s cl¤rissim¬ Graec¬ d± quattuor aet¤tibus. Vergilius,po±ta Rßm¤nus, put¤bat iterum4 aet¤tem auream fut¥ram esse. Etiam nuncmult¬ putant v¬tam semper gr¤tißrem fut¥ram esse. Put¤tisne fortassecondicißnem fort¥namque populßrum ant¬qußrum melißrem5 fuisse quamcondicißnem nostram? Quß modß statuistis hanc sententiam ver¤m esse?Quae erit condiciß hominum post m¬lle annßs? Ali¬ d¬cunt: “Temporam¥tantur6, et nßs m¥t¤mur in ill¬s.” Ali¬ respondent homin±s semper eßsdemfuisse et fut¥rßs esse. Quae est sententia vestra? Possuntne fortasse ambae7

sententiae v±rae esse?

Questions1. List the four ages and the basic characteristic of each.2. Why didn’t men work in the Golden Age?3. When did they begin to toil?4. When did crime first appear?5. What age was the hardest of all?6. Who ruled the gods in the first age?7. When did wars first start?8. What does the passage suggest about the motives of the sailors?9. What belief did Vergil have about the Golden Age?

10. Write a short essay in response to the Latin questions that come at theend of the passage.

L E S S O N L X I Q u a t t u o r A e t ¤ t ± s 421

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1922 (22.16). All rights reserved. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

In this woodcut from a 1501edition of Ovid, Prometheuscreates man out of clay andsends him fire. Thus, the GoldenAge was born. The Silver Age isrepresented by men working inthe fields and building homes.Fighting started in the BronzeAge, but it became worse in theIron Age when ships beganputting to sea. A picture like this,which tells successive events in asingle scene, is an example ofnarrative art.

Nounsae´t¤s, aet¤´tis f. age, time (eternal)condićiß, condicißńis f. condition, terms [d¬cß]

Adjective¥´tilis, -e useful (utilitarian, utility)

Verbsra´piß, ra´pere, ra´pu¬, rap´tus (rapacious, rapture)

carry off, stealsta´tuß, statuére, sta´tu¬, stat¥´tus [stß]

(make stand), establish, determine, arrangevinćß, vinćere, v¬ć¬, vic´tus conquer (victor, invincible)

Conjunctionquam than

Comparison of AdjectivesAdjectives change form to show degree, i.e., a grade or measure

of comparison. There are three degrees: positive, comparative, andsuperlative. The positive is the simple form of the adjective; the other twoexpress successively greater degrees of the adjective’s basic meaning. Tocompare an adjective is to change the form of the adjective in English orLatin to indicate those three degrees.

In English, the comparative is ordinarily formed by adding -er (-r) tothe positive: high-er, brave-r. The superlative is formed by adding -est(-st) to the positive: high-est, brave-st. But adjectives of more than onesyllable are often compared by the use of more and most: more skillful,most skillful.

In Latin, the comparative is formed by adding -ior (m. and f.), -ius (n.)to the base of the positive. The superlative is formed by adding -issimus,-a, -um.


The comparative mayoften be translated usingmore, too, rather; thesuperlative, most, very,exceedingly. Thus, altior,higher, might also betranslated more high,rather high, or even toohigh. Similarly, altissimuscould be very high or mosthigh as well as highest.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

al´tus, -a, -um al´tior, al´tius altis´simus, -a, -umhigh higher highest

for´tis, -e for´tior, for´tius fortis´simus, -a, -umbrave braver bravest

By adding the comparative endings to any first, second, or thirddeclension adjective, its meaning changes to __-er or more __. Similarly,adding the superlative endings to the base of any first, second, or thirddeclension adjective changes the meaning to __-est, most __, or very __.

The Declension of Comparatives

Note that although adjectives in the comparative degree are declinedlike adjectives of the third declension, they do not have -¬ in the ablativesingular, -ium in the genitive plural, or -ia in the nominative andaccusative plural neuter. Thus, comparatives are not i-stems.

(Adjectives in the superlative degree are declined like first and seconddeclension adjectives.)


Classical antiquity providedendless subjects for Renaissanceartists. This preliminary sketch ofthe Age of Iron by Pietro daCortona shows how far man hasfallen from the height of theGolden Age. The finishedpaintings are in a museum inFlorence, Italy.T

he A

rt M

useu

m, P

rinc

eton

Uni

vers

ity. B

eque

st o

f D

an F

ello

ws

Plat

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SINGULAR PLURAL

M., F. N. M., F. N.Nominative al´tior al´tius altiß´r±s altiß´raGenitive altiß´ris altiß´ris altiß´rum altiß´rumDative altiß´r¬ altiß´r¬ altiß´ribus altiß´ribusAccusative altiß´rem al´tius altiß´r±s altiß´raAblative altiß´re altiß´re altiß´ribus altiß´ribus

Comparisons with Quam

When two nouns are compared in Latin, both are in the same case withquam (than) between them, but in English, than is often followed by thenominative, which can be taken as the subject of some omitted but easilyunderstood verb.

Hic mßns est altior quam This mountain is higher than that

ille. one (is).

Fortißrem virum quam I have not seen a braver man than

illum nßn v¬d¬. he (is).

Note in the second sentence that the accusative case illum is used (in thesame case as virum), even though the nominative case he can be employedin English.

Oral Practice

1. Compare gr¤tus, nßbilis, cl¤rus, levis, longus.2. Decline tardus in the comparative.3. Decline supplicium i¥stius.

ExercisesA. Translate the following sentences.

1. Novissimum librum ad fr¤trem meum mittere statu¬.2. Quid est ¥tilius gr¤tiusque quam librßs bonßs semper legere?3. Gall¬ v¬ribus corporis Rßm¤nßs super¤bant sed nßn erant

fortißr±s vir¬.4. Condicißn±s p¤cis ab hostibus vict¬s semper d¥rissimae esse

habentur.5. Homß d± vi¬s m± rog¤vit; ego respond¬ hanc esse pl¤nißrem

quam illam.6. E¬ duo itinera ostendimus—alterum facile, alterum longius

et incertius.

B. Translate the following sentences into Latin.1. Nothing is more useful than water.2. Why are the rivers of Italy not very long?3. Does peace have nobler victories than war?4. I know that that river is swift but not very wide.5. More severe terms of peace than these will be established.



Did You Know?

The Romans knew of only eight metals: copper, gold, iron, lead,

mercury, silver, tin, and zinc. Gold was as highly valued by the Romans

as it is today and was used for jewelry and coins (the aureus and

solidus). Iron was used to make axes, chains, scissors, razors, knives,

javelins, darts, stakes, nails, styli, and swords. Lead was used in the

construction of water pipes and pellets, and silver was used to make

jewelry, serving dishes, and coins (the d±n¤rius and s±stertius).

Roots It is important to distinguish different words that comefrom the same stem. Plain and plane both come from pl¤nus,level, flat. A plain is a level field; a plain person is not above theaverage level. A plane is a flat surface (hence plane geometry);it is also a tool that makes surfaces flat. The flat surfaces of anairplane (or hydroplane) enable it to glide through the air (orwater). Plane is therefore used in a more literal sense than plain.

Take corpus: a corpse is a dead body; a corps (pronounced“core”) is a body of individuals forming part of an army or otherorganization. The former is literal; the latter, figurative. Acorporation is a body of individuals united for commercial orother purposes. A corpuscle is a little body in the blood. Corporal

punishment is punishment inflicted upon the body, e.g., a whip-ping; something corporeal has a body; it is not imaginary.Similarly, a principal is the leading person in a school; a principle

is a leading rule. Explain in the same way statue and statute; urban and urbane;

sensory and sentiment; respiration and inspiration.

Iuppiter et Mercurius per Phrygiam, quae in Asi¤ est, iter f±c±runt, sedn±mß in tßt¤ ill¤ gente eßs cognßvit. Omn±s i¥dic¤v±runt eßs esse homin±shumil±s quod vest±s miser¤s ger±bant. Ad m¬lle cas¤s access±runt; namlocum somnß1 aptum pet¬v±runt. Sed omn±s, h¬s v¬s¬s, cas¤s celeriterclaus±runt. In tßt¤ regißne ¤criter repuls¬ sunt. Tamen ¥na casa, parva ethumilis, eßs nßn reppulit. Ibi Baucis et Phil±mßn2 multßs annßs ±gerant.Condicißne humil¬ nßn affect¬, paupert¤tem leviter ac fortiter sustinu±runt.Duo tßta domus3 fu±runt, et domin¬ et serv¬ ips¬; nam n¥llßs servßs habu±runt.

C±nam humilem Baucis magn¤ d¬ligenti¤ celerit¤teque par¤vit; numquamcelerius labßr¤verat. Tum, omnibus ¬nstr¥ct¬s, deßs ad c±nam voc¤vit.M±nsa4, nßn pulchra sed ¥tilis, pauc¬s sed bon¬s cib¬s ¬nstr¥cta erat. V¬nums¥mps±runt5, sed semper cr¤ter6 v¬num continuit. Tum Phil±mßn et Baucis,ad m±nsam sedent±s, cl¤r± s±ns±runt deßs adesse. Tum Iuppiter, “De¬sumus,” inquit. “Tßtam hanc gentem poenam sol¥t¥ram esse statuimus,quod n±mß nßb¬s auxilium dedit, sed vßs v¬v±tis. Ad montem prßc±d±mus.”


L e s s o n L X I I

Baucis et Phil±mßn

Lesson

Objectives

• To learn the story ofBaucis and Philemon

• To learn how to formand compare adverbsfrom third declensionadjectives

1 sleep (dat.)2 Baucis (Bau´sis), Phil±´mon3 household (pred. nom.)4 table5 took, i.e., drank6 mixing bowl

Casa humilis deßs nßnreppulit. As Jupiter grandlyannounces that he and Mercuryare gods, the aged couplepiously kneel to apologize forthe humble peasants’ meal theyare serving. Their plan to cooktheir only goose, the “watch-dog” of the household, failsbecause they are too old andfeeble to catch it, and Jupiterorders it spared while Mercurylooks on coolly. Note thetablecloth (!) and the basin inwhich the hosts washed theirguests’ feet. G

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Itaque Baucis et Phil±mßn, h¤c ßr¤tißne permßt¬, ad montem tard±prßcess±runt. Ibi cßnstit±runt et v¬d±runt tßtam regißnem sub aqu¤ esse,casam suam7 sßlam man±re. Dum spectant, casa eßrum in pulchrum templumvertitur.

Tum Iuppiter, “Quid cupitis?” inquit; “id quod petitis dßn¤bß.” Phil±mßn,uxßre cßnsult¤, respondit: “I¥dic¤mus n¥llum m¥nus nßb¬s gr¤tius aptiusqueesse quam esse sacerdßt±s8 ill¬us templ¬ et ± v¬t¤ eßdem tempore exc±dere,quod in concordi¤ multßs annßs ±gimus.” Post hanc ßr¤tißnem hoc m¥nusIuppiter e¬s perm¬sit.

Post multßs annßs, Phil±mßn et uxor, aet¤te grav±s, ante sacrum templumst¤bant. Corpora eßrum in arbor±s9 tard± vert¬ incipiunt; vßc±s haerent; nßniam sp¬rant nec v¬vunt. Neuter ante alterum ± v¬t¤ excessit. Multßs annßs haeduae arbor±s ante templum st¤bant.

Questions1. How were the distinguished gods Jupiter and Mercury welcomed by most

people and why?2. Who finally admitted them? 3. What was their hosts’ house like, and how many slaves did they have?4. Describe the dinner given to the gods.5. How did Philemon figure out that his guests were gods?6. How were the neighbors of Philemon and Baucis punished?7. How was this devout old couple rewarded for their piety?8. How were they transformed in the end?

Nouns

*g±ns, gen´tis, gen´tium f. people, nation (gentle, gentry)n±´mß, n±´min¬ (dat.), n±´minem (acc.) [ne + homß]

[no other forms], no one

ßr¤´tiß, ßr¤tiß´nis f. speech (oration, oratory)re´giß, regiß´nis f. region [regß]

Adjectives

ap´tus, -a, -um fit, suitable (with dat.) (adapt, aptitude)hu´milis, -e low, humble (humiliate, humility)

L E S S O N L X I i B a u c i s e t P h i l ± m ß n 427

7 their own8 priests9 trees

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Verbs

¬n´struß, ¬nstruére, ¬nstr¥´x¬, (instruction, instructor)¬nstr¥c´tus arrange, set up

i¥´dicß, i¥dic¤´re, i¥dic¤´v¬, [i¥s + d¬cß]i¥dic¤´tus judge

repel´lß, repel´lere, rep´pul¬, repul´sus [pellß]drive back, repulse

Formation and Comparison of Adverbs

You will recall that adverbs formed from adjectives of the first andsecond declensions add -± to the base. To form adverbs from adjectives ofthe third declension, you generally add -iter to the base.


The comparison of adverbs is very similar to that of adjectives: -ius isadded to the base to obtain the comparative adverb (more __ly), while -issim± is added to the base to obtain the superlative adverb (most __ly).

Oral Practice

Form and compare adverbs from the following adjectives: longus, ¥tilis,levis, cl¤rus, firmus, gravis, v±rus.

Note that in thecomparative degree theadverb always has thesame form as the neuteraccusative singular of thecomparative adjective.

for´tis brave for´titer bravely

¤ćer sharp ¤ćriter sharply


al´t± deeply al´tius more deeply altis´sim± most deeply

for´titer bravely for´tius more bravely fortis´sim± most bravely


1. Sciß hoc fl¥men esse longius quam illud.2. Pater meus omnia i¥st± et celeriter i¥dicat.3. Praemiß acceptß, magister ßr¤tißne apt¤ respondit.4. H¬ m¬lit±s, ± castr¬s ±duct¬, ad pugnam ¤ duce ¬nstruuntur.5. Tardius perv±nimus quod reliqu¬ puer¬ celerius cucurr±runt.6. H¬ homin±s, ab hostibus repuls¬, in p¤ce v¬vere statu±runt.

B. Translate the following sentences into Latin.1. We shall breathe more easily.2. No one approves a very long speech.3. The battle was sharply fought, but few men received severe wounds.4. We certainly hope that all nations will work more keenly for peace.

L E S S O N L X I i B a u c i s e t P h i l ± m ß n 429

Did You Know?

The rose was among the favorite flowers of the Romans. Other

popular garden flowers included lilies and violets. The conventional

garden features of Roman villas were terraces, bordered walks, rows

of statues, aviaries, fish ponds. Colonnades and hedges were made

of scented shrubs, such as rosemary, myrtle, and laurel. Grapevines

were trained to grow over trellises or arbors, and ivy hid foundations

and retaining walls.


• SuffixesIn Latin the suffix -iß is added to verb stems, usually to that ofthe past participle. Since this generally ends in -t or -s, words ofthis origin are likely to end in -tiß or -siß. The suffix indicatesan act or the result of an act: ßr¤tiß is the act or result ofspeaking, i.e., a speech. Nouns with this suffix have -ißnis in thegenitive and are regularly feminine. The stem ends in -n. TheEnglish form of the suffix, which is very common, is -ion (-tion,

-sion): region, oration, session. It often has the force of thesuffix -ing.

Give and define ten English words with the suffix -ion

derived from Latin verbs you have studied. Look up the originand meaning of gentle, gentile, genteel, jaunty.

• Here are more state mottoes.

Alis volat propriis. She soars on her own wings. (Oregon)

Cedant arma togae. (Cicero) Let arms yield to the toga,

i.e., Let civil peace prevail over

war. (Wyoming)

L E S S O N L X I i i D a e d a l u s e t æ c a r u s 431

L e s s o n L X I I I

Daedalus et æcarus

Lesson

Objectives

• To learn the story ofDaedalus and Icarus

• To learn the compari-son of -er adjectivesand their adverbs

• To learn adjectiveswith superlative in -limus

• To learn the dativewith adjective con-struction

• To learn the use ofquam with superlatives

1 M¬ńos (nom. sing.)2 Daedalus (Dedálus), Icárus3 wings 4 of birds5 wax6 finally7 slender8 will fly9 will burn

In ¬nsul¤ magn¤ Cr±t¤ M¬nßs1 fuit r±x. Daedalus2 cum f¬liß parvß æcarß2 ibicapt¬vus fuit. Fugere nßn potuit quod mare prohibuit. “Neque per terram,”inquit, “neque per mare fugere possum, sed caelum cert± nßn clauditur. Ill¤vi¤ difficillim¤ prßc±d±mus.” Itaque ¤l¤s3 par¤vit, simillim¤s ¤l¬s v±r¬savium4. Part±s ¤l¤rum c±r¤5 lig¤vit. æcarus ad patrem st¤bat, ¤l¤s levissim¤stang±bat, opus patris impedi±bat. Tandem6 f¬nis labßris difficilis aderat; ¤laepar¤tae erant. Daedalus tempus aptum esse i¥dic¤vit. Tum ¤l¤s gracil±s7

corpor¬ gracil¬ f¬l¬ i¥nxit et eum h¬s verb¬s ¤criter monuit:“In mediß caelß prßc±d±mus; nam, s¬ humilius vol¤bimus8, undae ¤l¤s

gravißr±s facient; s¬ altius vol¤bimus, ignis ¤l¤s ¥ret9 et in mare cad±mus.Omnia nunc tibi explic¤bß.”

Tum omn±s part±s ¤l¤rum f¬liß ostendit et omnia in ßrdine explic¤vit.Per¬culum esse s±nsit et f¬liß timuit, qu¬ patr¬ dissimillimus erat. §l¬s propri¬s¬nstr¥ctus antecessit et f¬lium post vol¤re iussit.

The boy Icarus watchesconfidently as his fatheranxiously stitches the wingsto his arms. To the ancientsDaedalus represented thelegendary master craftsman,architect, engineer, and artist.On Crete he designed thelabyrinth for King Minos andelsewhere created temples withelaborate doors, steam baths,carpenters’ tools, and hundredsof statues.R

onal

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Agricolae territ¬ ex agr¬s eßs v¬d±runt; mult¬ put¤v±runt eßs deßs aut de¬ssimil±s esse. Celerrim± pater f¬liusque ¤era10 ¤l¬s pepul±runt11.

Mult¤s regißn±s mult¤sque gent±s rel¬qu±runt. Tum puer nßn iam timiduspatrem ducem rel¬quit. Ør¤tißnem patris memori¤ nßn tenuit et altius vol¤vitquod i¥dic¤vit nihil accidere posse. Sed multa accid±runt: celeriter sßl c±ramsolvit; nßn iam ¤lae haes±runt. Puer miser praeceps in mare cecidit; nßn iamv¬vit. Ab illß poste¤ hoc mare nßmen proprium “æcarium” acc±pit.

Interim pater, nßn iam pater, in omnibus regißnibus f¬lium pet±bat, nßmen f¬l¬cl¤m¤bat. Tandem ¤l¤s æcar¬ in und¬s v¬dit sed corpus eius numquam inv±nit.

Tum ipse ad Siciliam facile perv±nit et ibi multßs annßs ±git. Sed f¤bulaab ali¬s dicta huic dissimilis est: scr¬bunt eum in Italiam vol¤visse et ibi intemplß ¤l¤s posuisse. Hßc modß de¬s prß sal¥te gr¤ti¤s ±git.

Pr¬mus omnium hominum Daedalus, N¤t¥r¤ vict¤, per caelum l¤tumvol¤vit, s¬ auctßr±s Graec¬ et Rßm¤n¬ v±rum d¬x±runt. Nunc mult¬ homin±sfacile volant, etiam per imm±nsum12, sed n±mß ¤l¬s propri¬s. Quod opushominibus difficilius13 est?

Questions1. Why did Daedalus wish to escape with his son from Crete?2. What obstacle stood in his way, and how did Daedalus plan to overcome it?3. Did Icarus help his father complete his work?4. What warning did Daedalus give to Icarus?5. What sort of additional instruction did he give?6. What reaction did the farmers have to the sight?7. What mistake did Icarus make, and what was the result?8. What two versions are there for the end of the story?9. Does the writer express any hestitation in believing the truth of this story?

How?


10 air (acc. sing.)11 beat (from pellß)12 the immeasurable, i.e., space13 See Nota Bene, p. 422.

Puer miser praeceps inmare cecidit. Some sayIcarus’ wings were madeof wood, others that theywere feathers; still othersthink that they representthe invention of sails, andthat the pair escaped ona ship off which Icarusrashly jumped and wasdrowned. Here is thedoomed Icarus on thedoor of the WrightBrothers’ Memorial inKitty Hawk, NorthCarolina, honoring theirfirst airplane flight in1903.

Ray

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Nouns*igńis, igńis, igńium m. fire (ignite)

o´pus, o´peris n. work, labor (opus, operate)sßl, sß´lis m. sun (solar)

Adjectivesdiffićilis, -e difficult [dis + facilis]pro´prius, -a, -um (one’s) own (appropriate,

proprietary)si´milis, -e like (with dat.) (similarity)

dissi´milis, -e unlike (with dat.) [dis + similis]

Verbsca´dß, ca´dere, cećid¬, c¤s¥´rus fall (cadence, casualty)

acćidß, acci´dere, acćid¬, — [cadß]fall to, befall, happen (with dat.)

ex´plicß, explic¤´re, explic¤´v¬, [plicß]explic¤´tus unfold, explain

iun´gß, iun´gere, i¥n´x¬, i¥nćtus (joint, junction)join (to)

Adverbfaćile easily (formed irregularly) [facilis]

Comparison of -er Adjectives and Their Adverbs

The comparative degree of all adjectives ending in -er is formedregularly from the base of the positive. But the superlative is formed byadding -rimus, -a, -um to the nominative singular masculine (not the base)of the positive.



l¬´ber, l¬´bera, l¬be´rior, l¬be´rius l¬ber´rimus, -a, -uml¬´berum free freer, too free freest, most free

¤ćer, ¤ćris, ¤ćrior, ¤ćrius ¤cer´rimus, -a, -um¤ćre sharp sharper, rather sharp sharpest, very sharp

ce´ler, ce´leris, cele´rior, cele´rius celer´rimus, -a, -umce´lere quick quicker quickest

Oral Practice

1. Compare the adjectives miser, pulcher, altus. Form and compare the corresponding adverbs.

2. Decline illa patria l¬berior.

Adjectives with Superlative in -limus

The superlative of six adjectives ending in -lis is formed by adding -limus, -a, -um to the base of the positive. The comparatives are regular.


The superlative of other -lis adjectives, such asnßbilis, -e, ¥tilis, -e, etc.,is formed regularly—byadding -issimus to the base of the positive: nßbil-issimus, -a, -um.


l¬´ber± l¬be´rius l¬ber´rim±freely more freely most freely

¤ćriter ¤ćrius ¤cer´rim±sharply more sharply very sharply

cele´riter cele´rius celer´rim±quickly more quickly very quickly

The corresponding adverbs are compared as follows.


faćilis, -e faci´lior, faci´lius facil´limus, -a, -umdiffićilis, -e diffici´lior, diffici´lius difficil´limus, -a, -umsi´milis, -e simi´lior, simi´lius simil´limus, -a, -umdissi´milis, -e dissimi´lior, dissimi´lius dissimil´limus, -a, -umhu´milis, -e humi´lior, humi´lius humil´limus, -a, -umgraćilis, -e graci´lior, graci´lius gracil´limus, -a, -um

The adverbs formed from these -lis adjectives are generally formedregularly, but the adverb from facilis is facile. In the superlative, thecorresponding adverbs end in -lim±: facillim±.

Dative with Adjectives

The dative case is often used with Latin adjectives whose Englishequivalents are followed by to or for. You are already familiar with manyof them: am¬cus, inim¬cus, similis, dissimilis, aptus, gr¤tus, ¥tilis.

Hic liber est similis ill¬. This book is similar to that

(like that) one.

Ille homß est fr¤tr¬ meß That man is unfriendly to my

inim¬cus. brother.

Quam Plus the Superlative

Quam is used with superlative adjectives and adverbs to express as . . .

as possible. In effect, it intensifies the superlative degree even further.

quam cl¤rissimus, -a, -um as clear as possible

quam facillimus, -a, -um as easy as possible

quam celerrim± as quickly as possible

quam facillim± as easily as possible


1. Hic equus similior meß est quam ille.2. De¬ Rßm¤nßrum dissimillim¬ de¬s ali¤rum gentium erant.3. Ille liber difficillimus est, nam pauca cl¤r± explicat.4. Homß humilis nec alt± nec graviter cadere potest.5. Nihil est nßb¬s ¥tilius quam liber bonus, nam est nßbilissimus

am¬cßrum.

B. Translate the following sentences into Latin.1. This region is fit for some settlers, but not for others.2. As the bad men approached, the boys ran more quickly.3. The places in which our soldiers fell are most sacred.4. The teacher, in a speech as beautiful as possible, unfolded the life

of Caesar.

C. Many of the Greek and Roman myths are meant to explain a practice, abelief, a natural phenomenon, or a moral position. Work with a partnerto write a short paragraph explaining what the Daedalus and Icarusstory is intended to teach.


Did You Know?

As schoolboys, most Romans memorized the Twelve Tables of

the law. This important law code was inscribed on bronze (originally

wooden) tablets that were displayed in the Roman Forum. All

physical remains of the tablets are gone, and our knowledge of their

contents depends upon literary sources. Each tablet contained a

number of detailed laws regulating, for example, the punishment of

debtors, the gathering of fallen fruit, the power of a father over

his sons, and the establishment of the rate of interest, property

boundaries, etc.


• Space and missile terms are often taken from Latin and Greek.Space is from spatium, missile and mission from mittß. Othersare capsule (capiß), which “holds” the crew, circumlunar

(circum, around, l¥na, moon), core (corpus), fission (findß,split), fusion (fundß, pour, melt), gravity (gravis), inter-

continental (inter, contineß), interstellar (inter, st±lla, star),jet (iaciß), orb, orbit (orbis, circle), propellant (prß, pellß),reaction (re, agß), supersonic (super, sonus, sound), trajectory

(tr¤ns, iaciß).

• Missile names are often based on characters in myth: Apollo,

Atlas (who held the earth on his shoulders), Gemini, Jupiter,

Mercury, Saturn, Titan. Can you think of others?

• Lawyers are familiar with Latin because they use many Latinphrases in their daily activities. A few such phrases are:

subpoena a summons to court under penalty

for failure to attendin propria persona in one’s own person

(not through someone else)ex post facto resulting after the fact; as a law which

makes punishable acts committed before its passagein forma pauperis in the form (or manner) of a poor man;

to sue as a poor man and so avoid the costs of the suit

• One of the most important foundations of American and Britishcivil liberties and justice is that of habeas corpus, you must

produce the body (lit., you should have the body). By a writof habeas corpus a judge compels a person who has detainedor imprisoned another to show that the imprisonment was notillegal.

L E S S O N l x i v D Æ P Y R R H ß e t E i u s V i c t ß r i § 437

L e s s o n L X I V

DÆ PYRRHß ET EIUS

Victßri§

Lesson

Objectives

• To learn the story ofPyrrhus

• To learn the com-parison of irregularadjectives

1 Epirus (Ep¬´rus), a region in north-west Greece

2 a worse thing3 such4 world (nom.)5 again6 ruined

Rßm¤n¬, qu¬ erant optim¬ m¬lit±s, gent±s quae proximae urb¬ erantv¬cerant et in ulterißr±s part±s Italiae perv±nerant. Summ¤ virt¥te contr¤maißrem numerum hostium in extr±m¬s ac difficillim¬s regißnibus Italiaebene pugn¤verant. Poste¤ bellum nov¬ generis, dissimile ali¬s, cum Pyrrhß,duce summß et r±ge maximß Æp¬r¬1, gess±runt.

Pyrrhus in Italiam ¬nferißrem ¤ Tarent¬n¬s, gente pessim¤, voc¤tus erat,qu¬ eß tempore cum Rßm¤n¬s pugn¤bant. Is in Italiam m¬lit±s tr¤nsport¤vitet elephantßrum auxiliß Rßm¤nßs fortiter pugnant±s reppulit, quod Rßm¤n¬elephantßs maximßs nßn ante v¬sßs timu±runt. Peius2 tamen Pyrrhß victßr¬quam vict¬s Rßm¤n¬s accidit, nam pl¥rim¬ m¬lit±s Pyrrh¬ cecid±runt. Pyrrhus,ubi pl¥rima corpora Rßm¤nßrum interfectßrum in fronte vulnera hab±rev¬dit, haec verba f±cit: “Bene Rßm¤n¬ pugn¤v±runt. Cum t¤libus3 m¬litibustßtus orbis4 facillim± ¤ m± vinc¬ potest!” Famili¤ribus d± victßri¤ agentibusd¬xit: “S¬ iterum5 eßdem modß v¬cerß, miserrim± conficiar6, et n¥llßs m¬lit±sex Itali¤ ¬nferißre in Æp¬rum red¥cam.” Nam hanc victßriam nßn ¥tilem essei¥dic¤vit quod pl¥r±s m¬lit±s ¤m¬serat.

This bust of a victorious general(note the wreath on his helmet)is now in a Naples museum andis said to be a portrait of Pyrrhus(318–272 B.C.). Pyrrhus’ grandambitions for an empirestretching from Epirus toCarthage were thwarted by theRomans in 279 B.C., even thoughthey suffered a defeat. Now wecall any success that is gained ata catastrophic cost to the winnera “Pyrrhic victory.”G

iann

i Dag

li O

rti/T

he A

rt A

rchi

ve

5

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Questions1. How good was the Roman army before encountering Pyrrhus?2. How far did Roman dominion extend?3. Who invited Pyrrhus into Italy, and what is the writer’s attitude toward

them?4. What new weapon did Pyrrhus use against the Romans, and why did it

work?5. Although he had won the battle, why did Pyrrhus consider it a loss?6. What did Pyrrhus say when he saw the fallen Roman soliders, and what

was the point of his remark?7. What do Pyrrhus’ final remarks illustrate about the cost of his victory?

Irregular Comparison of Adjectives

In English, some adjectives have irregular comparative forms, such asgood, better, best; bad, worse, worst. In Latin, the following adjectives,among others, have irregular comparative and superlative forms andshould be memorized.



bońus, -a, -um me´lior, me´lius op´timus, -a, -umgood better best

ma´lus, -a, -um peíor, peíus pes´simus, -a, -umbad worse worst

magńus, -a, -um maíor, maíus ma´ximus, -a, -um large larger largest

par´vus, -a, -um mińor, mińus mińimus, -a, -um small smaller smallest

mul´tus, -a, -um —, pl¥s7 pl¥´rimus, -a, -um much, many more (in quantity most

or number)

7 Gen. pl¥ris; neuter sing. only; no dative singular. The plural is *pl¥r±s, pl¥ra, gen.pl¥rium, etc. In the singular, use pl¥s as a neuter noun with the (partitive) genitive:pl¥s cib¬, more of food.

The adverbs formed from the preceding adjectives are formed regularlyin the comparative and superlative degrees, according to the rules given onpage 428 (-ius in the comparative, -± in the superlative). In the positivedegree there are several exceptions, e.g., bene from bonus, which will begiven to you in the notes or vocabularies as necessary.


In addition to the comparative and superlative forms of the irregularadjectives presented above, learn the following.

Adjectives

extr±´mus, -a, -um farthest, last, end of (extremist)¬nfe´rior, ¬nfe´rius lower (inferiority)pro´ximus, -a, -um nearest, next (with dat.) (proximity)sum´mus, -a, -um highest, top of (sum, summit)ulte´rior, ulte´rius farther (ulterior)ul´timus, -a, -um farthest (ultimatum)

Adverb

be´ne well [bonus]

Adjectives Translated by Using Nouns

Some Latin adjectives indicating a location or a part of something areoften best translated into English by using a noun. Study the followingexamples.

reliqu¬ m¬lit±s the rest of the soldiers

summus mßns the top of the mountain

in mediß fl¥mine in the middle of the river

in extr±m¤ ßr¤tißne at the end of the speech

tßta Italia the whole of Italy

When used in this way, the adjective usually precedes its noun.

This third-century B.C. theater inEpirus, now partially restoredand still used for stage perfor-mances, once held seventeenthousand people and was onlya part of a large complex oftemples and buildings. It wasfrom Epirus that Pyrrhus set offon his ill-fated conquest of Italy.V

anni

/Art

Res

ourc

e, N

Y

Oral Practice

Give the Latin for more horses, the largest city, the farthest land, the

lower field.

ExercisesA. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Puer¬ puellaeque ad ¬nferißrem partem fl¥minis quam celerrim±cucurr±runt.

2. Optim¬ c¬v±s patriam semper optim± d±fendent.3. Summus mßns ¤ nßb¬s facillim± occup¤tus est.4. Pessim¬ homin±s in ultim¤s regißn±s expell¬ d±bent.5. H¬ septem puer¬ territ¬ sunt quod per¬culum maximum esse

s±ns±runt.6. Agricolae qu¬ melißr±s agrßs habent maißrem cßpiam fr¥ment¬

hab±bunt.7. Nßnne sp±r¤s proximum m±nsem nßn fut¥rum esse d¥rißrem

quam hunc?

B. Translate the following sentences into Latin.1. The smallest town is not the worst.2. The largest (thing) is not the best (thing).3. Can a horse run more swiftly than a man?4. The smaller man fought more bravely than the larger.5. We shall do this well and as quickly as possible without your aid.



Did You Know?

The Romans had many customs involving the celebration of victory

and peace. The laurea was a wreath of laurel that was carried by

victorious Roman generals and dedicated to Jupiter. The victorious

Roman admiral was often presented with a corßna classica, or crown

of victory, for his naval successes. To the Roman sailor who first

boarded a captured enemy ship, a corßna n¤v¤lis was presented.

Then, as now, the olive branch (ol¬va) was a symbol of peace.

• A number of English words preserve the forms of thecomparative and superlative of Latin irregular adjectives: major

(cf. mayor), maximum, minor, minus, minimum, plus, inferior,

superior, ulterior, prior, anterior, posterior, interior, exterior,

junior, senior. What is the difference between a majority and aplurality vote? Between a majority and a minority report?

• Study the following English phrases that are borrowed fromLatin, some of which are state mottoes.

E pluribus unum One (country) out of many (states)

(motto of the United States, found onall U.S. coins)

Excelsior! Higher! (motto of the state of New York)Esse quam videri To be rather than to seem (to be) (motto

of the state of North Carolina)Semper paratus Always prepared (motto of the Coast

Guard)

• Translate Labor omnia vincit into English. It is the motto ofOklahoma, the University of Illinois, and the AmericanFederation of Labor.

Fabricius1, qu¬ erat ¬nferior genere quam ali¬ Rßm¤n¬, tamen ab omnibusam¤tus est quod optimus fortissimusque m¬les erat. Neque am¬cßs nequeinim¬cßs sußs fall±bat. Praemia numquam s¥m±bat. Itaque Rßm¤n¬ c¬vit¤tissuae sal¥tem e¬ cr±did±runt et eum inter alißs l±g¤tßs ad Pyrrhum m¬s±runt.

Multa quae d± Fabriciß et eius summ¤ honest¤te Pyrrhus aud¬verat v±raesse cr±didit. Itaque hunc l±g¤tum in castr¬s su¬s cßnspectum bene acc±pit.Ad extr±mum e¬ d¬xit: “C¥r nßn in Æp¬rum m±cum ven¬s et ibi man±s? Tibiqu¤rtam r±gn¬ me¬ partem tribuam.” Sed Fabricius respondit s± neque partemr±gn¬ sibi tribu¬ cupere neque s¥mpt¥rum esse.

Proximß annß Fabricius contr¤ Pyrrhum pugn¤vit. Medicus r±gis medi¤nocte ad eum v±nit et d¬xit s± prß praemiß Pyrrhum interfect¥rum esse.Fabricius, qu¬ n±minem fefellerat, respondit s± n¥llum praemium prßpßnereet iussit hunc lig¤tum ad dominum red¥c¬ et Pyrrhß omnia d¬c¬. Ubi r±xmedicum lig¤tum cßnspexit, maxim± mßtus d¬xit: “Ille est Fabricius qu¬nßn facilius ab honest¤te quam sßl ¤ curs¥2 suß ¤vert¬ potest!”

Questions1. Why did the Romans have so much confidence in Fabricius?2. What offer did Pyrrhus make to Fabricius?3. What was Fabricius’ reply?4. What offer did the king’s doctor make to Fabricius at a later time?5. What was Fabricius’ response?6. What reason did Pyrrhus have for being grateful to Fabricius?7. To what did Pyrrhus compare him?8. What strength of character does the story of Fabricius illustrate?


L e s s o n L X V

Pyrrhus et

Fabricius

Lesson

Objectives

• To learn the story ofFabricius

• To learn the forms and use of reflexivepronouns andadjectives

1 Fabricius (Fabrish´us)2 course (abl.)

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10

15

Pronoun

su´¬ reflexive, of himself/herself/itself;

of themselves, etc.

Adjective

suús, -a, -um (reflexive) his own, her own, its own, their own

Verbs

¤ver´tß, ¤ver´tere, ¤ver´t¬, ¤ver´sus [vertß]turn away

cßnspićiß, cßnspićere, cßnspe´x¬, [spectß]cßnspec´tus catch sight of, see, spot

cr±´dß, cr±´dere, cr±´did¬, cr±´ditus (credible)believe, entrust (with dat.)

fal´lß, fal´lere, fefel´l¬, fal´sus deceive (fallacy, falsify)s¥´mß, s¥´mere, s¥mp´s¬, s¥mp´tus (resume, sumptuous)

take

tri´buß, tribuére, tri´bu¬, trib¥´tus (contribute, tribute)grant

Preposition

con´tr¤ (with acc.) against (contradiction)

L E S S O N L X V P y r r h u s e t F a b r i c i u s 443

Fabricius stands before Pyrrhus. A painting by a Dutch artist of the seventeenth century.Presumably the bearded manseated on Pyrrhus’ right isCineas, the ever-faithful adviser.C

. Car

ring

ton

Bee

man

and

Fri

ck A

rt R

efer

ence

Lib

rary

Reflexive Pronouns

In English, as we have seen (page 369), the emphatic pronouns myself,

ourselves, etc., often, but not always, correspond to Latin ipse: Ipse eumv¬d¬, I myself saw him. These same English pronouns are used reflexivelyas objects of verbs or prepositions to refer to the subject of the verb: I saw

myself; He deceived himself. The term reflexive is used because the actionof the verb is reflected back upon the subject in these sentences.

In Latin, the personal pronouns of the first and second persons may beused reflexively to mean myself, yourself, ourselves, and yourselves. In thethird person, however, Latin has a special reflexive pronoun, su¬, which isdeclined the same way in both the singular and the plural.


Genitive su´¬ of himself, herself, itself, themselves

Dative si´bi to/for himself, herself, itself, themselves

Accusative s± (s±´s±) himself, herself, itself, themselves

Ablative s± (s±´s±) with (from, etc.) himself, herself, itself,

themselves

The exact meaning (himself, herself, itself, or themselves) is regularlydetermined by the subject of the sentence or of the clause in whichthe reflexive occurs. Question: Why do reflexive pronouns have nonominative?

Use of Reflexive Pronouns

(ego) m± rogß I ask myself

(t¥) t± rog¤s you ask yourself

(is)/(ea) s± rogat he asks himself; she asks herself

(nßs) nßs rog¤mus we ask ourselves

(vßs) vßs rog¤tis you ask yourselves

(e¬)/(eae) s± rogant they ask themselves

M¬les s± vulner¤vit. The soldier wounded himself.

Nßs contr¤ host±s We defended ourselves against

d±fendimus. the enemies.

S± ob victßriam laud¤vit. He/she praised himself/herself

on account of the victory.

Reflexive Possessive Adjectives and Eius, Eßrum/E¤rum

Corresponding to meus, my, my own, tuus/vester, and your, your own;

noster, our, our own, there is the reflexive adjective suus, -a, -um, his

own, her own, its own, their own, derived from su¬. Remember that suusalways refers to the subject of the verb. Its case, number, and gender aredetermined by the thing possessed and not by the possessor. When his,

her, its, and their do not refer to the subject, eius or eßrum/e¤rum(genitive forms of the pronoun is, ea, id) must be used instead. Unlikesuus, they are not inflected to agree with the thing possessed. Note thedifference in the following.

Anna (or M¤rcus) patrem Anna (or Marcus) saw her own (orsuum v¬dit. his own) father.

Anna (or M¤rcus) m¤trem Anna (or Marcus) saw her own

suam v¬dit. (or his own) mother.

Anna (or M¤rcus) patrem Anna (or Marcus) saw his (or her)

eius v¬dit. father (i.e., someone else’s).Anna et M¤rcus m¤trem Anna and Marcus saw their

suam v¬d±runt. (own) mother.

M¤rcus patrem eßrum v¬dit. Marcus saw their father (i.e.,of those men, not his own).

Anna m¤trem e¤rum v¬dit. Anna saw their mother (i.e., ofthose women, not her own).


The Romans showed great adaptability in thedevelopment of armor and weapons, steadily alteringthem to meet different conditions, and often borrowingfrom their enemies. The metal helmet (cassis), of Greekorigin, gave protection to the brow and neck andreplaced the earlier leather galea. Over his tunic thesoldier wore a leather breastplate (lßr¬ca), covered withsegmented metal plates. The Gallic trousers (br¤cae)gave him mobility and protection from the cold. On hisfeet were leather sandals (caligae), tied on with thongs.The long rectangular shield (sc¥tum) was adopted fromthe Samnites; the pointed boss (umbß) projecting fromthe center could inflict a wound on its own. The principaloffensive weapon was the p¬lum, a seven-foot spear witha soft iron point which bent on contact and could notbe extracted. At his right side, the legionary carried ashort double-edged Spanish sword (gladius) better forstabbing at close quarters than for slashing; at his left,a dagger (p¥giß). Rigorously trained and well led, theRoman legionary was an awesome fighting machine.T

he B

ettm

ann

Arc

hive

Oral Practice

Give in all tenses, in the active voice, the first person singular forms andmeanings of l¬berß; the second person plural of fallß; the third personsingular of expediß. Use reflexive pronouns as direct objects with allverb forms.


1. Fr¤ter eius m¤trem suam fefellit et poste¤ s± in mare i±cit.2. T¥ t± ipsum fallere semper potuist¬, sed m± numquam fefellist¬.3. M¥nera p¥blica optim¬s, nßn pessim¬s, c¬vibus tribu¬ d±bent.4. Arma s¥m±mus et nßs fortiter d±fend±mus contr¤ pessimßs host±s.5. Puerum currentem cßnspex¬, sed ille cr±didit s± ¤ m± nßn

v¬sum esse.

B. Give the Latin for the italicized words.1. We saw his brother.2. You will see their friends.3. The girl loved her (own) mother.4. The girl loved her (own) father.5. The girl loved her (own) horses.6. The girl loved her (friend’s) horses.7. The girl liked herself.

8. He wasted his money and theirs.

9. They will defend themselves and us.

10. We defend ourselves and you (sing.) must defend yourself.

11. She spoke softly to herself.

12. They gave themselves a lot of the credit.

C. Translate the following sentences into Latin.1. He says that he himself has four brothers.2. We always praise ourselves and say the worst (things) about others.3. Entrust yourselves and all your (possessions) to us.4. The leader of the enemy, having seen us (use abl. abs.), killed

himself.



Derivatives In the fourteenth century there began a great revivalof interest in the ancient Latin and Greek authors. This revival isknown as the Renaissance (from re-n¤scor, be born again).Beginning in Italy, it spread over Western Europe and reachedEngland in the sixteenth century. Ever since then, many newwords have been added to English from Latin and Greek. Thesenew words are easily distinguished by their similarity to the Latinoriginals. Over ninety percent of the words in the works of Caesarand Cicero have English derivatives.

One result of the introduction of new words directly from Latinwas the formation of a number of doublets, words that werederived at different times from a common Latin word but thathave different meanings. Note the following (the earlier formprecedes): sample, example (exemplum); feat, fact (factum);Mr., master (magister); loyal, legal (l±x); mayor, major (maior);chance, cadence (cadß). Show how these doublets got theirmeanings from the original Latin meaning. There is one set ofquintuplets in English: dais, desk, dish, disk, and discus, all from discus. See page 430 for a quadruplet.


L e s s o n L X V I

R±gulus

Lesson

Objectives

• To learn the legend ofRegulus

• To learn the declen-sions of duo and tr±s

• To learn the declen-sions and uses of m¬lleand m¬lia

Founded by Phoenicians in theninth century B.C. at thenarrowest passage through theMediterranean, wealthyCarthage had an ideal site tocontrol seaborne commerce.After defending herself forcenturies against Etruscans andGreeks, she was finally destroyedby the Romans in 146 B.C. Butthe location was too valuable tolie unoccupied, and the Romansrecolonized it in 46 B.C. The ruinsshown here are of Roman bathsof the third century A.D. N

ik W

heel

er/C

OR

BIS

Contr¤ Carth¤gini±ns±s qu¬ partem §fricae incolu±runt arma ¤ Rßm¤n¬ss¥mpta erant.1 R±gulus, dux Rßm¤nßrum, imperiß acceptß, ad §fricamn¤vig¤vit et host±s super¤vit. Multa m¬lia capt¬vßrum in Italiam m¬sit sed ipse,opere difficil¬ nßn perfectß, in §fric¤ rem¤nsit. Contr¤ tr±s Carth¤gini±nsiumduc±s pugn¤ns victor fuit. Host±s ¤ Rßm¤n¬s press¬ p¤cem pet¬v±runt. Quam2

R±gulus d¬xit s± d¥rissim¬s condicißnibus dat¥rum esse. Itaque Carth¤gini±ns±sauxilium ¤ Lacedaemoni¬s3, qu¬ Graeciam incolu±runt, pet¬v±runt. Dux qu¬ ¤Lacedaemoni¬s missus erat cum quattuor m¬libus m¬litum et centum elephant¬scontr¤ Rßm¤nßs prßcessit. Rßm¤n¬s vict¬s, R±gulus captus est.

R±gulus in §fric¤ m¤nsit sed qu¬ntß annß Carth¤gini±ns±s, graviter press¬,eum ad urbem Rßmam m¬s±runt. Eum iuss±runt p¤cem ¤ Rßm¤n¬s obtin±re etperm¥t¤tißnem4 capt¬vßrum facere. Is d¬xit, p¤ce nßn fact¤, s± ad eßsrevers¥rum esse. Ill¬ cr±did±runt eum s± tr¤dit¥rum esse.

Itaque R±gulus in Italiam perv±nit. Ductus in sen¤tum Rßm¤num d¬xit s±esse capt¬vum, nßn iam Rßm¤num. Itaque etiam uxßrem, quae eumcßnspexerat et ad eum cucurrerat, ¤ s± remßvit. D¬xit host±s, fr¤ctßs mult¬sproeli¬s, spem5 n¥llam nisi6 in p¤ce hab±re; nßn esse ¥tile multa m¬lia

1 First Punic or Carthaginian War,264–241 B.C. These wars were fordomination of the Mediterranean.Carthage was in northern Africa,near present-day Tunis.

2 In Latin, a relative is often used at the beginning of a sentence to connect with the precedingsentence. In English, a demonstra-tive is used instead. Translate: this(peace treaty).

3 Spartans4 exchange5 hope6 except (if not)

5

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capt¬vßrum prß s± ¥nß, aet¤te cßnfectß, hostibus redd¬. “Capt¬vßs Rßm¤nßsaurß emere nßn d±b±mus,” explic¤vit; “nam virt¥s eßrum ¤missa est, nec v±ravirt¥s aurß em¬ potest.” Sen¤tus hßc cßnsiliß numquam ante datß permßtusp¤cem cum hostibus nßn f±cit. Itaque R±gulus, opere perfectß, Carthagini±ns±snßn fefellit sed in §fricam revertit et s± Carth¤gini±nsibus tr¤didit, ¤ quibusomnibus supplici¬s interfectus est. Poste¤ Rßm¤n¬ e¬ honßr±s tribu±runt.

Haec pr¬mß bellß P¥nicß accidisse dicuntur. Poste¤ Rßm¤n¬, p¤ce fr¤ct¤7,duo alia bella cum e¬sdem hostibus gess±runt et imperium suum maxim±aux±runt.

Questions1. After Regulus’ first victories, what was the fate of the defeated

Carthaginians?2. Why did Regulus remain in Africa?3. How many Carthaginian generals did Regulus defeat?4. What sort of peace terms did Regulus offer?5. Who caused his later defeat?6. Why was Regulus sent to Rome?7. What did Regulus do when he saw his wife? Why?8. Why did he urge the Romans not to make peace?9. Did Regulus keep his promise with the Carthaginians?

10. How did the Carthaginians treat him?

Nouns

impe´rium, impe´r¬ n. command, power (imperial, empire)*m¬´lia, m¬´lium n. pl. thousands [m¬lle]

Adjectives

cen´tum (indeclinable) hundred (centennial, centipede)duó, duáe, duó two (duality, double)m¬l´le (indeclinable) thousand (millennium)tr±s, triá three (trio, triplet)

Verbs

e´mß, -ere, ±´m¬, ±mp´tus take, buy (redemption)inćolß, -ere, inco´lu¬, incul´tus live, inhabit [colß]perfićiß, -ere, -f±ć¬, -fec´tus finish [faciß]tr¤´dß, -ere, tr¤´did¬, tr¤´ditus

give or hand over, surrender [dß]

L E S S O N L X V i R ± g u l u s 449

20

25

7 Regulus’ return to Carthage afterhis mission to Rome took place ca.249 B.C. However, the war lasteduntil 241 when the Romans pre-vailed and a treaty imposing veryharsh conditions on Carthage wasdrawn up. Even then, hostilitiesdid not entirely stop and in 218,with Hannibal’s invasion of Spain,the Second Punic War (218–201)broke out in full force. AgainCarthage was defeated, but fifty-five years later she again heroicallytried to recover her once-proudposition. Rome’s might was toogreat, and at the end of the ThirdPunic War (149–146) the city ofCarthage was utterly demolished.The story goes that the Romangeneral watched the destructionwith tears in his eyes, reflectingthat all great cities must have theirend—Troy, Carthage, and perhapssomeday Rome.

Declension of Duo and Tr±s

The numbers from 4 to 100 are indeclinable in Latin. (For ¥nus seep. 384.) Duo, two, and tr±s, three, are declined as follows.


Note the forms dußbus, du¤bus, and duo (neuter nom. and acc.), which areirregular. Tr±s, tria is declined as a third declension adjective. In Latin thenumbers one, two, and three are adjectives. They must agree in gender,number, and case with the noun they modify: du¤bus puell¬s, for two girls;

maximus trium ducum, greatest of the three leaders.

Declension and Use of M¬lle

M¬lle, when used to mean one thousand, is an indeclinable adjective(like centum): e.g., m¬lle homin±s, one thousand men. When it is used fortwo or more thousands, it is a neuter plural i-stem noun. The word usedwith the plural forms of m¬lle must be in the genitive: duo m¬liahominum (lit., two thousands of men), two thousand men.

A Punic War monument of thethird and second centuries B.C. inMactar, Tunisia.

The

Bri

dgem

an A

rt L

ibra

ry

M. F. N. M., F. N.Nominative duó duáe duó tr±s triáGenitive duß´rum du¤´rum duß´rum triúm triúmDative duß´bus du¤ bus duß´bus tri´bus tri´busAccusative du´ßs du´¤s du´ß tr±s triáAblative duß´bus du¤´bus duß´bus tri´bus tri´bus

SINGULAR PLURAL

one thousand thousands

Nominative m¬l´le m¬´liaGenitive m¬l´le m¬´liumDative m¬l´le m¬´libusAccusative m¬l´le m¬´liaAblative m¬l´le m¬´libus

Oral Practice

Give in Latin two boys, one hundred children, one thousand houses, two

thousand citizens, by three thousand sailors, against five thousand soldiers.


1. N¤v¬ fr¤ct¤, omn±s cert± interficientur.2. Dußs optimßs librßs ±m¬ qußs h¤c aest¤te legam.3. M¬lle naut¤s cum tribus ducibus in maria ultima m¬simus.4. Post du¤s pugn¤s host±s cßnfect¬ nßn iam vim nostram sustin¥erunt.5. Centum m¬lia agricol¤rum, agr¬s su¬s rel¬ct¬s, ad oppida

contend±runt.

B. Translate the following sentences into Latin.1. Anna was third in rank, but her brother was fifth.2. Three men were killed, and two received wounds.3. The lower part of this river is between two nations.4. All the boys easily completed the work in three hours.

L E S S O N L X V i R ± g u l u s 451

Did You Know?

In Roman society the equ±s (knight) was the businessman of his day.

Equit±s financed the public works of Rome by successfully bidding

for government contracts. Knights also found the provinces to be

sources of wealth by collecting taxes and financing provincial

business operations. Grain, manufactured articles, ores, and wool

could often be transported throughout the Roman Empire only with

the money this class advanced.

• Much difficulty is caused in English spelling by silent or weaklysounded letters. This difficulty is often solved by referring tothe Latin original: labor·a·tory, rep·e·tition, lib·r·ary, sep·a·rate,

auxil·i·ary, compar·a·tive, de·b·t, rei·g·n, recei·p·t. The Latinoriginal often helps with other spelling difficulties: con·s·ensus,

a·nn·uity, defi·c·it, acce·l·erate. Define the above words andgive their Latin originals.

• Much confusion is caused in English by the combinations ei andie. Remember that the derivatives of compounds of capiß haveei as receive, deceive, etc.


Until the Romans could control the food supply of theempire they had conquered, their economic systemwas quite unstable. This economic instability was oneof the principal causes of the political dissension thatreached its peak in the first century B.C.

From time to time the common people of Romesuffered from lack of food when the wheat crop failed, as happens in mod-ern times as well. According to tradition, at one such time the senate,which was the ruling body, obtained a large amount of wheat and was

planning to give it away to thepoor. It was in connection withthis plan that the plebeians wereangry at Coriolanus, as we havealready read. He advised the senatenot to give away free wheat andcriticized the plebeians sharply. Allthis happened in the fifth centuryB.C.—nearly twenty-five hundredyears ago.

In the time of the Gracchi (sec-ond century B.C.) economic condi-tions became especially bad. Therich nobles had acquired largefarms by taking over public lands

and by forcing out the small farmers. These farmers wandered over Italywith their families, and many settled in Rome, where they found life diffi-cult. They could not obtain work on the large farms because these wereworked by slave labor. Tiberius Gracchus planned to force the largelandowners to sell, at a reasonable price, all but 500 acres of their lands.He then intended to cut this land up into small farms to be rented at a lowcost to the veterans. He felt that the men who had fought for their countryhad as much right to a home as the wild animals in the forests.

After Tiberius’ death, Gaius tried to carry out his brother’s policies. Inaddition, he created road-building jobs for the unemployed, stored largeamounts of wheat to avoid shortages, sold it to the poor well below cost,and established colonies to provide more land for farmers. His programwas only moderately successful, but the idea persisted. Many of thesemeasures have been tried in modern times; the Italian government has for

ROMAN SOCIALAND ECONOMIC

CONDITIONS

A beautifully sculpted sheaf ofwheat, the staple of Rome’sagricultural economy and itscivilization.

Arc

hivo

Ico

nogr

afic

o, S

A/C

OR

BIS

some time tried to reduce poverty in southern Italy by dividing largeestates into smaller farms.

The problems of breaking up the big estates, furnishing relief bymaking available cheap or free wheat, and of helping the landless mobswho had flocked to the city, continued to bother Roman leaders for anothercentury after the death of the Gracchi. Julius Caesar, a popular leader whofavored such measures, made himself dictator and laid the foundation ofgovernment by emperors. Under his successor, Augustus, a great peacewas established that brought prosperity and better living conditions fortwo hundred years. But the people paid for these advantages by a loss oftheir liberties and privileges; free speech, political rights, and individualliberties of various sorts were gradually reduced.

1. Discuss the policy of the Gracchi in giving public lands and wheatto the poor and using the unemployed to build roads. Give somemodern parallels.

2. In what European countries has a program of social and economicreform resembling that of the Gracchi led to dictatorship?

3. How can any nation get a maximum of social reform withoutabandoning important liberties?

g l i m p s e s o f r o m a n l i f e r o m a n s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s 453

The army, when not actually ona campaign, carried out manybeneficial projects: buildingroads, constructing defenses,draining swamps, and helping inthe fields. Here, while the man inthe foreground cuts the grainwith a sickle, others carry it offin baskets. The soldier in thebackground may be thecenturion in charge of the workdetail. This scene is from thecolumn of Trajan in Rome.G

iann

i Dag

li O

rti/M

useo

del

la C

ivilt

a R

oman

a, R

ome/

The

Art

Arc

hive


Lessons LXI-LXVI

Nouns

Pronoun

Adjectives

Verbs

Adverbs

Preposition

Conjunction

Comparison of Regular AdjectivesThe regular comparative of most adjectives isformed by adding -ior, -ius to the base. Thecomparatives are declined with ordinary thirddeclension noun endings. Quam is used tosay than.

Hoc fl¥men est altius This river is deeper than quam illud. that (one).

The superlative is formed by adding -issimus, -a,-um to the base.

S±nsimus r±g¬nam We felt that our queen nostram esse was most just.i¥stissimam.

Adjectives which end in -er add -rimus, -a, -um tothe nominative singular masculine form to form thesuperlative. Six adjectives that end in -lis add -limus instead of -issimus to the base to form thesuperlative.

Illa pulcherrima est. That woman is verybeautiful.

Capt¬v¬ humillim¬ sunt. The captives are mosthumble.

Quam is used with superlative adjectives to expressas . . . as possible, nauta quam miserrimus, asailor as unhappy as possible.

quam

contr¤ (+ acc.)

bene facile

accidß¤vertßcadßcßnspicißcr±dßemß

explicßfallßincolß¬nstrußi¥dicßiungß

perficißrapißrepellßstatußs¥mßtr¤dß

tribußvincß

aptuscentumdifficilisdissimilisduoextr±mushumilisinferior

maiormaximusmeliorm¬lleminorminimusoptimuspeior

pessimuspl¥rimuspl¥spropriusproximussimilissummussuus

tr±sulteriorultimus¥tilis

su¬

aet¤scondicißg±ns

ignisimperiumm¬lia

n±mßopusßr¤tiß

regißsßl

Formation and Comparison of AdverbsAdverbs formed from third declension adjectivesgenerally add -iter to the base to form the positive.The comparative adverb is formed by adding -ius tothe base, and the superlative adverb adds -issim± tothe base of the superlative adjective.

N±mß fortiter pugn¤bat. No one fought bravely.

Daedalus f¬lium suum Daedalus trained his son

facilius exercuit, rather easily, but the

sed puer cecidit. boy fell.

Omn±s celerrim± They all were driven

repuls¬ sunt. back very quickly.

Quam is used with the superlative adverb to sayas . . . as possible.

Quam celerrim± We explained the

ßr¤tißnem speech as quickly as

explic¤vimus. possible.

Comparison of Irregular AdjectivesSome adjectives have irregular comparative andsuperlative forms and must simply be learned asnew vocabulary words.

In summ¤ urbe pl¥rim¬ In the highest part of the

optimum opus city, very many finished

perf±c±runt. very good work.

Vict¬ sumus ab We were beaten by

gentibus melißribus people better than

quam nßb¬s. ourselves.

The Dative with AdjectivesThe dative is used after certain adjectives that oftenare followed by the word to or for in English.

H¤s condicißn±s p¤cis They believed these

simil±s ill¬s esse conditions of peace

cr±did±runt. were similar to those.

Hoc opus mihi This task is very suited

aptissimum est, to me, but very

sed difficillimum. difficult.

Reflexive PronounsReflexive pronouns are used when the object actedupon is the same as the subject of the verb. The firstand second persons use the forms of the personalpronouns as reflexives. The third person, singularand plural, has a separate reflexive: su¬, sibi, s±, s±(or s±s±). Its correct meaning (himself, herself,

itself, or themselves) is determined by the subject,whether it is singular or plural, masculine, femi-nine, or neuter.

Ego m± v¬d¬. I saw myself.

(Vßs) vßs fallitis. You deceive yourselves.

Illa s± fefellit. That woman deceived

herself.

Is s± fefellit. He deceived himself.

L±g¤t¬ s± tr¤did±runt. The ambassadors

surrendered

(themselves).

In an indirect statement construction, the meaningof s± changes to he, she, it, or they, depending onthe subject.

R±gulus d¬xit s± Regulus said (that) he

revers¥rum esse. would return.

R e v i e w l e s s o n s l x i – l x v i 455

Lessons LXI-LXVI


Lessons LXI-LXVI

NumeralsNumbers one, two, and three (¥nus, duß, tr±s) aredeclined as adjectives; numbers four (quattuor)through one hundred (centum) are indeclinable.One thousand (m¬lle) is an indeclinable adjective.Thousands (m¬lia, pl.) is used as a declinable neuternoun followed by a word in the genitive.

£num m¥nus tibi I showed one gift to you

et duo m¥nera and two to them.

e¬s ostend¬.Du¤s et tr±s regißn±s Caesar gained two and

minimß tempore three regions in very

Caesar obtinuit. little time.

Erant pl¥s quam m¬lle There were more than

elephant¬ et duo one thousand

m¬lia m¬litum in elephants and two

ill¤ regißne. thousand soldiers in

that region.

A. Compare aptus, celer, levis, i¥stus. Form andcompare adverbs from certus, ¤cer, humilis.

B. Decline ¥tilior liber and melior aet¤s in thesingular.

C. Give in Latin in the singular and plural in thecase indicated: a most beautiful region (nom.); aworse time (acc.); a rather long journey (dat.);the smallest part (abl.); a larger ship (gen.).

D. Give in Latin: he deceives him and himself; they

praise them and themselves; they will ask their

friends and hers; he defends himself; we praise

him; she will see her father.

R e v i e w l e s s o n s l x i – l x v i 457

Lessons LXI-LXVI

1. Give the Latin words suggested by the following Englishderivatives.accident, appropriate, conditional, conspicuous, credible,

fallacious, instructive, opera, proximity, rapture, regional,

redemptive, repulsive, centipede, millipede.

2. From your knowledge of Latin, rearrange these Frenchnumerals in the proper sequence: trois, sept, un, cinq, quatre,

dix, huit, neuf, deux, six.

3. Write sentences using as many English derivatives as you canfind from the Latin n¤vigß, doceß, vincß, s¥mß.

4. Complete each sentence. Follow the model.Perficiß is to perfection as incipiß is to inception.

a. Emß is to redemption as _____ is to repulsion.

b. Creditor is to cr±do as instructor is to _____.

c. £tilis is to utility as _____ is to humility.

d. Statute is to statuß as status is to _____.

e. Consistency is to cßnsistß as _____ is to currß.

Lessons LXI-LXVI

Choose the word that best completes each sentence.1. Daedalus opus sine auxiliß f¬l¬ su¬ _____

d¬c±b¤tur.a. accidisse b. incoluisse c. perf±cisse d. v¬xisse

2. M¤ter et ego in tßt¤ urbe librßs melißr±s autnovißr±s _____ nßn potuer¤mus.a. cadere b. emere c. fallere d. repellere

3. Per¬culß _____, n±mß ad portam gravem ill¬ustempl¬ sed±bat.a. explic¤tß b. incultß c. i¥nctß d. raptß

4. Aen±¤s et reliqu¬ Trßi¤n¬ cibum v¬numquemagnß cum studiß _____.a. ¤vert±runt b. statu±runt c. s¥mps±runt d. v¬x±runt

5. Rßm¤n¬ hostibus ¤ quibus in mult¬s proeli¬sfals¬ erant nßn _____.a. accid±runt b. cr±did±runt c. i¥dic¤v±runt d. tribu±runt

Complete each sentence with the correct endings.6. Domin___ servßs fortissim___ in agrßs

ulterißr___ cum tr___ equ___ mittere statuit.7. Condicißn___ p¤c___ ¤ hßc duc___ prßpositae

d¥rißr___ quam e¤e ill¬us r±g__ sunt.8. Terra ipsa maxim___ cßpiam fr¥ment___

auxili___ aptß sßlis aest¤t___ proxim___tr¤det.

9. In minim___ cas___ Baucis et Phil±mßn quamhumil___ v¬x±runt, sed bon___ c±n___ du___de___ par¤t___ est.

10. Tr___ puellae d¬c±bant s± et patrem su___magnum ign___ in parte ¬nferißr___ urbiscßnspex___.

Translate the following sentences.11. Cognßscere linguam gentis alterius opus

¥tilissimum et aptum c¬vibus omnis aet¤tis est.12. Nautae m¤teriam optimam obtinuerant, itaque

n¤vem pulcherrimam facile et celeriterf±c±runt.

13. Po±ta in librß suß scr¬psit Rßm¤nßs pl¥rim¤sreg¬on±s vict¥rßs esse et populßs imperiß i¥st±r±ct¥rßs esse.

14. “Cr±de mihi bene; numquam t± fefell¬. Ex h¬scentum vir¬s, am¬cus tuus optimus sum,”M¤rcus sociß suß dubitant¬ narr¤vit.

15. Itinere cßnfectß, dux cum quattuor m¬libusm¬litum ad summum montem stetit, et de¬sgr¤ti¤s ob sal¥tem virßrum sußrum ±git.


Lessons LXI-LXVI

Find the answers to these questions from any lessonin Unit XII.16. The great revival of interest in Latin and Greek

authors, which began in Italy in the fourteenthcentury and spread throughout WesternEurope, is known as the _____.

17. The Romans fought a series of _____ (number?)wars against _____, a city in North Africa, fordomination of the Mediterranean Sea.

18. According to mythology, man fell from anideal state through a series of four ages. Namethese ages in descending order.

19. The flight of Icarus is part of the decorationon a monument dedicated to what famousAmerican inventors?

20. To whom and for what action were the follow-ing prizes awarded?corßna n¤v¤lis corßna classica

V±rum aut Falsum? Indicate whether each state-ment is true or false.21. Tiberius Gracchus proposed land reform

measures that would aid the poor.22. Coriolanus proposed road building projects for

the unemployed masses.23. Rome experienced a great period of civil unrest

during the years in which Augustus Caesar wasemperor.

24. One of the plans of Gaius Gracchus was to cre-ate colonies for those whose land had beentaken over by large estate owners.

25. Economic instability and political unrest inRome reached a peak in the first century B.C.

Apply your knowledge of Latin roots to determinethe best meaning of the italicized words.26. The editorial contained some pejorative

remarks about the local official.a. degrading b. informative c. favorable d. unimportant

27. The school handbook provided explicit rulesfor student conduct.a. unclear b. strict c. specific d. old-fashioned

28. Scientists were studying the rapacious natureof a certain species.a. gentle b. slow-moving c. stubborn d. predatory

29. No one clearly saw the fallacy in her side of theargument.a. anger b. error c. truth d. humor

30. A sumptuous dinner had been prepared by ourhostess. a. traditional b. simple c. lavish d. hasty

a s s e s s m e n t l e s s o n s l x i – l x v i 459

unit xii: classical myths and portraits of roman heroes · • to learn the comparison of...

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