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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
ECOTOXICOLOGY OF HEAVY METALS (Cd, Pb, Zn AND Cu) IN FLAT TREE OYSTERS ISOGNOMON ALATUS (GMELIN)
FROM SEPANG, MALAYSIA
KATAYONSAED
FSAS 2001 13
ECOTOXICOLOGY OF IlEA VY METALS (Cd, Pb, Zn AND Cu) IN FLAT TREE OYSTERS ISOGNOMON ALATUS (GMELIN)
FROM SEP ANG, MALAYSIA
By
KATAYON SAED
Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies
Universiti P utra Malaysia
May 2001
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate ofUniversiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
ECOTOXICOLOGY OF HEAVY METALS (Cd, Pb, Zn AND Cu) IN FLAT TREE OYSTER ISOGNOMON ALATUS (GMELIN) FROM SEP ANG,
MALAYSIA
By
KATAYON SAED
May 2001
Chairman: Associate Professor Ahmad Ismail, Ph.D.
Faculty: Science and Environmental Studies
The status of heavy metals pollution in the Sepang Besar River and Sepang Kecil River
was studied in August 1998. In general heavy metals concentrations in flat tree oyster 1.
alatus, sediments and water from Sepang Besar River were found significantly (p <
0.05) higher than those from Sepang Kecil River.
Furthermore field experiments were conducted to study the accumulation and depuration
of heavy metals in oysters. The rates of metals accumulations in oysters were found to
be 42.70, 1 .77, 0.95, 0.84 J.lg g-l month-l for Zn, Cll, Cd and Pb, respectively. The
polluted oysters were transferred to clean area to estimate the depuration rates.
Significant reduction of metals concentrations in oyster was observed. About 87%, 83%,
78% and 59% for Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn were detected after six months being transferred to
clean area, respectively.
iii
The metals accmnulation and depurations patterns in oysters in the laboratory conditions
were also investigated. The mean metal concentrations in oysters exposed to metals
solution of 1 00 J,lg rt at the end of two weeks were 32.70, 63. 19, 35.40, 7.44 J,lg got ,
which were 44, 3, 8 and 7 times greater than their initial levels for Cd, Zn, Cu and Pb,
respectively. The exposed oysters were transferred to clean seawater and the metals
depurations were investigated for one week. In general about 78%, 8 1 %, 87% and 88%
of the accumulated Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd were depurated from oysters 1. alatus.
Results from laboratory experiments indicated that there were differences in the
mechanisms for the metals accumulation and depurations in various organs of 1. alatus.
In general, in both accumulation and depuration experiments, gill, byssus and mantle
play major role whereas muscle, shell and visceral mass have no significant role.
Furthermore laboratory experiments were showed that the accumulation rates of metals
through contaminated water were higher than the metals accumulation rates through
contaminated algae. It is believed that oysters 1. alatus accumulate heavy metals through
contaminated seawater rather than contaminated algae.
The LCso levels of metals for oysters were observed to be 478.63, 436.51 , 676.08 and
295 . 12 J,lg rl for Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd, respectively. The toxicity effects of heavy metals
on filtration rate of oysters were also studied and the filtration rate of oysters 1. alatus
exposed to 125 and 1 50 J,lg rl of all metals were decreased. In both toxicity experiments
the trend of metals toxicity on oysters were fOWld Cd > Pb > Cu > Zn.
IV
In conclusion, the results presented here clearly illustrate oysters 1. alatus could
be a very good heavy metals bioindicator and it would be of great interest if being
employed for control of heavy metals pollution in the marine environment and
aquaculture practices.
v
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk Doktor Falsafah
EKOTOKSIKOLOGI LOGAM BERAT (Cd, Pb, Zn DAN Cu) DALAM TIRAM ISOGNOMON ALATUS (GMELIN) DAR! SEPANG, MALAYSIA
01eh
KATAYON SAED
Mei 2001
Pengerusi: Profesor Madya Ahmad Ismail, Ph.D.
Fakulti: Sains dan Pengajian Alam Sekitar
Kajian status pencemaran logam berat di Sungai Sepang Besar dan Sungai Sepang Keeil
telah dijalankan dalam bulan Ogos 1998. Seeara umum kepekatan logam berat dalam
tiram, enapan dan air dari Sungai Sepang Besar adalah tinggi berbanding Sungai Sepang
Keeil.
Kerja lapangan selanjutnya ke atas akumulasi dan depurasi logam berat dalam tiram.
Kadar akumulasi logam Zn, Cu, Cd dan Pb adalah masing-masing 42.70, 1.77, 0.95, 0.84
J,lg g-I bulan-I . Tiram yang tereemar seterusnaya dipindahkan ke kawasan bersih untuk
menentukan kadar depurasi. Pada akhir tempoh kajian terdapat penurunan yang bererti
pada kandungan logam dalam tiram iaitu 87%, 83%, 78% and 59% masing-masing untuk
Cd, Pb, Cu dan Zn.
Kajian corak akumulasi dan depurasi logam tiram juga dijalankan di dalam makmal di
mana tiram didedahkan kepada larutan logam 100 J,lg r1 selama 2 minggu. Min kepekatan
logam dalam tiram pada akhir minggu kedua adalah 32.70, 63.19, 35.40 dan 7.44 J,lg rl,
iaitu 44, 3, 8 dan 7 kali ganda lebih besar berbanding kepekatan awallogam Cd, Zn, Cu
vi
dan Pb. Tiram yang telah didedahkan kepada larutan logam dipindahkan ke dalam air laut
bersih kemudian kajian depurasi logam dijalankan selama satu minggu. Di akhir tempoh
kajian, lebih kurang 78%, 81%, 87% dan 88% daripada logam Zo, ell, Pb dan Cd yang
terakumulasi mengalami depurasi dari tiram 1. alatus.
Keputusan menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan mekanisma akumulasi dan depurasi logam
dalam organ-organ tertentu pada tiram 1. alatus. Dalam kajian akumulasi, didapati kadar
pengambilan logam berat adaIah tinggi pada insang, mantel dan byssus. Bagaimapun,
tidak terdapat kesan bererti dalam akumulasi logam pada otot, cengkerang dan jirim
visceral. Dalam tempoh satu minggu kajian depurasi, didapti tiada kesan bererti ke atas
otot, cengkerang dan jirim visceral manakala byssus dan mantel tiram 1. alatus
mengalami depurasi secara bererti.
Kajian dalam makmal telah menunJ"kkan kadar akumulasi logam daIam air tercemar juga
adalah lebih tinggi berbanding alga tercemar dan dipercayai bahawa akumulasi logam
herat dalam tiram l. alatus adalah melalui air laut yang tercemar.
Paras LCso bagai Cu, Pb, Zn dan Cd adaIah masing-masing 478.63, 436.51, 676.08 dan
295.12 J.1,g rl untuk tiram. Kajian kesan toksik logam herat ke atas kadar penapisan tiram
menunjukkan bahawa kadar penapisan menurun apabila tiram l. alatus didedabkan
kepada 125 dan 150 JIg rl bagi semua jenis logam. Corak toksisiti logam herat ke atas
tiram bagi kedua-dua kajian adalah Cd>Pb>Cu>Zn.
V1l
Kesimpulannya l. alatus ada1ah pemmjuk biologi yang sangat baik dan amat berguna
dalam pengmusan logam berat bagi persekitaran marin dan juga Wltuk kegunaan sector
akuakultur.
Vl11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My deepest gratitude is expressed to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmad
Ismail for sharing his knowledge, time and the valuable comments and guidance
throughout the study.
I would like also to give my utmost thanks to Dr. Missri Kusnan and Dr.
Hisbamuddin Omar, the member of my supervisory committee for their comments in
this research.
Next, I wish to thank Yap Chee Kong and Nik for their generous assistance and
help in the field work.
Furthermore, I would like to aclqlOwledge University Putra Malaysia for the
financial support of the research through grant 50205-96-11 and IRPA grants no. 51279
and 51209.
Finally, my sincere thanks are to my husband, who had been great company and
support when needed most. I would like also to express my greatest gratitude and thanks
to my mother, sisters and brother for their support and encouragement during my
studying in UPM, which cannot be repaid.
ix
I certify that an Examination Committee met on 3rd May 2001 to conduct the final examination of Katayon Saed on her Doctor of Philosophy thesis entitled ''Ecotoxicology of Heavy Metals (Cd, Pb, Zn and Cu) in Flat Tree Oysters /sognomon alatus (GMELIN) from Sepang, Malaysia" in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1 980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulation 1981 . The Committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows:
ABDUL RAHIM ISMAIL, Ph.D, Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chainnan)
AHMAD ISMAIL, Ph.D, Associate Professor Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
MISRI KUSNAN, Ph.D, Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
BISHAMUDDIN OMAR, Ph.D, Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
ZUBm DIN, Ph.D, Professor Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Universiti Sains Malaysia (Independent Examiner)
-. MO I MORA YIDIN, Ph.D, Professor eputy Dean of Graduate School, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 9 JUL 2lJ01
x
This thesis submitted to the Senate ofUniversiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Xl
AINI IDERIS, Ph.D, ProfessorlDean of Graduate School, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: o 9 �UG 1001
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
KataYOD Saed
XlI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICA nON ... . . . . .. . ... .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . . ..... . .. . . .. . . . . . . ... ... . ,. ... ... ... ....... 11 ABSTRACT....... . . ........ . .. . .. . ............ ........... . ...... . ..... ..... . ...... ... . .. . . . .. m ABSTRAK. ... . . . . . ... . . . . . .. . . ... . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. VI ACKN"OWLEJ)(;EMENTS . .. .. ... . ,. ... ... ... ... ... ...... ......... ...... ... ... ...... ..... IX APPROVAL SHEETS ... .. . . .. ... . . .... . . . . .. . .. . ... ..... . . .... . .. . ,. ... ......... ...... ... x DECLARATION FORM . .... , ... ...... ...... ... ... ...... ......... '" ... ... ... ... ... ...... Xll LIST OF TABLES .. . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . .... . . '" ...... ........................ '" ... ... ... ... ... XVI LIST OF FIGURES. .. . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ......... ......... ... ...... ......... ... .......... XVl11 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . .. .... . .... . . . ..... . . . . . .. .. . . ,. ...... ... ... ...... ... ....... xx
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION .. . . . . . . . . . .... . " '" ....... , ...... , ...... '" ........ , .... 1
II UTERATIJRE REVIEW . . . . .. . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Heavy Metals Pollution .... , .................. , ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..... 7 Heavy Metals and Public Health . . .... . . . . .... . . . . . , . '" ., . .. . .. . '" . . , . . . 8 Mode of Heavy Metals Processes . . .. .. . .. . . , . . . . . , . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 9
Accumulation . .. ... . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 I>etoxification ... . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . ... . . . .. .. , '" . . . .. . . . . .... 13 I>epuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 ,
Toxicology of Heavy Metals. . . . . . . . . .. . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... . . . . . . . 18 Toxicology of Heavy Metals in Oysters. . . . . . ... ... . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . 24 Heavy Metals Bioindicator ... .. . . ... .. . , . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Oysters as Heavy Metals Biondicators . . . . . . . . . '" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 31 Biology and Ecology of Flat Tree Oyster lsognomon alatus... .. . . . . 33
Taxonomy .. .... . .. ... . . . . . . .. . . .... , '" . . . . . . . .. '" ... . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . 33 Species Description... . . . . .. ..... . ...... .. . .. . . .. ... . . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . . 34 Distribution .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . ... ... .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. , . . . 34 lIabitat . ... . ... . . ..... ... .. . . ... ... .. '" . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . , . . . 35 Anatomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . 36 Shell. . . . ... ..... . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Reproduction. . . ... . .. . . . ...... .................. ......... ......... .... 39
Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Potential of L alatus as Commercial Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. 41
XlD
III MATERIALS AND METHODS. . . . . . ... ... .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . 43 Study Area . . . . . . .. ... . . . . ... . . . ' " .,. '" ., .... . , ..... , . . . . . , . . . . .. . . .. .. , . . . . 43
I.ocation . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . ... . , ... . . , . ... . , . .. . . ,. '" ., . ...... ... .. , .. . . 43 Topography . . . . . , .. . . . . ...... . . . '" . .. . .. .. . ....... .... . ......... . ,. ... 43 Resources . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . ..... , . . . . .. .. . . . . ... .. . . ..... ..... 45 General Information... . .... . ...... . . . . ..... ... . ... .. . . . ... ...... ... .. 45 Human Activities . . . .. , . . . . . . . ..... '" .. . .. . .. . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 46
S3II1pling Procedure . . , ... ...... ..... . .. . ... .. . .. . .. . ..... . ...... ....... " .. 46 Oysters . .. . , . . . , . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . ... . . , .. . . .. ... . . . .. . . .. . . . ... ......... '" 47 Sediments . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . , .. . .. , . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. '" ... .. . ... .. 47 Water. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Physico-Chemical Parameter . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . , .. . . . . . . .. 48 Kinetics of Metals in Oysters in the Field Condition ........ , ... .. . .... 48 Kinetics of Metals in Oysters in the Laboratory Condition. . . . .. ... .. 49
Field S3IIlpling ... ..... ' . . . ... .. . . ..... . . . . . . ... .. . .. . ... . . . ... ... .. . . 49 Accumulation Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . ... ... . .. .. . . . . ... ... . 51 Depuration Experiments ... . . . '" . . . ... . . . . .. . . . ... .. . ... .. , .... , .... 54
Toxicity of Metals Exposure on Oysters .. . . . . . . . . .... . . , . .. . . .. .. . . ..... 55 LC50: Lethal Concentration 50 of Metals in Oysters.. . ... ... . .... 55 Toxicity Effect of Metals on Filtration Rate of Oysters. . . .. . ... 56
Analysis of Heavy Metals .. . . . . .. , . . . .. , . . . ... . .. . . . .. . ... ... ...... ... . .. . 57 Statistical Analysis . . . ... . . . ... . ..... . . . . , ... . ... ..... . '" . . . .. . . . , .. . .... ... 59
IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. . . .. . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ...... . .. ..... 62 Status of Heavy Metals Pollution in Sepang Besar and Sepang Kecil Rivers ... .. , ............ .... ........... . . . ............ '" . ... . . .... ,. ... 62
Physico-Chemical Parameter for Both Rivers . ... . . . .. '" . . . ... . 62 Metal Concentrations in Water. . . . . . ... .. . . ... . . ... . ... ..... ... . .. 65 Metal Concentrations in Sediment . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . , . . ... ,. . . 68 Metal Concentrations in Oysters . . . . . . .. . .. , . .. '" .. . . . . '" .. . . .. . 72 Correlation of Metals Concentrations Between Oysters and Their Environment . . . '" ... . , . . . . . ........ '" .... . . ... . .. ... ..... .. ... 78
Kinetics of Metals in Oysters in Field Condition. . . . . . ... ... . . . ... . . . .. 81 Accmnulation .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .. . ..... . ...... . ,. ... 81 I>epuration .. . ... . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. '" ...... .... 90
Kinetics of Metals Accumulation in Oysters in Laboratory Condition . . . .. . ...... ' " . . . ...... . . . .. . ............ . . . ...... .. . . . . ...... . . , .. . 97
Accumulation Via Contaminated Water . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ,. . 97 Accumulation Via Contamjnated Food . . . .. , . . . . . . ..... , . . . ...... 102
Kinetics of Metals Depuration in Oysters in Laboratory Condition. . 106 Kinetics of Metals in Different Organs of Oysters in Laboratory Condition .. . ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . I I I
xiv
Accumulation . . . . . . '" . . , . . . . .. . . . '" . . , . . . . , . . . . . . . . . , . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1
Depuration . . . . . , ... ... ... '" .. , ...... ... ...... .... , . ...... ... .... ,. ... 134
Toxicity of Metals Exposure on Oysters . . . . . . .. , . . . . , . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . 150
LCso: Lethal Concentration so of Metals in Oysters . . . . . . . ,. . . . . 1 50
Toxicity Effect of Metals on Filtration Rate of Oysters... . . . . 152
V GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
BIBLOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 APPENDICES.. . ... . .. ... ... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 VITA . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 Levels of toxic concentrations (mg rl) of meta1s in seawater for the
Page
main groups of marine organism . .... . . , ... , '" '" ., . .. , '" .... ,. ... ... ... .... 19
2 Toxicological effects of heavy metals on aquatic organisms ... '" .. , '" ... 20
3 Toxicological effects of heavy metals on oysters . . . ... . . . ... . . ... , ...... ..... 24
4 Physico-chemical parameters of water in Sepang Besar River during October 98 to March 99 ............... ..... . ..... , . . . .... , ... , ... ... ... ... ... .... 62
5 Physico-chemical parameters of water in Sepang Kecil River during October 98 to March 99 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . , . .. , ...... ..... , ... .... , ... , ... .... 63
6 Physico-chemical parameters reported for other Malaysian Rivers. .. ..... 64
7 Total metal concentrations (mg rl) in water samples from Sepang Besar River and Sepang Kecil River, compared with natural levels . . . n. • • • • • • ••• 66
8 Metal concentrations (J.I.g g-l dry weight) in Sediments reported from the other rivers in Malaysia .......... , . .. , .. . .. . . , . . . . . . . ........ , . . . ... ' " .. . ... 71
9 Relationships of metal levels against body size in oysters /. aJatus obtained by expressing (b) regression coefficient and (r) correlation coefficient .. , ............................... , ........... , ........... , . ... . . . ... . ... 75
10 Metal concentrations (J.lg g-l wet weight) in oysters Isognomon alatus .. 76
11 Pearson correlation (r) between meta1 levels in oysters /. alotus and their environment (sediment and water)... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 79
12 R-values obtained from the least squared regression analysis of metal accumulations in oysters (J.Lg g-l) against time (month)...... .. . ......... ... 89
l3 R-values obtained from the least squared regression analysis of metal depurations in oysters (J.I.g g-I) against time (month) . . . . . . ... ....... . . ,. ..... 96
14 Results for linear regression analysis of metal accumulations (J.I.g g-l) in oysters through contaminated seawater and contaminated algae against time (Days) . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... . . . ... ... . .. . . . . . . ... . . . ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . , ... .... ,. 98
15 Metal concentrations (Mean ± S.D) in algae T. chuii exposed to (100 J.18 rl) of different metals after two weeks . . . ... . .. . .. ..... . . . . .. . .. . . , . ...... . , . .. , ... .... 103
XVI
16 Metal concentrations (J,lg g-l) in green algae reported from different m:ea (Kennish, 1996) . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . '" ., . . . . '" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
17 Filtration rate (L h -I) of oysters 1. alatus during an experimental conditions (6 br) . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . , . ... . . . ... . . . . .. ... . . . . . . ...... . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1 8 Results for linear regression analysis of metal depurations in oysters 1.a/atus (J.tg g-l) against time (Days) . . . . . . . . . '" .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106
1 9 Results for linear regression analysis of metal accumulations in different organs of oysters (J,lg g-l) against time (Days). . . .. . . . . . .. ... .. . . . . 1 13
20 Results for linear regression analysis of metal depurations in different organs of oysters (J,lg g-l) against time (Days) ... . . . . . . ... .. . . . . '" . . . . . , . . . 135
2 1 48 br LCso (J,lg rl) values for different metals upon oysters 1. a/atus ..... 150
xw
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Model of heavy metals uptake, transport and depuration in animal body
Page
(Landis and Ming-Ho, 1995) . ... . . . . . ... ..... , ... . , . ... .... .. , ... .... . . . ,. . . . .... 10
2 Strategies of the metal detoxifications in aquatic organisms (Mason and Jenkins, 1995) . . . . .. . . . ...... ... ... ...... .. , . .. . . . ....... ... . . . . . . ... 16
3 lsognomon alatus attached by byssus to the roots of mangrove tree.. . .... 35
4 Anatomy of flat tree oysters lsognomon alatus .. . . . . . . . . . , . . . ... . .. .. , . . .. . . . 37
5 Map showing study area . . . . . . . . . . . , ... . , . . . . . , . . .. ........ . .. , .. . ... . . . . , . . .. '" 44
6 Transplanted oysters 1. alatus suspended on the roots of mangrove tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , '" . . . . . 49
7 Oysters 1. alatus during the acclimatization period in hatchery, UPM. . . .. 50
8 Oysters 1. alatus during the accumulation and depuration experiment. . .. . 5-2
9 Metal concentrations in sediments from a) Sepang Besar River and b) Sepang Kecil River ... . . . ...... ... . ..... .. , '" .,. .. . .. . . . . ... ... . .. ... . .. . . .. . .. .. . 69
10 Metal concentrations in oysters from a) Sepang Besar River and b) Sepang Kecil River . . . '" ...... . ..... ....... , . . . . . . . . .. ... . . , . . . ... '" .,. '" . . . 74
1 1 The relationship between metals accumulation and exposure time, for oysters transplanted to Sepang Besar River for six months ... . ,. . .. ... ... .. 82
12 The relationship between metals depuration and exposure time, for oysters transplanted to Sepang Kecil River for six months... . . . ... ... . . . . . . 91
13 Metal accumulation in oysters through contaminated algae and contaminated seawater during two weeks exposure . ... . . .... . . . . . . . . ... '" . .. 99
14 Metals depurations in whole tissues of oysters 1. alatus in one week period in laboratory condition . . . ... . . . .. . . . . . , .... . , . . . . ... '" . . . .. ' . . . ... '" .,. 108
15 Metal accumulations in gills of oysters during the two weeks exposure.. 1 14
16 Metal accumulations in mandes of oysters during the two weeks
XVIll
exposme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
17 Metal accumulations in byssus of oysters during the two weeks exposme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
18 Metal accumulations in visceral mass of oysters during the two weeks exposme.. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
19 Metal accumulations in muscles of oysters during the two weeks exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
20 Metal accumulations in shells of oysters during the two weeks exposme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
21 Metal depurations in gills of oysters exposed to 100 J.Lg rl metals solution in two weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
22 Metal depurations in mantles of oysters exposed to 100 J-lg rl metals solution in two weeks . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
23 Metal depurations in byssus of oysters exposed to 100 J.Lg rl metals solution in two weeks . .. . . . .. . ..... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
24 Metal depurations in visceral mass of oysters exposed to lOO J.Lg rl metals solution in two weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
25 Metal depurations in muscles of oysters exposed to 100 J-lg rl metals solution in two weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
26 Metal depurations in shens of oysters exposed to 100 J.Lg rl metals solution in two weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
27 Effect of metals exposure on the filtration rate of oysters 1. alatus.... ...... 153
28 Frequency the size of oysters 1. alatus from Sepang Besar River and Sepang Kecil River. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
XlX
AA.S.
DOE
D.O.
nCA
TBT
LCso
MPL
MT
mgr1
J.1g rl
mg g-I
ppm
ppb
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
Department Of Environment
Dissolved Oxygen
Japan International Cooperation Agency
Tnbutyltin
Lethal concentrations resulting 50% mortality of test organism
Maximmn Permissible Level
Metallithionein
Milligram per liter
Microgram per liter
Milligram per gram
Part per million
Part per billion
xx
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Marine pollution is defined as an introduction of substances by man into the
marine environment resulting hannful effects to aquatic resources and health hazards to
human. Heavy metals are among the most intensely studied pollutants in marine
environment and estuarine because of above threshold availability and their long lasting
toxicological effects to organisms living in that environment Heavy metals ultimately
accumulate in variety of marine organisms including fish and shellfish, which eventually
accumulate as it moves higher in the food chain and eventually effecting human health.
The west coast of Peninsular Malaysia is densely populated and industrialized
area, of which the Straits of Malacca is experiencing the discharge of pollutant from land
based sources (Ismail et al., 1993). Land based sources have been identified as the main
, sources of the major pollution problems such as heavy metals in Malaysian waters
(Ahmad, 1997). Of the total quantity of waste generated in Malaysia 11.79% contained
heavy metals (DOE, 1998). In 1998, four major activities in Malaysia, namely
manufacturing, agro-based industry (raw natural rubber and crude palm oil), domestic
sewage and animal husbandry (pig rearing) were identified as chief source of water
pollution and pig slurry accounting 16.7% of those sources (DOE, 1998). These
pollutants were discharged directly or indirectly through rivers, into the Strait of
Malacca.
2
Over the years pig farmers have indiscriminately discharging untreated pig slurry
into public waterways, rivers and low land areas. Sometimes the rivers are so polluted
that no animals are able to live in its (Kaun, 1993). This situation is not uncommon
throughout the major pig producing areas in the country (Babjee et al., 1983). Teoh et al.
(1988) also reported that indiscriminate discharge of untreated waste from pig farms
caused serious water pollution in Malaysia.
Previous studies on heavy metals accumulation in sediments and molluscs from
Peninsular Malaysia indicated that samples from estuaries receiving eflluent from pig
farms contained high levels of heavy metals concentrations (Nather Khan and Lim,
1991; Ismail et al., 1993; Ismail and Ramli, 1997). Arzul and Maguer (1990) also
reported that pig farms contributed to high levels of heavy metals to the environment,
which could cause water and sediment pollution. Heavy metals such as Zn, Cu and Cd
are the most important pollutants caused by pig slurry (Bernal et al., 1992).
It has been estimated that the 99% of the pig farms in the country were located in
the states ofNegeri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak, Johore and Malacca, with the majority of
big farms in Negeri Sembilan (DOE, 1998). Sepang Besar River is the river bordering
Negeri Sembilan and Selangor, which is highly polluted by waste discharged from pig
farm activities. According to the Department Of Environment document, Sepang Besar
River is one of the most polluted rivers in Malaysia since 1987 until 1998 (DOE, 1993;
1998). Previous study in this river indicated that heavy metals (Co, Pb, Cd and Zn) in
gastropods and sediments, which were close to pig farm eflluent were relatively higher
than those collected from the river mouth (Ismail and Ramli, 1997).
3
Metals such as ell, Pb, Cd and Zn were given special attention in environmental
monitoring studies especially in biological samples because bioaccumulation of these
metals can caused potentially toxic effects to the organism and to humans who consume
the seafood (phillips and Rainbow, 1992; Kennish, 1996). Aquaculture activities such as
fish, prawn, crab, mussels and cockles farming are mainly carried out in the coastal areas
especially those along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, where developments had
been focused (Thomas, 1988; Gopinath and Shariff, 2000). On the other hand seafood
products supply about 75% of the protein requirements of the population in Malaysia.
Average Malaysian populations consume about 100 g dafl person -I of seafood products
(Sarmani and Majid, 1994). Therefore serious consideration should be taken in terms of
metals pollution. As we know, molluscs such as oysters are becoming popular for the
seafood trade in restaurants and tourist resorts. Therefore, in view of the growing
economic importance of the molluscs industry to many countries of the region and the
, potential health risks from a variety of contaminants, it is appropriate that greater
. ; emphasis should be placed on bivalves to ensure that such products do not present a
health hazard and at the same time affect the market demand and economic. With the
above situation in mind, baseline information on heavy metals levels should be gathered
to compare with the pollution from future developments.
It is known that marine molluscs accumulate heavy metals in their tissues to
concentrations that are above ambient levels in the environment Oysters are one of the
marine molluscs that have been used extensively as bioindicators of metals pollution in
estuaries and marine systems. The exceptional bioaccumulation capacity of oysters
4
makes them very suitable species for biomonitoring (Mo and Neilson, 1993). They can
accumulate metals in their tissues in proportion to the degree of environmental
contamination better than other bivalves (Lytle and Lytle, 1982). Although monitoring
programs have achieved considerable success, a more complete understanding of the
rates of metals accumulation and depuration in these organisms will improve monitoring
efficiency and unambiguous interpretation of monitoring data (Abbe et al., 2000). A
better knowledge of accumulation and depuration kinetics in field conditions might
contnbute to the understanding of oysters' capacity for different metals and provide
useful information for interpreting metal levels in natural oysters populations. In order to
predict the transport of metals through the marine ecosystem and to interpret the
significance of metal burden in oysters and how certain metals in the ambient water are
reflected in the their body burden, it is necessary to have information on the
accumulation and depuration rate of metals (Riisgard et al., 1987; Phillips, 1994).
In pollution monitoring studies, bioindicator species may be transplanted from
locations where natural populations are found to new locations of interest where natural
populations are absent. Martincic et al. ( 1992) suggested that the transplanted bivalves
are more suitable for monitoring of heavy metals than indigenous bivalve populations,
because of biological similarities and better reproducibility of the results. Widdows et al.
(1980-81) have observed that the transplantation of mussels or similar bivalves to
various areas may provide a useful approach to marine environmental monitoring. By
using transplanted organisms, it is possible to measure the actual presence of the metals
(Regoli and Orlando, 1 994).