variation of palaeostress patterns along the oriente...
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Tectonophysics 396 (
Variation of palaeostress patterns along the Oriente transform
wrench corridor, Cuba: significance for Neogene–Quaternary
tectonics of the Caribbean realm
Y. Rojas-Agramontea,b,*, F. Neubauera, R. Handlera, D.E. Garcia-Delgadob,
G. Friedla, R. Delgado-Damasb
aFachbereich fur Geographie, Geologie und Mineralogie, Universitat Salzburg, Hellbrunner Strasse 34, A-5020 Salzburg, AustriabInstituto de Geologıa y Paleontologıa, Vıa Blanca y Lınea del Ferrocarril s/n, San Miguel del Padron 11000, Havana, Cuba
Received 16 October 2003; accepted 19 November 2004
Available online 20 January 2005
Abstract
In this study, we address the late Miocene to Recent tectonic evolution of the North Caribbean (Oriente) Transform Wrench
Corridor in the southern Sierra Maestra mountain range, SE Cuba. The region has been affected by historical earthquakes and
shows many features of brittle deformation in late Miocene to Pleistocene reef and other shallow water deposits as well as in
pre-Neogene, late Cretaceous to Eocene basement rocks. These late Miocene to Quaternary rocks are faulted, fractured, and
contain calcite- and karst-filled extension gashes. Type and orientation of the principal normal palaeostress vary along strike in
accordance with observations of large-scale submarine structures at the south-eastern Cuban margin. Initial N–S extension is
correlated with a transtensional regime associated with the fault, later reactivated by sinistral and/or dextral shear, mainly along
E–W-oriented strike-slip faults. Sinistral shear predominated and recorded similar kinematics as historical earthquakes in the
Santiago region. We correlate palaeostress changes with the kinematic evolution along the boundary between the North
American and Caribbean plates. Three different tectonic regimes were distinguished for the Oriente transform wrench corridor
(OTWC): compression from late Eocene–Oligocene, transtension from late Oligocene to Miocene (?) (D1), and transpression
from Pliocene to Present (D2–D4), when this fault became a transform system. Furthermore, present-day structures vary along
strike of the Oriente transform wrench corridor (OTWC) on the south-eastern Cuban coast, with dominantly transpressional/
compressional and strike-slip structures in the east and transtension in the west. The focal mechanisms of historical earthquakes
are in agreement with the dominant ENE–WSW transpressional structures found on land.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Transform fault; Wrench corridor; Sierra Maestra; Santiago basin; Santiago deformed belt; Palaeostress; Cuba
0040-1951/$ - s
doi:10.1016/j.tec
* Correspon
E-mail addr
2005) 161–180
ee front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
to.2004.11.006
ding author. Present address: Institut fur Geowissenschaften, Universitat Mainz, D-55099 Mainz, Germany.
esses: [email protected] (Y. Rojas-Agramonte)8 [email protected] (F. Neubauer).
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180162
1. Introduction
Transform faults play a key role in plate kine-
matics as they link divergent and convergent plate
boundaries with each other. In theory, they represent
strike-slip boundaries along which there are no
major transtensional or transpressional forces as
plate-driving forces, e.g., slab pull or ridge push
acting parallel to it. However, many major transform
faults include restraining and releasing bends
imposed by strength inhomogenities of the involved
lithospheric plates and oblique plate motion. Such
situations create wide transform wrench corridors
rather than narrow transform faults. In nature, strike-
slip faults often represent wide wrench corridors,
specifically when rheologically weak cover sedi-
Gran
N
Fig. 8Fig. 11
Cuba
CaJamaica
Gulf of Mexico
North American Plate
Trough
Cayman
Oriente FaultSDB
YucatanBlock
ChortisBlock
NicaraguanRise Colombia
Basin
90°W 80°W
Yucatan Basin
North
n
Caribbea
TransformSystem
SM
Sierra Maestra
Paleogene volcanic units Cretaceous volcanic u
Eocenic granitoids
Swan fault
Neogene-Quaternary deposit Middle Eocene-Oligoc
Las TunasHolguin
Sea
SubmarinBahamasPlatform
Pil nó
Cauto basin
Fig. 1. (a) Simplified map of the Caribbean realm showing the location of
Cuba and is shown in detail in panel (b). SDB—Santiago Deformed Belt. S
Iturralde-Vinent, 1996).
mentary rocks are involved (Mandl, 1988). Such
wrench corridors comprise structures such as releas-
ing and restraining bends, strike-slip duplexes, and
negative and positive flower structures along fault
oversteps (e.g., Sylvester, 1988; Zolnai, 1988).
Classical experiments (Riedel, 1929; Wilcox et al.,
1973; Mandl, 1988) show that, along seemingly
straight segments of major strike-slip faults, no
through-going straight segments evolve during for-
mation of such faults. An array of en echelon
arranged Riedel shears, P-shears, and antithetic
Riedel shears (cross-faults) evolve along such
corridors, with nearly undeformed shear lenses in
between anastomosing faults. The anastomosing
zones of slip are termed the bfault coreQ (Caine et
al., 1996). A wide zone of rocks, which can be
Piedra
Fig. 9
Nipe-Guacanayabo fault
Puerto Rico
ribbean Plate
Hispaniola
Lesser Antilles
n BeataRidge
VenezuelanBasin
Aves
Ridge
20°N
70°W
Atlantic Ocean
nits
Northern ophiolite
a
Cretaceous metavolcanicsene sediments
N
Guantanamobasin
100 km
e
b
the Oriente Fault. Dashed rectangle locates the eastern province of
M—Sierra Maestra. (b) Geological sketch map of eastern Cuba (after
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 163
distant from the fault zone itself, is influenced by
fault motion along such and is known as bdamage
zoneQ (Caine et al., 1996). Furthermore, rigidity
contrasts between continental and oceanic litho-
spheres along transform systems as well as the
presence of releasing and restraining bends may
strongly influence the structural evolution of a
transform fault system. This is the case along the
Oriente transform wrench corridor (OTWC), also
described as Oriente Transform Fault, of the north-
ern Caribbean realm and its expression in the coastal
ranges of the Sierra Maestra, southeastern Cuba,
(Fig. 1). We investigated the on-land structures and
expressions of the OTWC in late Miocene–Quater-
nary rocks on the southern margin of this mountain
range. These observations document the structural
Fig. 2. (a) Simplified map of the late Miocene-Quaternary deposits in the
margin showing the distribution of main tectonic elements along the Orient
Compiled using unpublished maps available from the Institute of Geolog
shown (Fig. 4). (b) Inset map showing pattern of main active faults defined
Rueda Perez et al., 1994 and Kuzovkov et al., 1988). The most important f
fault zone system with a NW-SE orientation. (c) Morphotectonic different
Western Sierra Maestra; SMC—Central Sierra Maestra; SME—Eastern Si
(after Hernandez Santana et al., 1991, Iturralde-Vinent, 1991).
arrangement and permit interpolations on plate
motion and changes in external palaeostress con-
ditions along a major strike-slip wrench corridor also
from places within the damage zone and distant
from places of principal slip.
A better understanding of the geology of Cuba,
especially of the kinematic processes related to the
OTWC, is important to explain the tectonic evolution
of the Caribbean region and to relate Neogene to
Recent deformation to the kinematics of the Carib-
bean plate. We present an analysis of deformational
features in late Miocene and Quaternary sediments in
order to document and evaluate the type and
orientation of palaeostress patterns along strike within
the OTWC. Our study is also aimed at helping to
understand the palaeostress and kinematic conditions
Sierra Maestra and the submarine sectors of the Cuban continental
e Fault. The map shows the main fault system in the Sierra Maestra,
y and Paleontology, Havana. Location of cross-section (A–AV) isby geodetic–altimetric measurements in the period 1983–1994 (after
ault system is that with NE-SWorientation followed by the Baconao
iation in the Sierra Maestra macroblock: CC—Cabo Cruz; SMW—
erra Maestra; B-SC—Baconao-Santiago de Cuba; GP—Gran Piedra
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180164
of transform faults, for which data are largely missing
from situations deviating from pure strike-slip con-
ditions (e.g., Sylvester, 1988). Another issue is the
documentation of structures whose orientations and
kinematics fit in with historical earthquakes and recent
GPS surveys.
The Sierra Maestra is an E–W trending mountain
range (Figs. 1 and 2) that occurs immediately north of
the North Caribbean (Oriente) transform system
(Hernandez Santana et al., 1991; Figs. 1a and 2),
extending from several kilometers west of Pilon to
Guantanamo basin (Fig. 1b). The OTWC separates the
Caribbean plate from the North American plate and is
connected with the Swan fault to the west through the
Mid-Cayman spreading centre (Fig. 1a), which has
generated the oceanic crust of the Cayman trough
since the latest middle Eocene (Rosencrantz et al.,
1988; Fig. 1a).
Our study region extends for some 140 km E–W,
from near Pilon (La Mula) to near Playa Colorada
(east of Santiago de Cuba; Fig. 2a), and is parallel to
the submarine wall of the OTWC. A steep topo-
graphic gradient is typical for the region, ranging from
Fig. 3. Earthquake focal mechanisms along the Swan and Oriente fault
Spreading Center; EPGF—Enriquillo Plantain Garden fault; WF—Walton
for different styles of fault movement (from Stewart and Hancock, 1994)
1974 m (Pico Turquino) to �6642 m in the southern
Oriente deep (Magaz Garcıa, 1989; Fig. 2a).
2. The Oriente Transform Wrench Corridor
(OTWC)
The OTWC from the southeast Cuban margin to
north-western Hispaniola is an area of strong present-
day seismicity, reflecting ongoing motion along the
fault. The seismic energy released during earthquakes
provides an estimate of the coseismic displacement on
a strike-slip fault (Brune, 1969; Anderson, 1979).
Much of this deformation is concentrated along the
releasing and restraining bends of the OTWC such as
the Cabo Cruz basin and the Santiago deformed belt
(SDB; Calais et al., 1998; Moreno et al., 2002; Fig.
2a). Most solutions of earthquake focal mechanisms
indicate strike-slip motion in the Santiago sector and
help to define the trace of the fault, which is
dominantly below sea level (Mann and Burke, 1984;
Calais and Mercier de Lepinay, 1991; Fig. 3). Based
on teleseismic information, Rosencrantz and Mann
s, southern Cuba (after Calais et al., 1990, 1998). CSC—Cayman
fault. Inset rectangle in lower right shows idealized focal mechanism
.
Table 1
Historical earthquakes reported in Cuba for the last century (Chuy
Rodrıguez, 1999, and references therein)
Year Lat. N. Long. W. Ms H I Locality
1903 (19.90) (76.00) (5.7) (30) 7.0 Santiago de Cuba
1906 (19.65) (76.25) (6.2) (30) 7.0 Santiago de Cuba
1914 (21.22) (76.17) (6.2) (32) 7.0 Gibara
1914 (19.45) (76.30) (6.7) (30) 7.0 Santiago de Cuba
1926 (20.30) (77.10) (5.4) (15) 7.0 Manzanillo
1930 (19.90) (76.00) (5.8) (25) 7.0 Santiago de Cuba
1932 (19.80) (75.80) (6.75) – 8.0 Santiago de Cuba
1939 (22.50) (79.25) (5.6) – 7.0 Remedios–
Caibarien
1947 (19.90) (75.30) (6.75) (50) 7.0 Santiago de Cuba
1976 (19.87) (76.87) (5.7) (15) 8.0 Pilon
1992 (19.62) (77.70) (7.0) (30) 7.0 Cabo Cruz
Ms—magnitude of superficial waves; H—depth of hypocentre; I—
intensity.
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 165
(1991) suggested the existence of the Gonave micro-
plate to the south of Cuba (Fig. 3), which is bounded
to the north by the OTWC and to the south by the
Walton and Enriquillo–Plantain Garden faults, as part
of the Jamaica transform fault. The existence of this
microplate suggests that the rate of opening of the
Cayman trough (Figs. 1a and 3) is a measure of plate
motion between this microplate and the North
American plate, which implies a Caribbean–North
America relative offset rate of 20 mm/year or more
(Rosencrantz and Mann, 1991). This is in good
agreement with GPS results of DeMets et al. (2000)
and Mann et al. (2002), which suggest an average
movement rate for the Caribbean plate of 18–20F3
mm/year with 18F2 mm/year of boundary-parallel
slip.
The southern Cuban margin contains several first
order tectonic structures on the sea floor (Fig. 2a). The
Cabo Cruz basin is a narrow E–W trending depres-
sion, interpreted by Calais et al. (1998) as a pull-apart
basin created by left-lateral shear along the two
dextrally offset faults that bound it to the north and
to the south. Left-lateral displacement along these
faults imposed tensional strain in the relay area and
caused extension and subsidence (Calais et al., 1998).
This basin is internally divided into a series of oblique
horst and grabens delimited by normal faults.
The Oriente deep is an east–west trending depres-
sion bounded by a prominent scarp, probably gen-
erated by the OTWC. The Oriente deep provides clear
evidence of active transpressional tectonics (en
echelon folds and reverse faults) occurring along a
major strike-slip fault that was probably initiated
during the late Pliocene (Calais and Mercier de
Lepinay, 1990).
The Chivirico basin is a small depression, perched
upon the Oriente wall and interpreted as a pull-apart
basin formed in a dextral offset, ben echelonQ segment
(Calais and Mercier de Lepinay, 1991). It is bordered
to the north and south by two significant escarpments.
Based on seismic reflection data, Calais et al.
(1989) documented the existence of the Santiago
deformed belt to the south of Santiago the Cuba (Fig.
2a). It is a narrow submarine mountain range
extending over 300 km long and 10–30 km wide
along the OTWC with faults and thrust faults showing
clear evidence of transpressional deformation; a
positive flower structure was interpreted for the
western part of this belt (Calais and Mercier de
Lepinay, 1990; Calais et al., 1998). This belt
comprises several thrust sheets which indicate active
convergence along this sector of the OTWC since the
late Pliocene (Calais et al., 1998).
Calais et al. (1990) defined the stress field along
northern Hispaniola, where the trace of the OTWC
can be followed onland (Fig. 1a). It is characterized by
horizontal principal axes r1 and r3, compatible with
strike-slip kinematics; the maximum stress (r1) is
always highly oblique to the 1108N direction of the
main strike-slip fault zone. Calculations show that the
relative motion vector strikes around 808N from Cuba
to eastern Hispaniola (Calais et al., 1990). Therefore,
these authors concluded that the NNE–SSW direction
of r1 in the vicinity of the transcurrent fault zone is
very different from the direction of the relative motion
vector, and the kinematics of the Caribbean plate can
therefore not be directly deduced from the determi-
nation of the r1 direction.
Santiago de Cuba (Fig. 2b) is the second largest
city in Cuba and is considered to have the greatest
seismic hazard of any region on the island. Santiago is
crossed by two active normal faults (Quintero and
Sardinero faults; Fig. 2b) that cause tectonic insta-
bility in the region (Rueda Perez et al., 1994). Reports
of earthquakes in Cuba date back as far as the 16th
century (Alvarez et al., 1973; Calais et al., 1998), but
it was not until 1855 that the first seismic catalogue
was published in a paper by Andres Poey (1855).
Table 1 shows a list of reported earthquakes in
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180166
southeastern Cuba with an intensity of 7 or more
MSK (Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik) for the last
century (Chuy Rodrıguez, 1999).
3. Geomorphology and stratigraphy of Miocene–
Quaternary deposits
The southern margin of the Sierra Maestra exposes
Cretaceous to Eocene rocks and late Miocene–
Quaternary deposits in several depressions (graben)
facing the OTWC. The pre-Neogene rocks were
deformed by nearly east–west trending folds and
north-vergent thrust faults (Fig. 4) while the late
Miocene–Quaternary units were deposited uncon-
formably on top of the pre-Neogene rocks and appears
less deformed. The latter can be used to monitor
vertical motion of the region as well as distant effects
of wrenching along the OTWC.
The sinistral movement of the OTWC is respon-
sible for the present configuration of the Sierra
Maestra macroblock (Hernandez et al., 1989). NE-
trending faults and subordinate ENE–WSW-trending
faults (Fig. 2a,b) formed in response to this movement
and are important features in the region determining
some geomorphologic and dynamic features in this
area (Hernandez Santana et al., 1991; Rueda Perez et
al., 1994). Rueda Perez et al. (1994) describe
horizontal displacements with an E–W orientation
and formation of structures due to N–S extension for
Late Miocene–Quaternary rocks in the Santiago
Fig. 4. Cross-section across a portion of Central Sierra Maestra (see Fig. 2 f
close to the coast (after Rojas-Agramonte, 2003). The compressive ev
Compressive structures were overprinted by widespread extensional stru
Miocene (Rojas-Agramonte, 2003). We correlate the extensional event wi
rocks in southern Sierra Maestra.
region. Normal faults in this region experienced
downward displacement up to 40 mm during the
period 1983 to 1990 (Rueda Perez et al., 1994). These
authors proposed a geodynamic scenario whereby the
zone of main tectonic weakness has a NE–SW
orientation. The Baconao fault zone was described
by these authors as the second most important fault
system in this region (Fig. 2b).
These neotectonic faults system is mainly respon-
sible for the present coastal configuration and for
emplacement and formation of different morphostruc-
tural blocks in the Sierra Maestra (Fig. 2c). These
blocks have a strong fracturing in a way of horst
(Hernandez Santana et al., 1991) and grabens located
in the southern sectors close to the coast (Iturralde-
Vinent, 1991). The Central Sierra Maestra macroblock
(SMC; Fig. 2c) is the most elevated in the eastern
Cuban region with the most intense neotectonic
movements whereas the Boniato-Santiago de Cuba
block (B-SC; Fig. 2c) constitutes the link between
western Sierra Maestra and the Gran Piedra Moun-
tains, the Santiagio basin formed in this block and is
the most depressed graben in the region.
The stratigraphy of the late Miocene–Quaternary
deposits is shown in Fig. 5 and has been described in
detail by Cabrera-Castellanos et al. (2003). In general
terms, the basal La Cruz Fm. (Vaughan, 1919) is of
late Miocene to early Pliocene age and is charac-
terized by an alternation of terrigenous and carbonatic
sediments, suggesting sea level changes due to
episodes of subsidence and uplift. The overlying late
or location) showing normal faults overprinting compressive features
ent occurred between middle Eocene to early Oligocene times.
ctures, mainly by S-directed normal faults in the late Oligocene to
th the first deformation (D1) described for late Miocene–Quaternary
Fig. 5. Stratigraphic scheme of late Miocene–Quaternary formations of the southern Sierra Maestra. *Geological time scale, calibration after
Remane et al. (2002).
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 167
Pliocene to Pleistocene Rıo Maya Fm. (Franco, 1976)
consists of biohermic limestones with well-preserved
corals. Sedimentation occurred during fast tectonic
uplift with some periodicity, leading to the formation
of up to four terrace levels of eustatic origin (Cabrera-
Castellanos et al., 2003). The late Pleistocene
Jaimanitas Fm. (Brfdermann, 1940) occupies the
first Pleistocene terrace in the area with a height of
approximately 3–8 m (Cabrera-Castellanos et al.,
2003). Fossiliferous limestones with well-preserved
shells and corals characterize this formation as well as
karstic cavities filled by reddish calcareous, loamy,
ferruginous clays. The biocalcirudites of the intertidal
La Cabana Fm. (Cabrera-Castellanos et al., 2003),
together with the calcarenites and breccia-conglom-
erates of the Salado Fm. (Cabrera-Castellanos et al.,
2003), represent transgressive cycles within the great
Wisconsin regression. Locally, the above lithology
also occurs as fillings within the formations described
before. The Salado Fm. (Kartashov et al., 1981)
contains well-preserved Strombus gigas shells. The
youngest deposits in the area (undifferentiated units)
are Holocene in age and are divided into terrigenous
and marine units. The latter are represented by
conglomerate and coarse-grained sandstone.
Neotectonic movements related to the OTWC and
eustatic sea level changes controlled sedimentation of
the above formations. Coarse clastic material of the
Salado Fm. indicates surface uplift and documents
rapid, tectonically controlled sedimentation together
with sea level changes.
The late Miocene to Quaternary deposits (Fig. 5)
generally increases in elevation (including several
terraces) from la Mula to Playa Colorada (Fig. 6).
Terraces in Jaimanitas Fm. can be seen at several
localities along the southern Cuban coast. Shantzer et
al. (1975) considered the formation of these three
terraces to be exclusively due to glacio-eustatic and
not tectonic control, related to a sea level rise during
the Sangamon Interglacial in North America. Up to
four Plio-Pleistocene terrace levels are found in the
Rıo Maya Fm. (Fig. 6). These terraces reach altitudes
Caribbean Sea
Marine terraces
Jaimanitas Fm.
Rio Maya Fm.
E
N
uplifted
Fig. 6. View looking to the east of Playa Colorada. Terraces exposed in Rıo Maya Fm. People for scale.
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180168
of up to 200 m in the eastern part of the area, whereas
the rocks from the western and central parts (from La
Mula to the west of the Santiago basin) appear less
elevated. Consequently, these terraces must be of
tectonic origin.
Those deposits in the southern part of the Sierra
Maestra unconformably overly Cretaceous and Palae-
ogene volcanic arc and sedimentary sequences (Fig.
1b). Eocene arc-related I-type granitoids of tonalitic–
trondhjemitic composition are exposed in several
massifs along the southern flank of the Sierra Maestra
mountain range (Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2004). The
still active sinistral transcurrent El Cristo fault (Perez
Perez and Garcıa Delgado, 1997; Fig. 2b) branches off
to the NW from the late Miocene to Quaternary
deposits in the Santiago basin. This fault is part of the
OTWC and is defined as a synthetic Riedel fault
(Perez Perez and Garcıa Delgado, 1997). The sub-
sidence and depositional history of the Santiago basin
was controlled by strike-slip deformation, related to
Miocene activity of the El Cristo fault, and synsedi-
mentary tectonics (Perez Perez and Garcıa Delgado,
1997). Most late Miocene–Quaternary formations that
are found along the southern Cuban coast are exposed
in the Santiago basin (minimum thickness ca. 200 m),
which has a regular geometry and is bounded by faults
(Fig. 2b). The El Cristo fault currently has a sinistral–
transcurrent character and constitutes the western
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 169
border of the Santiago basin, whereas the Baconao
fault zone forms the N–NE border (Fig. 2b) with the
Gran Piedra elevated (horst) block (Fig. 2c). The
southern boundary on-land is defined by the fault-
related straight coastline.
4. Methodology
Data from slickensides, striations, joints and
tension gashes were collected at ca. 60 stations within
late Miocene to Quaternary formations between Playa
Colorada and La Mula (Fig. 2a) in order to evaluate
the kinematics and stress history of the region. Each
station is a major outcrop along the coast with almost
uniform lithology. Depending on outcrop conditions,
we tried to measure and separate differently oriented
extensional veins filled with red soil in karst or calcite,
as well as tension gashes and fault planes with
striations. The sense of movement along the faults
was deduced from kinematic indicators, e.g., dis-
placed markers. Structures like left- or right-stepping,
releasing bends, shear lenses, Riedel shears and
conjugate Mohr shears were also observed on a small
scale in the study area; they also helped in defining
the sense of movement.
Fig. 7. (a) Unnamed Holocene deposits from locality 85, showing a broad
vein reactivated as sinistral strike-slip fault due to NE–SW compression.
(locality 31) showing normal fault. (d) Strike-slip fault within the Jaimanita
stress field.
The sequence of faulting and displacement was
determined according to criteria proposed by Petit
(1987) and Gamond (1983, 1987). Palaeostress
orientation patterns were evaluated from these faults
and slickenside data, using numerical and graphical
inversion methods as proposed by Angelier and
Mechler (1977), Angelier (1979, 1989), Armijo et
al. (1982), and Marret and Almendinger (1990). These
inversion methods indicate a strain rate rather than
palaeostress patterns with relative magnitudes of
principal stress axes (Twiss and Unruh, 1998). We
used the computer program package TectonicsFP
(Reiter and Acs, 1996) for fault-slip analysis and
determination of maximum (r1) and minimum (r3)
palaeostress axes. The stress regime is determined by
the nature of the vertical stress axes: extensional when
r1 is vertical, strike-slip when r2 is vertical, and
compressional when r3 is vertical.
A difficult point in defining successive palaeostress
tensor groups in the study area was to determine the
relative timing of formation of the different fault and
fracture systems. Relative timing of successive fault
and fracture development is indicated by overprinting
relationships such as consistent fault superposition.
Moreover, the age of deposition of the rocks is well
constrained.
NS
248/85
280/87
218/85
β α
σ 1
α β<<
open antiform formed due to ca. E–W compression. (b) Extensional
Small-scale releasing bend can be also observed. (c) La Cruz Fm.
s Fm. (locality 94). Sketch to the right shows movement pattern and
σ1 σ 2 σ3
83
819333
31
Santiago de Cuba
Caribbean Sea
9592
94
89
86
85
84
8790
20° 00´
75° 55´
Jaimanitas Fm.
La Cruz Fm.
El Cobre GroupLower Paleocene-Middle Eocene
Río Maya Fm.Río Seco
Río
ElS
ardi
nero
Río
San
Juan
Río
Just
ici
Salado Fm.
N
82
8987
90 (D )1
Locality 81
D : 172/881 D : 70/882 213/90
σ1N N
Conjugate Mohrshear (260/84)
D3
33 92 95
81 (D )384
94
85-86 (D )4
85, 90(karst-sinter infilling)
75° 50´ 75° 45´
92, 95, 81, 84,85, 87, 89, 90
92, 95, 81, 85,86, 87, 89, 90
92, 94, 95, 81,85, 86, 89, 90
33, 92, 94, 95,84, 86, 87, 89
Santiago basin
(D )2
D1 D2 D3D2
σ1
(D )2
b
a
2.5 km
Fig. 8. (a) Geological map of Santiago basin showing key outcrops with fault slip data, extensional veins and joints. (b) Relative sequence of
structures observed at locality 81.
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180170
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 171
5. Structural results
The late Miocene–Quaternary deposits are folded,
faulted, and fractured and contain subvertical calcite-
and karst-filled tension gashes; for example, at
locality 85 (Fig. 7a), we found a gently S-dipping
fold, whereas at other localities (e.g., locality 94, Fig.
8), several strike-slip and subordinate normal faults
were measured (Fig. 7b–d) with offsets in the order of
0.1 to several metres in late Miocene–Quaternary
rocks.
The relative chronology of structures and, there-
fore, palaeostress conditions was deduced from over-
printing relationships in key outcrops, indicating the
existence of several events. This relationship led to
separation of different phases of deformation that
were computed from 60 outcrops. Palaeostress pat-
terns vary along strike from E to W: Four phases of
deformation in the eastern part (D1–D4) and three in
the western part (D1, D3, D4) were distinguished
(Table 2).
Table 2
Phases of deformation in Neogene–Quaternary rocks in the southern part
Western block G
Structures Interpretation
D1 Karst-filled E-trending
extensional veins
ENE–WSW trending tension
gashes caused ca. N–S-
to NNW–SSE-directed
extension
D
D2 – – D
D3 N-trending sinistral strike-slip
faults and E- trending,
dextral strike-slip faults.
NNW–SSE-directed
compression
D
D4 Dextral strike-slip faults;
normal faults were
reactivated. Extensional veins
and fractures also occur.
E–W- to ENE–WSW-directed
compression and N–S
extension.
D
The earliest deformation recorded in the eastern
part of the Sierra Maestra (Gran Piedra block) is
represented by N–S-oriented calcite- and karst-filled
extensional fractures seen at several localities (81, 82,
84, 87, 89, 92, 95, and 97; Fig. 8); these fractures
appear curved. These fractures were overprinted by N-
trending dextral and ca. E- and NE-trending sinistral
strike-slip faults as well as by extensional veins (ca.
10–20 cm wide) filled by calcite and laminated red,
karstic material (locality 95; Fig. 8) showing exten-
sion in a NW–SE direction. Superimposed onto these
are conjugate Mohr shears recording a NW–SE
maximum orientation of principal stress (Fig. 8b).
We also observed S-dipping normal faults displaying
N–S extension at locality 90 (Fig. 8), as well as
subvertical veins filled by karst and travertine. Small-
scale structures such as releasing bends in dextral and
sinistral strike-slip faults and shear lenses were also
observed at the above localities (e.g., Fig. 7b).
At locality 33 (Fig. 8), we measured veins filled by
red soil in karst that also formed due to N-S extension.
of the Sierra Maestra (D1–D4)
ran Piedra block
Structures Interpretation
1 E-trending extensional
fractures.
N–S-directed extension
2 Sinistral and N-trending
dextral strike-slip faults.
Extensional veins also
formed during this event,
filled with calcite.
NE–SW- to nearly
N–S-directed compression.
3 Dextral strike-slip faults as
well as conjugate Mohr shear,
reverse faults also appear.
NE–SW-oriented extension
along NW-trending
extensional veins and
fractures were also formed as
a consequence of this
compression.
NW–SE-directed
compression
4 Reactivation of ca. E-trending
sinistral strike-slip faults. Ca.
E-trending extensional veins
and karst-filled extensional
fractures are associated with
this stage.
ENE–WSW- to E–W-directed
compression and N-S
extension.
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180172
These veins were reactivated as dextral faults due to
N–S compression and frequently show an anasto-
mosing or braided pattern on a small scale. NW-
trending sinistral strike-slip faults were also meas-
ured at this locality. Normal faults were recorded at
locality 31 (Fig. 7c) and formed due to E–W
extension. They were overprinted by reverse faults
resulting from NW–SE compression. Veins filled by
karst were documented at locality 94 and are due to
E–W extension. They were reactivated as sinistral
and dextral strike-slip faults formed in response to
NW–SE and NE–SW maximum principal stress (Fig.
7d). Locality 98 (Fig. 9) displays a conjugate vein
system, recording the same pattern as described
above, but we also measured veins formed in
response to N–S extension (Fig. 10a) and disrupted
96
9798
Caribbean Sea
99 Mag
dale
na
97 96
96-99, 104 96-96-99, 104
75° 40´ 75° 35´
Jur a
g ua
2 km
D1 D2
(D )2
Fig. 9. Map of the eastern part of the study area showing outcrops where da
8 for legend.
by dextral faults due to E–W compression. Fractures
formed due to NW–SE extension at locality 104
were reactivated as dextral faults that formed due to
E–W compression.
At locality 85 (Fig. 7a), a broad open fold with
gently S-plunging fold axis was measured as well as
extensional veins filled by sinter and karst. An en
echelon arrangement of oblique to dextral faults was
also recorded at this locality.
The western part of the study area (La Mula)
displays similar structural patterns, but these belong
to fewer structural events (Table 2). At localities 79
and 80 (Fig. 11a), we observed subvertical, ENE-
striking extensional fractures which were subse-
quently reactivated as dextral (up to ca. 40 cm of
lateral displacement) and/or sinistral strike-slip faults,
104Playa Coloradas
98 (D )497 (D )3
99, 104 96-99, 104
19° 55´
75° 30´
Agu
ada
delo
sB
ueye
s
N
D3
ta for fault slip, extensional veins, and joints were measured. See Fig.
Fig. 10. (a) Extensional vein, filled by calcite due to N–S extension in Jaimanitas Formation. (b) Dextral strike-slip fault displacing preexisting
fracture. (c) Transtensional structure, showing displaced coral in Jaimanitas Fm. due to a sinistral-oblique normal fault. See pen for scale (length:
16 cm).
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 173
recording ENE–WSW and NNW–SSE compressions,
respectively. Sinistral and dextral strike-slip faults
were also recorded at this locality; they formed in
response to NE–SW and NW–SE compressions,
respectively.
In the central part of the area, similar observations
at localities 26–28 and 34 (Fig. 11a, b) show that the
earliest deformation is documented by NE-SW exten-
sion, resulting in calcite-filled extensional veins (up to
15 cm wide). The next younger karst-filled fractures
resulted from NW–SE extension and were later
reactivated as dextral faults recording an E–W
maximum principal stress and a slight shift to ENE–
WNW compression. Common features in the area are
E–W trending faults, which often appear curved in
plan view.
Based on these observations, we propose a
succession of deformation phases as summarized in
Table 2. The palaeostress orientations in the western
and central parts of the Sierra Maestra are considered
to represent the same events as in the Gran Piedra
block. Our field observations and the above data set
show the palaeostress evolution along the southern
coast of the Sierra Maestra, which corresponds to the
systematic formation of extensional features and their
subsequent reactivation as strike-slip faults. During
each stress regime, the generation of new faults was
accompanied by reactivation and slip on preexisting
surfaces.
6. Discussion
We now discuss the tectonic evolution of the late
Miocene–Quaternary deposits along the southern
margin of the Sierra Maestra during the evolution of
the OTWC. The present southern slopes of the Sierra
Maestra expose the deep sectors of an early Tertiary
volcanic arc and sedimentary rocks, including a belt
of Eocene granitoid bodies in its centre. Changes in
palaeostress correspond to distinct episodes in the
kinematic evolution of the northern Caribbean
domain, and the deformation recorded indicates a
predominance of strike-slip movement. The palaeo-
stress tensor groups portray distinct changes over
time. Based on the relatively well-established tectonic
history of the OTWC along the south-eastern Cuban
margin (e.g., Calais et al., 1998 and references
therein), we correlate differently oriented palaeostress
groups onland with the evolution of the northeastern
Caribbean during Neogene–Quaternary times. A
number of models have been established for the
Neogene to Recent tectonic evolution of the north-
eastern Caribbean realm (Leroy et al., 2000; Pubellier
N
79, 80
8079 (D )3 2634
Caribbean Sea
20° 20´76° 00´76° 30´
La Mula
80
20 km
7926 27
28 34
27 34
Locality 27D3
D : 256/851
D : 318/904
N
79, 80
b
a
80
D1
(D )4
D1D1D3
D3
D3
Fig. 11. (a) Fault slip data and extensional veins of the western part of the study area up to La Mula localities (79, 80). (b) Sequence of
deformation observed at locality 27. For legend, see Fig. 8.
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180174
et al., 2000; Mann et al., 2002). Our own observations
support and also modify these models (Fig. 12).
The initial event recorded in late Miocene–Quater-
nary rocks was extensional (D1). It is associated with
activity along the OTWC, and is the best documented
for this period in the Caribbean region (starting in
early Miocene according to Iturralde-Vinent and
Macphee, 1999). Iturralde-Vinent and Macphee
(1999) stated that in the early middle Miocene, the
Caribbean region shows the effect of disruption of
continuous landmasses (e.g., Cuba and Hispaniola).
Localized extensional features began to form as
grabens, trenches, and pull-apart basins.
We correlate our first deformation (D1, N–S
extension) with the extensional regime described
above and subsidence to the south of the area, with
formation of basins due to a transtensional regime
associated with the OTWC (Calais and Mercier de
Lepinay, 1991). This regime is well documented by
normal faults and infilled extensional fractures in
the working area (Fig. 10c). The disruption of Cuba
and Hispaniola was already taking place. Apatite
fission-track ages suggest that this event occurred
between middle and late Miocene (Rojas-Agra-
monte, 2003).
We correlate the first phase of deformation in the
western part of the Sierra Maestra (D1, NNW–SSE to
N–S extension) with a transtensional regime associ-
ated with the OTWC and with large subsidence of the
Oriente deep (Fig. 12a). As stated before, the process
of disruption between Cuba and Hispaniola was
already taking place and also affected the stress
regime in this area (NW–SE-directed extension).
The second phase of deformation (D2) corre-
sponds to NE–SW and nearly N–S-directed com-
pression, generating sinistral and dextral strike-slip
D1
D2
D3
D4
Hispaniola
Yucatanblock
spreadingat Cayman
ridge
subduction
Beata ridge
transtension
Beata ridge
sinistraltransform motion
local dextral inversion oftransform motion
Cayman ridge
Cuba
SMSM Sierra Maestra
Bahamas
carbonate platform
a
b
c
d
OTWC
OTWC
OTWC Oriente transformwrench corridor
indentationof the
Beata ridge
SDB
Caribbean Plate
Yucatan
basin
ChortisBlock
Jamaica
GMP
GMP
GMP Gonave microplate
SDB
SDB Santiago Deformed Belt
North American Plate
Atlantic Ocean
Swan Fault
Lesser Antilles
Bahamas
carbonate platform
North American Plate
Atlantic Ocean
Caribbean Plate
Swan Fault
Fig. 12. Models for the Neogene to Recent tectonic evolution of the northeastern Caribbean realm (according to Leroy et al., 2000; Pubellier et
al., 2000; Mann et al., 2002 and own observations). (a) Early Miocene N–S extension along the southern edge of the Sierra Maestra Mountains.
(b) Middle Miocene to early Pliocene sinistral transform motion along the Oriente transform wrench corridor. (c) Late Pliocene–Quaternary
dextral inversion at eastern sectors of the Oriente transform due to lateral escape from the frontal tip of the Beata ridge indenter. (d) Recent E–W
contraction due to lateral escape from the frontal tip of the Beata ridge indenter.
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 175
faults and correlating with sinistral movements along
the main fault to the south. Because of nearly N–S
compression, extensional veins filled with calcite
were also formed. These reflect an extensional event
related to stress reorganization along strike of the
OTWC and coincide with movement of the Car-
ibbean plate to the ENE. At this phase, the Oriente
fault became a transform system (Fig. 12b).
Probably related to deformation processes in the
SDB is NW–SE-oriented compression (D3) defined
by E–W-oriented dextral strike-slip faults as well as
conjugate Mohr shears and reverse faults. The second
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180176
deformation in the western block is correlated with the
third phase in the Gran Piedra block (see Table 2), this
is why we label it D3. We associate this phase (D3,
NW–SE-directed compression) with deformation pro-
cesses along the Oriente deep when the sedimentary
fill of this basin began to undergo compression (Calais
and Mercier de Lepinay, 1991). This deformation
probably led to the formation of dextral strike-slip
faults on the south-eastern Cuban coast. An explan-
ation for the short-living dextral inversion of the
Oriente transform wrench corridor could be the
northeastward indentation of the Beata ridge (Fig.
12c), which is part of the Mesozoic Caribbean large
igneous province (Hoernle et al., 2004), into Hispa-
niola (e.g., Leroy et al., 2000; Pubellier et al., 2000),
creating there blocks, which lateral escaped to the east
and west. Such effects are well known from the frontal
part of indenters according to the slip-line theory (e.g.,
Molnar and Tapponnier, 1978).
The final deformation (D4) corresponds to
approximately E–W-directed compression, shifting
the palaeostress regime of the area in this direction
and giving rise to sinistral strike-slip faults and
Riedel shears. This is in agreement with observa-
tions at locality 85 (Fig. 7a) where Holocene gravels
and sands were folded and fractured recently in
response to E–W compression. Compressional defor-
mation even affected the Holocene sediments along
the south-eastern Cuban margin and was active and
synchronous with activity along the Oriente trans-
form fault (Calais et al., 1989), thus affecting the
morphology of the coast. Cabrera-Castellano et al.
(2003) interpreted these Holocene deposits as bbeachrocksQ and explained the existence of broad flexures
(Fig. 7a) by the specific morphology of the coast
and because of lateral currents resulting from
refraction of waves perpendicular to the coastline.
However, our field observations and measurements
show that these structures represent open folds
because (1) the fold is exposed in a bay and not
at a cape and because (2) similar gently dipping
rocks were observed at other exposures (e.g., local-
ity 86; Fig. 8). In western Sierra Maestra, the final
phase of deformation (D4, E–W- to ENE–WSW-
directed compression) generated dextral strike-slip,
and normal faults were reactivated. Extensional
veins and fractures due to N–S extension were also
formed.
This plate boundary has experienced a complex
Quaternary reorganization and became redefined and
modified during each phase of deformation as was
already stated by Pubellier et al. (2000) for the
western part of Hispaniola. GPS measurements show
a nearly eastward motion (ca. 708N–808E) of the
Caribbean plate in respect to North America. This
motion is nearly subparallel to the OTWC in northern
Hispaniola, but slightly oblique in southern parts of
Hispaniola (Mann et al., 2002), creating some trans-
pressive strain along the OTWC. This transpressive
motion could trigger some strain due to lateral
westward escaping blocks, which are in opposite
motion as motion created at the Cayman Ridge (Fig.
12d). These concurrent movements are likely respon-
sible for the ca. E–W to ENE–WSW D4 shortening
along of the eastern part of the OTWC.
According to Iturralde-Vinent (1998) the OTWC
had two main stages of development, the first one was
a compressive event in the late Eocene–Oligocene
(Fig. 4) and the second one was an extensive event
starting in the Miocene when the Cayman trough
opens. Our on-land observations are supported by
marine geophysical studies carried out off the south-
ern Cuban coast (Calais and Mercier de Lepinay,
1991). These authors described two major periods
related to the OTWC for the northern Caribbean
region, each one characterized by a distinct tectonic
regime starting in the Pliocene. The first one was a
general transtensional regime, accompanied by a large
subsidence of the Oriente deep (Fig. 2), which would
correspond with the first deformation described on-
land (D1); they explained this extensional tectonic
regime by the right stepping en echelon geometry of
the OTWC at sea. The transtensional regime was
followed by compressional tectonics during a trans-
pressional regime, when the sedimentary fill of the
Oriente deep began to undergo compression. This
event is still active and can be correlated with our D2,
D3 and probably D4 deformation. In summary, with
the above data, we can conclude that in general the
OTWC had three different tectonic events: compres-
sion from late Eocene–Oligocene, transtension from
late Oligocene to Miocene and transpression from
Pliocene to Present.
Moreno et al. (2002) suggested a thrust fault
regime along the southern Cuban margin from the
stress inversion of earthquake focal mechanisms.
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 177
They obtained a nearly horizontal r1 (oriented ENE–
WSW) and nearly vertical r3, in agreement with the
dominant structural trend associated with the SDB.
The final deformation recorded on-land (E–W to
ENE–WSW compression) is also in good agreement
with their result. The earthquake epicentres are
located mainly to the south of the Santiago area
due to its location along the northern margin of the
SDB. The most recent earthquakes (Table 1) show a
westward propagation from Santiago (1947) to Cabo
Cruz (1992). The velocity of vertical movements in
Cuba, determined from geodetic methods, shows that
eastern Cuba displays extreme values of up to 12–15
mm/year, whereas central and eastern Cuba only
records a maximum velocity of 4 mm/year, suggest-
ing that eastern Cuba experiences greater vertical
neotectonic activity than the rest of the island
(Iturralde-Vinent, 2003).
The late Miocene to Quaternary reef and detrital
limestones generally were uplifted as part of a
system of marine terraces from la Mula to Playa
Colorada. The Jaimanitas Fm. occupies the first
Pleistocene terrace and can be seen at several
localities along the Cuban coast, with up to 8 m
high in western and central Cuba and probably up to
20 m in southeastern Cuba (Bresznyanszky et al.,
1983; Iturralde-Vinent, 2003). Shantzer et al. (1975)
considered the formation of this terrace to be
exclusively due to glacial and not tectonic control,
related to a sea-level rise during the Sangamon
Interglacial in North America. However, since
subsidence of the south-eastern Cuban coast is
fault-controlled and not only due to eustasy (Calais
and Mercier de Lepinay, 1990), we consider the
formation of this terrace to be related to neotectonic
movement along the OTWC and the compressive
action of the SDB. The terraces here are also more
elevated than others described along the northern
Cuban coast as well as in the central-western sectors
of the southern Cuban coast, supporting strong and
fast uplift due to this local tectonic movement
(Iturralde-Vinent, 2003). Like at other sites of the
Cuban coast, up to four Plio-Pleistocene terrace
levels are found in the Rıo Maya Fm. (Fig. 6),
obeying tectonic control. These terraces reach
altitudes of up to 200 m in the eastern part of the
area and seem to be closely related to compressional
activity in the SDB to the south, whereas in the
western and central parts (from La Mula to the west
of the Santiago basin), they appear less elevated.
Offset and bifurcations along strike-slip faults
create either transtensional or transpressional areas
(Davison, 1994). Offset faults can remain unlinked
until larger displacements have built up, resulting in
pull-apart basins or push-up mountain ranges. The
reasons for offset in strike-slip faults may be due to
propagation of separate faults which subsequently
become linked (Davison, 1994). We interpret the El
Cristo fault (Fig. 2), with a normal-slip component, as
an off splay of the OTWC, leading to the formation of
the Santiago basin in Neogene–Quaternary times (Fig.
2). Due to the proximity of the Santiago basin to the
main strike-slip fault, we interpret its formation as an
internal basin to the strike-slip zone, formed in a local
transtensional area along the active fault, as a possible
pull-apart basin. However, the overstepping fault on
the southeastern side of the Santiago basin is not
exposed. This makes the pull-apart basin origin
somehow hypothetical. The Neogene–Quaternary
structural pattern and formation of the Santiago basin
were strongly influenced by changes of the palaeo-
stress field along the OTWC, changing from strike-
slip to an extensional regime. We suggest that the
partial uplift of the Santiago basin occurred during our
D3 and D4 phases of deformation. The Chivirico pull-
apart basin (Fig. 2) to the south of the area has not
been as well studied by marine geophysical methods
as other structures related to the OTWC along the
southeastern Cuban margin. The geometry of this
basin was already traced by Calais and Mercier de
Lepinay (1991), and these authors conclude that the
basin developed on tensional relays along the main
left-lateral strike-slip fault. Due to the proximity of
these two basins and their position, we conclude that
they probably formed under the same regime with
similar kinematics probably starting in the late
Miocene.
Although E–W compression was responsible for
the last deformation recorded in the late Miocene–
Quaternary deposits of the Sierra Maestra, a trans-
pressional regime now dominates the area as indicated
by earthquake focal mechanisms (Calais et al., 1998;
Moreno et al., 2002).
Our new data from the Oriente transform wrench
corridor indicate a complicated evolution of this
transform system. Structures range from extension/
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180178
transtension during initiation of the transform fault
system through pure strike-slip transform motion to
late-stage complexities with transpressional structures
including local short-living shear reversal. These
transpressive motions seem to represent accommo-
dation effects of both indentation of an oceanic
plateau and individualisation of a microplate
(Gonave microplate). Such complicated evolutionary
paths at the interface between continental to oceanic
plates may represent rather the rule than exception
due to rigidity contrasts between involved litho-
spheric plates.
7. Conclusions
Palaeostress analysis of small-scale faults, joints,
and tension gashes of the OTWC along the south-
eastern Cuban coast enable us to establish the
timing and orientation of the stress regime that
resulted in Neogene separation of Cuba and
Hispaniola. The formation of the Santiago basin
in an offset of the OTWC is due to major sinistral
displacement along the transform fault. Consistent
datasets were obtained for all analyzed sites. Our
results indicate that the OTWC exhibits a fault and
fracture pattern which agrees with first motion
solutions derived from earthquake focal mecha-
nisms. We distinguish two different groups of
tectonic events for the OTWC: transtension during
late Miocene (?) (D1) and transpression from
Pliocene to Present (D2–D4).
Palaeostress analysis reveals four phases of defor-
mation for the easternmost part of Sierra Maestra
(Santiago basin up to Playa Colorada) and three
phases for the central and western parts up to La
Mula, with an age range from late Miocene to
Quaternary. These phases are:
D1: N–S-directed extension is mainly associated
with karst-filled extensional veins and normal faults.
We correlate this event with the regional kinematics in
the northern Caribbean imposed by the opening of the
Cayman trough. During the early middle Miocene, the
Caribbean region experienced the effects of the
separation of Cuba from Hispaniola. Localized
extension occurred, and grabens, pull-apart basins
and troughs began to form as well as subsidence in the
Oriente deep.
D2 and D3: NE–SW to nearly N–S and subsequent
NW–SE-directed compression generated sinistral and
dextral strike-slip faults and conjugate Mohr shears
that correlate with strike-slip movement along the
main ENE-trending fault to the south. These phases are
also associated with a transpressional regime in the
SDB and with deformation processes along the Oriente
deep when the sedimentary fill of this basin began to
undergo compression. We suggest that the Santiago
pull-apart basin formed during this event. Transten-
sional features due to E–Wand NE–SWextension also
formed during this deformation, displaying an event of
extension related to a stress reorganization along strike
of the OTWC and coinciding with the relative move-
ment of the Caribbean plate to the ENE. At this phase,
the OTWC became a transform fault.
D4: ENE–WSW- to E–W-directed compression
corresponds to a shift of the palaeostress regime in
this direction and gives rise to reactivation of sinistral
strike-slip faults and formation of Riedel shears.
Extensional veins and karst-filled extensional frac-
tures are associated with this phase and record N–S-
directed extension. This process is consistent with
stress orientations deduced from earthquake focal
mechanisms.
The above phases of deformation describe the
dynamics of the south-eastern Cuban coast at the
leading edge of the North American plate during
formation and development of the northern Caribbean
Oriente transform wrench corridor. We compare late
Miocene to Quaternary kinematic and stress directions
with published results from earthquake focal mecha-
nisms for the southern Cuban margin. These are in
agreement with active deformation resulting from ca.
E–W compression.
Acknowledgements
Y. R-A. acknowledges support through a fellow-
ship of the Austrian Academic Exchange Service. We
acknowledge useful discussions and comments on the
manuscript by Manuel Iturralde-Vinent, Guillermo
Millan Trujillo, Miguel Cabrera Castellanos, and for
thorough remarks by Dickson Cunningham which
helped to clarify data presentation and interpretation.
We also acknowledge support through grants of the
Stiftungs- und Ffrderungsgesellschaft of Salzburg
Y. Rojas-Agramonte et al. / Tectonophysics 396 (2005) 161–180 179
University and the Institute of Geology and Palae-
ontology in Havana, Cuba which supported field work
in Sierra Maestra. This is a contribution to IGCP-
Project 433 (Caribbean plate tectonics).
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