wall of wind full-scale destructive testing of coastal...

Journal of Coastal Research 23 5 1211–1217 West Palm Beach, Florida September 2007

Wall of Wind Full-Scale Destructive Testing of CoastalHouses and Hurricane Damage MitigationStephen P. Leatherman†, Arindam Gan Chowdhury‡, and Carolyn J. Robertson†

†International Hurricane ResearchCenter

Florida International University360 MARC BuildingMiami, FL 33199, [email protected]

‡International Hurricane ResearchCenter & Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering

Florida International University360 MARC BuildingMiami, FL 33199

ABSTRACT

LEATHERMAN, S.P.; CHOWDHURY, A.G., and ROBERTSON, C.J., 2007. Wall of wind full-scale, destructive testingof coastal houses and hurricane damage mitigation. Journal of Coastal Research, 23(5), 1211–1217. West Palm Beach(Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

Damages during extreme wind events highlight the weaknesses inherent in coastal residential building constructionand underscore the need for improving the structural performance of typical residential buildings. Also, there is atremendous concern for the existing stock of buildings that are not sufficiently designed and constructed to an ac-ceptable building code. Conducting research to better understand simultaneous hurricane-induced wind, rain, anddebris effects on the built environment will lead to innovative design technologies that can mitigate hurricane winddamage. The International Hurricane Research Center (IHRC) at the Florida International University (FIU) hasdeveloped a new research approach to better understand categories 1 to 5 hurricane-induced effects on residentialbuildings and other structures through full-scale, destructive testing, much the same way that the automobile industrytackled the crash worthiness issue or the earthquake community approached building safety. This research will fosterthe development of novel mitigation techniques to improve our built environment’s resilience to hurricane impact. Todevelop these advanced techniques, we will subject test models of representative building structures or appropriateportions of such structures to hurricane-induced wind–rain–debris effects in a controlled and repeatable environmentusing the Wall of Wind testing apparatus developed by the IHRC. Through such full-scale destructive testing, per-formance-based evaluation, and failure-mode analysis, innovative mitigation techniques will be developed. Wall ofWind experimentation has the potential for revolutionizing our building and retrofitting practices.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Hurricane damage, coastal construction, mitigation techniques, full-scale wind testing,Wall of Wind experimentation.

INTRODUCTION

The U.S. coast from Maine to Texas is vulnerable to hur-ricane impacts. Hurricane-induced economic losses havesteadily increased during the past 50 years with losses of $1.3billion per year (1949–1989), $10.1 billion per year (1990–1995), and $35.8 billion per year in the last 5 years (NATION-AL SCIENCE BOARD, 2006). At the same time there has beena coastward migration of the population; more than 50% ofthe U.S. population now lives within 50 miles of the coastline(NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 1999). Trillions of dol-lars have been invested in coastal development to accommo-date the increasing population; therefore, the socioeconomicimpacts of hurricane landfalls will also escalate.

Recent hurricane activity, especially the New Orleans di-saster in the wake of Katrina, has focused public attentionon this problem. Billions of tax dollars are spent annually forrescue, recovery, and rebuilding following an event. While

DOI: 10.2112/07-0829.1 received 19 January 2007; accepted in revi-sion 19 January 2007.

This research is supported by the Florida Division of EmergencyManagement (FL DEM) and Renaissance Reinsurance Holdings Ltd.(RenaissanceRe).

hurricanes cause more than 50% of the losses when consid-ering all natural disasters, the funding for earthquake re-search exceeds that of hurricanes (NATIONAL SCIENCE

BOARD, 2006). In fact, less than 2% of the U.S. hurricane-related budget is devoted to research and design to makebuildings more resistant to high winds and surging water.Fortunately there are new technologies, namely the Wall ofWind (WoW) full-scale, destructive testing, that can allow usto make a quantum jump in our understanding of how tobuild stronger and better houses.

Although several universities, private industries, and gov-ernment laboratories have experimental and test facilities, nofacility is capable of testing full-scale buildings and their com-ponents subjected to simulated extreme wind effects. In 1999,the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Labora-tory (INEEL), through the U.S. Department of Energy(DOE), proposed that a large-scale wind test facility (LSWTF)be constructed to study, in full-scale, the behavior of low-risestructures under simulated extreme wind conditions. Thecost of constructing this LSWTF was cited in various sourcesas $70 million to several hundred million dollars (INEEL,1998; PHILIPS, 1999). At the request of the Idaho OperationsOffice of the DOE, the National Research Council (NRC) es-

1212 Leatherman, Chowdhury, and Robertson

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 23, No. 5, 2007

Figure 1. The two-fan Wall of Wind apparatus has already demonstrat-ed proof-of-concept of this innovative, full-scale destructive testing of roofshingles and soffits. Funded by Florida Division of Emergency Manage-ment.

tablished a committee to review the potential value of anLSWTF. The committee concluded that the cost for the pro-posed LSWTF was extremely high, and therefore it would beuneconomical and inappropriate to construct an LSWTF.

In 2003, the wind engineering research team at the Inter-national Hurricane Research Center (IHRC) of the FloridaInternational University (FIU) started planning to build afull-scale wind testing facility at a much lower cost to gen-erate experimental data for a better engineering and scien-tific understanding of the effects of extreme winds on resi-dential structures. With a full-scale wind test facility, full-sized structures, such as site-built or manufactured housingand small commercial and industrial buildings, could be test-ed under a range of wind conditions in a controlled and re-peatable environment. It would be possible to create repre-sentative wind loading conditions in a controlled and instru-mental laboratory setting, rather than passively waiting forwind events to provide validation.

With the above vision, IHRC at FIU has developed a windtesting apparatus, namely the Wall of Wind, that is suitablefor experimentation and testing (to failure) of full-scale, low-rise structures (e.g., manufactured homes, residential build-ings, and light commercial buildings). The WoW enables aninnovative research capability in full-scale structural testingto determine inherent weaknesses of structures when sub-jected to hurricane-force winds and rain. This new testingfacility, the first of its kind, will revolutionize building con-struction and retrofitting practices. While wind tunnel test-ing of models of houses has provided useful information, thisapproach has many limitations—gravity cannot be scaled norcan roofing material (shingles, tiles, etc.) be reduced to min-iature size and provide any useful understanding of the winddynamics and failure mode.

Houses can and must be built better and stronger, whichrequires knowing how to build structures that are hurricanesurvivable with little to no damage. Building components(e.g., windows, doors, etc.) can be tested with air cannons, butit is not possible to determine how the whole structure willperform in hurricane conditions. Houses have been construct-ed without this basic understanding and knowledge becausewe have not previously had the ability to use a ‘‘holistic ap-proach’’ to testing structures. Now for the first time, we areable to conduct full-scale, destructive testing of houses sub-jected to hurricane-force winds. This testing procedure is ef-fective because the building components are tested as inte-gral parts of the full-scale building subjected to hurricane-induced stresses. Aerodynamic effects of hurricane windloads are simulated on the full-scale mother structure and itscomponents (overall features of the mother structure oftengovern the aerodynamic effects on its components), thus pro-ducing dynamic loading patterns with close resemblance tothe high wind field with turbulences and vortices as will beexperienced in real hurricane conditions. WoW creates real-istic hurricane loading conditions in a controlled and repeat-able environment and can be used to evaluate the strengthof different building components and validate the effective-ness of various advanced scientific techniques to mitigatestorm damage to residential buildings.

The wind engineering research team at the IHRC has al-

ready conducted full-scale testing with the WoW (Figure 1).The two-fan WoW, funded by the Florida Division of Emer-gency Management (FL DEM), generates up to 120 mphwinds and includes a water-injection system to simulate hor-izontally flowing rainfall under hurricane conditions. Wehave examined soffit failure and monitored the rain enteringunder the eaves of the roof, which often results in the collapseof ceilings, saturation of dry wall, and the infestation of mold;billions of dollars of damage to houses have been caused bythis type of structural failure in the past 2 years. The IHRCteam has just completed experimentation with simple, inex-pensive changes to soffits that can greatly increase their du-rability.

Full-scale destructive testing of houses will change thepublic’s perception of building safety. This will lead to thedevelopment of a ‘‘culture of preparedness’’—a change in pub-lic behavior that must occur in the state of Florida and otherhurricane-vulnerable states for their economies to remainsustainable. Just as the effective visualization of car crashesdrastically changed automobile safety through the introduc-tion of air bags and the earthquake engineering communityapproached the general concept of building safety throughshake table experiments, we will do the same for the housingindustry through full-scale testing of the building compo-nents until failure leading to effective strengthening methodsagainst extreme wind events (Figure 2). This fundamental

1213Wall of Wind Testing of Coastal Houses


Figure 2. Full-scale destructive testing.

change is a necessary condition for available and affordableinsurance, which is paramount to sustaining the economy ofthe U.S. East and Gulf Coast states.

The IHRC can use the WoW to pioneer new technologies,such as vortex suppression. This involves developing modi-fied aerodynamic edge shapes and spoilers at the edge of roofsto shed the high-velocity vortices that result in destruction ofroofing shingles and tiles. We have been contacted by entre-preneurs who have patented designs for vortex suppression,but lack the technical capability to test and hence prove thecommercial value of such a product. Advanced research willalso be performed based on empirical evidence to develop newbuilding materials, including composites that will result insuperior roofs. The true strength and performance of com-posite roofs can only be determined by full-scale Wall of Winddestructive testing.

BACKGROUND

Established by the state legislature in 1995, the Interna-tional Hurricane Research Center (IHRC) is the Type 1 Cen-ter for hurricane research in the state of Florida. The IHRChas already made great strides in developing mitigation mea-sures for homeowners. In 2003 the State Building Code Com-mission approved a building code modification proposed byIHRC research to make the ring-shank nail the standard forroof sheathing in the High Velocity Hurricane Zone in Flor-ida. This new standard increased the resistance of roofs tohurricane wind uplift forces from a low category 3 hurricaneup to a high category 4 hurricane without increasing the costof construction.

The IHRC played a key role in the enactment of the Wind-storm Hazards Reduction Act that was signed into law inOctober 2004. Now that considerable new money has beenauthorized ($10 million in the first year, ranging up to $100million annually to match the Earthquake Hazard ReductionProgram), FIU is working with other universities and groupsto secure the appropriation of this funding.

On September 29, 2006, the National Science Board re-leased a draft report entitled Hurricane Warning: The CriticalNeed for a National Hurricane Research Initiative. The reportrecommended an increase of about $300 million per year overcurrent federal hurricane research funding levels. ‘‘The pre-sent federal investment in hurricane science and engineeringresearch relative to the tremendous damage and sufferingcaused by hurricanes is insufficient,’’ the report found. ‘‘Timeis not on our side. The hurricane warning for our nation hasbeen issued, and we must act vigorously and without delay.’’Through the WoW research, the IHRC supports this majorNational Hurricane Research Initiative and the nation’s needfor hurricane damage mitigation.

The successful testing with the two-fan WoW has providedproof-of-concept of full-scale destructive testing (Figure 1).The IHRC research team is presently completing the six-fanWoW funded by the private sector—Renaissance ReinsuranceHoldings Ltd. (RenaissanceRe), the largest reinsurer of hur-ricane-prone areas in the world. Therefore, industry has al-ready recognized the enormous potential of the full-scale Wallof Wind testing. The more powerful, six-fan RenaissanceReWoW can generate a 130- to 140-mph wind field. Our ulti-mate goal is to build upon the knowledge gained from utiliz-



Figure 3. Schematic diagram for full-scale destructive testing of houseswill change our fundamental understanding of how to construct and ret-rofit low-rise buildings to hurricane-force wind and rain, ranging fromcategories 1 to 5.

Figure 4. Florida Coastal Monitoring Program (FCMP)—tower deployment and sample hurricane data collected for Isabel.

ing the two-fan FL DEM and six-fan RenaissanceRe WoW tobuild a world-class facility (Figure 3). This national facilitywill be able to test full-size (2000 ft2) houses mounted on aturntable so they can be subjected to categories 1 to 5 hur-ricane winds and rain from all directions. Being a member ofthe Florida Coastal Monitoring Program (FCMP), the IHRCresearch team has invaluable high-resolution surface winddata (Figure 4) collected during many hurricanes (such asIsabel, Francis, and Ivan). This information will allow us tomimic hurricane-induced fluctuating wind gust effects on teststructures and perform realistic experiments using the WoWapparatus.

WoW HURRICANE DAMAGE MITIGATIONRESEARCH

To date, the experimental focus in wind engineering hasbeen through the use of wind tunnels. While wind tunnel fa-cilities have provided detailed information of wind loads onstructures, wind tunnels can only be used to test models andcannot test causes of failure of structural elements, such assoffits, facia, and cladding (NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL,1999). The WoW full-scale destructive testing is ideal for de-termining the performance of the building envelope, new con-struction techniques, and retrofitting technology as follows.

● Performance of building envelope. Postdamage assessmentsare hampered by lack of information on the wind loadsexerted on various types of buildings. Therefore, it remainsunclear what different levels of wind events actually rep-resent. The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale (SSHS) islargely based on expert opinion and anecdotal information,not direct comparison of measured wind speeds to damage.WoW testing will establish the performance bases neces-sary to determine the relationship between hurricane in-tensity and damage to the building stock. This informationis invaluable when evaluating building codes based onpoststorm inspections. Full-scale testing also allows for thedetermination of where various attributes of constructioninteract synergistically, causing failure (NATIONAL RE-SEARCH COUNCIL, 1999).

● New construction techniques. Considerable damage hasbeen caused by water intrusion even when the roof re-mains intact. The WoW can simulate wind-blown rain andbe used in the derivation of new products, such as im-proved soffits. When hurricane winds travel around andover buildings, flow separation and hence strong upliftpressure occurs at the edges and corners of buildings. Flow



Figure 5. (a) Wind-induced vortex formation on roofs, (b) vortex suppression on roofs by aerodynamic edge shape retrofit.

Figure 6. Existing research infrastructure at the IHRC. (a) Vacuum chamber, (b) air cannons, (c) three-dimensional reaction frame.

separation induces the formation of a turbulent shear layerabove the roof where vortices build. These vortices theninteract with the roof structure evoking strong negativepressure at edge and corner regions that may cause rooffailure (Figure 5a). WoW research will lead to modifiedaerodynamic edge shapes to suppress vortex generation,which will lower the suction in these zones and hence sig-nificantly lower roof damage. Aerodynamic edge shape ret-rofits will reduce uplift loads on the roof by displacing thelocation of the shed vortices relative to the roof (Figure 5b).

● Retrofitting techniques. Millions of existing houses alreadyexist in hurricane-prone areas, and the existing buildingstock will not be able to meet new codes based on a betterunderstanding of structural failure. Retrofitting technolo-gies can be tested as components, but their actual value tothe behavior of the building system can only be determinedby testing a full-scale, complete (e.g., holistic) system (NA-TIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, 1999). A principal approachis to develop minimally intrusive techniques as retrofitmeasures, which includes the use of advanced fiber com-posites and adhesives.

In addition to commissioning the WoW facility and per-forming world-class research mentioned above, the IHRC isalso undertaking complementary research.

Destructive Testing

Experiments are conducted at the IHRC facility using ex-isting instrumentation (Figure 6) including:

● Vacuum chamber. This equipment is used to simulate windpressures from hurricane winds acting on full-scale roofpanels. The apparatus is mounted on a trailer and includesits own portable power generator allowing for field deploy-ment.

● Compressed air cannons. These projectile launchers are de-signed for research on the impact of debris on the buildingenvelope or various types of building materials or compo-nents. The IHRC research involves using three differentcannons to fire: (1) large debris, typically a 7 to 9 ft longpiece of 2� � 4� wood, (2) small debris simulating roof grav-el or similar material, and (3) roofing tiles.

● Dual load reaction frame. This testing rig applies simulat-



Figure 7. WoW testing to compare new ‘‘peel and seal’’ product versus‘‘blue tarp’’.

ed hurricane loads along two axes to full-scale roof struc-ture and wall assemblies. The apparatus has been usedextensively and is now being modified for outdoor testingof masonry wall specimens.

Model to Estimate the Benefit and Cost of HurricaneMitigation Measures

The objective is to develop a computer model that can pre-dict the benefit of various structural mitigation measures andretrofits that can be undertaken to reduce hurricane damageto residential and low-rise commercial structures. Specifical-ly, the model will estimate the reduction in structural andcontent damages at various wind speeds due to a variety ofmitigation and building code measures (POWELL et al., 2005).It will leverage and expand on the existing FIU Public Hur-ricane Loss Projection Model by adding the capability to eval-uate the benefit and cost of various mitigation measures forretrofit technologies.

There is a strong need for a physically based risk modelthat will allow for a scientific and accurate evaluation of thecost-effectiveness of mitigation measures on the scale of alocal structure, city, county, or state. The model will be usedto evaluate the benefits of mitigation from a macroeconomic,statistical, and risk management point of view to quantifythe costs and benefits for the single property owner and forsociety at large. The model will provide information for themost effective allocation of resources society-wise by allowingthat (1) insurance companies promote the right mitigationmeasures and administer their portfolios more rationally; (2)county and state emergency managers and policy plannersidentify key mitigation problems and potential solutions andconcentrate their efforts on these issues; and (3) mitigationproponents convince policy makers, politicians, and the pub-lic of the benefits of mitigation utilizing objective and rationalrisk evaluation tools (which are not presently available).

Airborne Laser Technology to Quantify SurfaceRoughness

LIDAR, an airborne laser mapping system, employs laser-ranging technology and GPS positioning mounted in a smallaircraft to gather topographic information for predicting hur-ricane damage. The IHRC, in partnership with the Univer-sity of Florida Geomatics Program, was the first research or-ganization in the nation to employ this cutting-edge technol-ogy to map hurricane-prone areas: we have already acquiredover 3 billion data points in South Florida (LEATHERMAN andZHANG, 2002; WHITMAN et al., 2003). Continuous surfacemodels created from LIDAR data can be used to help deter-mine how hurricane winds interact with various types of com-munities, especially in urban settings. This remote sensingcapability is crucial for rapid data collection and analysis fordeveloping hurricane damage prediction models.

Computational Simulation

Hurricanes involve strong interactions of fluid flow (highwinds and rain) and structures (homes and businesses) thatlead to water infiltration into structures and their subse-

quent weakening and disintegration due to unsteady windloads. Hurricanes also involve interaction between highspeed flying debris and human structures. These events canbe simulated using continuum models such as finite-elementand finite-volume methods. Computer simulations will com-plement the full-scale testing, providing the modeling param-eters as well as calibration and verification of numerical mod-els.

Simulations of complex events involving multiple disci-plines such as fluid flow and stress deformation and frag-mentation are becoming indispensable in industry because ofthe enormous reduction in time and costs in analyzing anddesigning new products. For example, a highly successfulpassenger airplane, Boeing 767, was designed using comput-er simulation and considerable knowledge from flight testingof similar jet aircraft. The same type of highly sophisticatedcomputer simulation software is being used with increasedfrequency in the automobile industry and many other typesof consumer industry. FIU’s Multidisciplinary Analysis, In-verse Design and Robust Optimization Center (MAIDROC)provides an independent, secure, and up-to-date computingenvironment for large-scale simulation.

Product Testing and R&D Laboratory

IHRC plans include construction of a product testing lab-oratory. This laboratory will facilitate full-scale testing ofbuilding components as integral parts of the entire buildingstructure. The laboratory will be equipped to perform missileimpact tests, cyclic fatigue load tests, and water penetrationtests per current testing standards. This laboratory will beunique in the nation and indeed the world, being the onlyfacility where hurricane-force wind and rain effects will besimulated and products tested as part of the actual structure.The IHRC is already testing different hurricane damage mit-igation products using the WoW. Figure 7 shows a compar-ative testing between the common ‘‘blue tarp’’ covering vs. a



Figure 8. Outcomes for WoW in hurricane damage mitigation.

new ‘‘peel and seal’’ product for patching damaged portionsof roof after a hurricane event to inhibit further degradationand water infiltration.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Catastrophic loss due to hurricanes is the largest and mostpervasive risk faced by the United States. Historically, al-most half of the national wind damage has occurred in Flor-ida, which now has $1.5 trillion in existing structures exposedto potential hurricane devastation. With approximately 85%of the rapidly increasing population situated on or near its1931 km of coastline, and with no point farther than 105 kmfrom the coast, Florida losses will continue to mount in pro-portion to state population density. The devastation broughtby the severely damaging hurricanes of 2004 and 2005 dem-onstrates the need for mitigation tools that can significantlyreduce losses. Indeed, the economic viability of the state ofFlorida and many other Atlantic and Gulf Coast states de-pend upon hurricane mitigation. The first major objective isto operate a full-scale facility dedicated to wind damage mit-igation—the WoW testing facility. This research will alter thepublic perception and understanding of survivability duringa hurricane, similar to the life-changing effect the InsuranceInstitute for Highway Safety (IIHS) had on the automobileindustry and consumers through crashing testing of cars. Inspecific, we will conduct the following research (Figure 8):

● Improved building codes and standards. Florida will be-come the leader in innovative technologies to significantlylower the damage from landfalling hurricanes. The WoWwill provide the state of Florida and the nation with amuch-needed, unique testing facility to perform researchand development as well as commercial work on mitigationtechnology.

● Product development. Advanced techniques and cutting-edge solutions to mitigate hurricane damage will lead tohurricane-resistant product development.

● Retrofitting of existing housing stock. Advanced research onhurricane-resistant materials will stimulate developmentof new composites and procedures for reinforcing existingstructures.

● University curriculum. The facility will serve as a labora-tory for engineering coursework. Students will learn howto operate WoW apparatus, roof pressure vacuum cham-ber, small and large missile air cannons, and a three-di-mensional reaction frame. Students will gain experience

with both model simulations and actual field testing. TheIHRC is the only center in Florida with this type of equip-ment, expertise, and experience.

● Training. Licensing is required for professionals who de-sign, build, or inspect residential construction. Continuingeducation courses will be developed in cooperation with theFIU Construction Management Department to facilitatethe annual-biennial license exams for Professional Engi-neering (PE) and Architect Registration (AIA).

● Community outreach. Polls conducted after the 2004 hur-ricane season—which was the most devastating on recordfor Florida—found that more than half of homeowners stillmistakenly believe that masking tape helps prevent win-dows from shattering. It is disheartening that the lessonslearned from recent hurricane catastrophes have notchanged public perception. The International HurricaneResearch Center will work in collaboration with educationand outreach organizations such as the Institute for Busi-ness & Home Safety, Federal Alliance for Safe Homes, andDisaster Survival House to ensure research findings reachthe general public.

● Insurance. Available and affordable insurance dependsupon developing a ‘‘culture of preparedness’’ and betterbuilding practices, materials, and products.

The time has come to conduct full-scale destructive testingof houses and low-rise commercial buildings. The two-fanWoW has provided proof-of-concept, and we are presentlyconstructing the six-fan RenaissanceRe WoW in a dedicatedbuilding on the FIU Engineering campus that will be opera-tional by summer 2007. We invite wind engineers and trop-ical meteorologists from academia, government, and the pri-vate sector to work with us as we develop the National Wallof Wind Facility.

LITERATURE CITED

INEEL (Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laborato-ry), 1998. Overview of INEEL. Presentation before the committee,December 7, 1998, Washington, D.C.

LEATHERMAN, S.P., 2006. The WoW factor and hurricane damagemitigation. Catastrophe Risk Management, December 2006, 24–25.

LEATHERMAN, S.P., and ZHANG, K., 2002. Hurricane impact map-ping. Proceedings of Solutions to Coastal Disasters. (ASCE, SanDiego, California), pp. 576–581.

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 1999. Meeting research and ed-ucation needs in coastal engineering. National Academy Press, 11.

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, 1999. Review of the Need for aLarge-Scale Test Facility for Research on the Effects of ExtremeWinds on Structures. Washington, DC: National Academy Press,pp. 1–40.

NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARD, 2006. Hurricane Warning: The CriticalNeed for a National Hurricane Research Initiative. Draft Reportfor Public Comment, NSB-06-104.

PHILIPS, W.G., 1999. Preparing for disasters. Popular Science,254(1), 39.

POWELL, M.; SOUKUP, G.; COCKE, S.; GULATI, S.; MORISSEAU-LEROY, N.; HAMID, S.; DORST, N., and AXE, L., 2005. State ofFlorida hurricane loss projection model: atmospheric science com-ponent. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynam-ics, 93, 651–674.

WHITMAN, D.; ZHANG, K.; LEATHERMAN, S.P., and ROBERTSON, W.2003. An airborne laser topographic mapping application to hur-ricane storm surge hazard. Earth Science in the Cities, pp, 363–376.

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