wilson - neuroandragogy

7/27/2019 WILSON - Neuroandragogy

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Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, Community and Extension Education,

Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO, September 21-23, 2011

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Neuroandragogy: Making the Case for a Link with

Andragogy and Brain- Based Learning

Clive Wilson

Research in neuroscience which informs us about the brains functions is a fascinatingstudy. The brain-based knowledge we have today has been acquired over the past 200years. Between the 1950s and the 1980s brain imaging technology immerged as a toolto understand the brain. In the early 1990s efforts were first made to link the researchwith education. This connection regarding the neurophysiology of learning to childhoodeducation was dubbed, brain-based education. However, in spite of the brilliantaccomplishments of some researchers there remains a gulf between the neurosciences andadult education. In this paper a discussion on Neuroandragogy as a bridge for thisexisting gap is explored. To begin with research in the neurosciences found to beapplicable to adult learning and memory is discussed. Then an outline of the implications

to theory and practice is presented. The need for a paradigm shift in adult education is thefocus of the paper, arguing that current research in the neurosciences does provideadequate means to maximize the use of brain based principles for better teaching practice.Limitations and recommendations for further studies are included in the conclusion.

Introduction

As technology advances so too does the knowledge of brain-based learning: Which is anew paradigm with tremendous implications for education practice. Regretfully very littleinterest has been given to andragogy regarding such concerns. What are the most recent findings,and can andragogy also benefit from this growing scientific knowledge regarding the brain and

learning? This paper attempts to answer these questions, by first examining the research in thefield that best translates to adult learning and second, by investigating the implications of thisresearch to the theory and practice of adult education. Limitations and recommendations arepresented for the purpose of future research.

Discussion

Shortly after the brain awareness initiative in the 1990s enthusiastic educators sought tomake relevant connections with the research and classroom practice in spite of rigorous criticism.The critics said that educators had crossed a bridge too far and that the concept of brain-basedlearning was oversold (Bruer, 1997). Researchers were told they were wasting their time and

that they were making a huge mistake in trying to develop a curriculum that is brain-based.However the harsh criticism did not stop a growing number of educators who strongly believedthat education was long overdue for a paradigm shift. In 2005 the US National ScienceFoundation decided to join the fight to span the great divide between neuroscience and education,by granting four large research teams, which incorporate cognitive neuroscientists, psychologists,computer scientists and educators, over $90 million. Some believe this will put the way childrenare taught on a sounder scientific footing, devising practical teaching methods that complementthe brains natural development (Gura, 2005).


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Brain-based learning: A new paradigm

Research in neuroscience is confirming what many teachers have been saying aboutlearning theories for decades. In the last 20 years significant findings have emerged about howlearning occurs. With the help of brain imaging, researchers have been able to see the brain at

work, thus providing information most valuable to those working with the human brain; such aseducators, scientists, psychologist and medical doctors. It is this advance in technology and gainin knowledge that has led to the development of brain-based learning, a new paradigm that holdsa wealth of information for teachers and students alike (Cercone, 2006).

The main interest of brain-based learning is discovering how the brain was designed tolearn in its natural form. It is biologically driven and open to change, so too are some of theconclusions to brain-based learning. They are not definitive and open to change. The brain-basedlearning concept is not necessarily framed for all learning adventures, as it places its attentionmainly on class-room learning and best teaching practices. It observes the anatomy andphysiology of the brain, the chemistry, the structure and its connections to the body. Proponentsof this field believe that to understand how the brain learns we must first understand its anatomy

and physiology (Cercone, 2006; Wilson, 2006). Of special interest to brain-based learning arestudies in neurophysiology, neurodevelopment, neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. The followingis a close examination of these areas.

Neurophysiology and the adult brain. Once it was believed (Roger Sperry 1913-1994)that the brain developed connections independent of activity or experience programmed by a setof recognition molecules, one on the presynaptic neuron and the other on the postsynaptic neuronof the synapse. As it turns out this is true for path selection and target region selection such as theoptic nerve choosing the right path. But now an additional stage has been found known ascellular selection. Here each presynaptic axon is matched to a specific postsynaptic target neuronthrough activity-dependent mechanisms. These connections are flexible; they can be modified byfurther activity throughout the adult life. This illustrates a temporal continuity between adultdevelopment and the learning process. In the adult brain significant synaptic connectionsundergo an associative increase in synaptic strength; this is known as LTP, long-termpotentiation. A high-frequency train of action potentials produced in a small population ofneurons creates LTP. This can last for hours, days, or weeks. Neuroscientists hold that this brainactivity is very important for some types of learning to occur. This discovery disproves a longheld belief in science that as we age the brain becomes rigid (Kandel and ODell, 1992 andOkano et al., 2000).

Neurodevelopment and the adult brain.Neuroscientists are finding dynamic flexibilityin the brain even as we age. New neural connections will grow as a result of stimulation eveninto old age. In addition to the brain adding new circuits pruning has been observed. Thisremoves any connections that are no longer needed. Because these new connections aretemporary they must be put to use if they are going to last. Newly formed synapses are weak andrequire immediate activity to last. If there is no action the axon will retreat or degenerate, causingthe neuron to start over with a new budding. The brain must put to work any new connectionsmade or it stands the chance of losing it, the more it is used however the more secure it becomes(Cercone, 2006). Thus the sayings coined by Canadian psychologist D.O. Hebb (1949) use it orlose it.

Neuroplasticity and the adult brain. Hebb (1949) is also known for holding the besttheory of neuroplasticity. He argued that the brains ability to change by learning new


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information happens because of changes that occur at the level of the nerve cells. Thisremodeling of the brain is achieved by changing of connections at the level of the synapse. Ifseveral nerve cells receive a stimulus at the same time they will fire and produce action potential.They then begin to share more and more synaptic connections. Another way to look atneuroplasticity according to Howard is that it is the capacity of the brain to learn, remember,

reorganize, and recover from damage (2000, p.779).Neurogenesis and the adult brain. Current research is also showing that an enrichedenvironment is crucial to the learning brain. Hill says, for the duration of the life span the braincontinues to change and reorganize in response to environmental stimulation (2001, p.75). Thebrains activity is controlled by genetics, development, experience, culture, environment, andemotions. This is constantly stimulating the brain to change. Also the environment is soimportant to the operation of the brain that it determines to a large degree its functional ability(Cercone, 2006). Empirical tests on adult mice given enriched living conditions show that theygrew sixty percent more new neurons and performed better on learning tests. These same resultsare now being reported for educated adults fifty to seventy years old. This new growth is foundin the hippocampus and olfactory bulb regions, two key areas to learning and memory (Wilson,

2006). We now know that for maximum growth our brains must have enriched environments.The synaptic usage relies on environmental stimulation

Neuroandragogy

Linking the above scientific data, regarding the adult brain and its cognitive functions,with theory and practice in adult education also leads to the development of a new paradigm.Neuroandragogy moves the practitioner from the analytical to the synthetic, as it makes practicallinks with theory, scientific facts and good practice.Implications for theory formation

The theory of adult learning must be revisited as many existing theories are based oncontrolled tests on animals and children. Most of the conclusions make no distinction betweenchildren and adults. The science used in the past to substantiate our learning theories has beenbased mainly on psychology and philosophy, very little if any neuroscience. Brookfield oncesaid it is still not clear how adults learn. He was responding no doubt to the fact that currentlearning theories did not address all aspects of how adults learn. Now we are privileged tosurmountable evidence of the difference in learning between children and adults and to thebiological processes of adult learning practices. The physical and neurological changes thatoccur as we age will affect how we learn (Cercone, 2008).

It is important for research and learning that an age of demarcation be recognizedbetween childhood development and the beginning of adulthood. Bloom et al., (2003) in keepingwith research in the neurosciences has placed this development in three stages, the wiring thattakes place during the years childhood, the frontal lobe development which occur duringadolescence, and finally when the brain is ready for more plasticity. It is at this stage adulteducation begins with life lessons, the forming of new habits, adjusting to new situations, andlearning new ways. Most researchers see this change beginning for some as early as age 20.Pseudo-stupidity, irrational decision making, emotional outburst, and compulsive behaviorbecomes less as the frontal lobes become more fully militated. Carter (1999) also reminds us thatthe older we get the more distinctive we are resulting from the development of our mentallandscape. Making us understand and learn things in a different way. Thus adults often show


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frustration in subjects they do not readily understand, or have no interest in, because they cannotmake connections with their life experiences.

In the past the literature on adults has presented aging as debilitating. Thisdecrementalistic view held by some in the field of psychology and psychometrics has givenadults very little hope for future development. Research in the neurosciences is restoring this

hope. New theories of brain plasticity see adult hood as positive and with the potential forcontinual change and growth. Now that we know new cell growth is possible into old age wemust define adult intelligence according to brain plasticity and not brain stability or rigidity.Kline (1998) and Baltes (1999) along with other researchers call for a paradigm shift in theapproach of measuring adult intelligence, and state that we must seek to find the latent reservesand plasticity of aging: Exchanging psychological measurements of intelligence for biologicalones. Finally adults must be encouraged that because of brain plasticity memory can beimproved and the intelligence score changed through intervention (Salthouse, 1998).

Implications for teaching practice

Adult education should no longer just be for the socioeconomic benefits but also for

better brain health. With access to information regarding neural development, teachers of adultscan now change the landscape of the adult brain in more ways than one: They can help toincrease brain cells, and reserve. An enriched education environment that involves teaching withnovelty, teaching with controversy and in conflict to myths and standard beliefs, employsmeaningful activities or practices that include the use of all five senses. Curriculums must becreated to encourage complexity, novelty, and creativity. Students interest, experience andexpertise should be taken into consideration (Wilson, 2006).

Hebbs (1949) theory of plasticity must be incorporated in the teaching plan. Adultsshould be encouraged to use the new information gained as early as possible to maintain the newcell growth gained through the learning process. This new learning must be transferred intoeveryday life for memory to remain. Long term memory relies on the survival of the newlyformed cells. New cells die in a matter of weeks if not used. It is the learning activity that keepsthe cells alive. Learning a new language, or music is a good example to demonstrate how newmemories are kept or lost. Without application or use new lessons learned are quickly lostbecause of the pruning of the unused new cells (Hyland, 2003).

High frequency activities in the lesson plan increases brain reserve as the brain does bestwhen challenged. Some researchers are now saying that more education increases brain health,meaning intellectual abilities increase and brain reserve gets greater. However the process ofdeveloping brain reserve is lifelong. While high frequency activities strengthen the synapse lowfrequency does the complete opposite by weakening the synapse. Low frequency activities mustbe avoided at all costs. (Wilson, 2006).

It is important that adults understand how their brains learn. Myths of learning must beunlearned. Adults can be encouraged into new learning and challenged with new brainpossibilities. On the other hand teachers should depart from the decrementalistic views ofinevitable decline and give hope to students by showing them how they can compensate forlosses. This includes teaching students how to learn and the art of memorizing.


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Conclusion

Even Bruer who once criticized linking the two now believes that a link could lead toadvances. However he still cautions against over enthusiasm (Gura, 2005). The strongestcriticism at this time remains the fact that we still do have a full picture of the brains ability and

function. So to design education policies, theories and teaching techniques on the little we doknow is ludicrous. However in spite of limitations faced by the linking process, research andapplication must continue. Future empirical studies should include new brain-based approachesincluding adult brain imaging. Since new learning changes the brain modifying neural networksthe potential for good brain health through education is huge.

References

Baltes, P. B. and Mayer, K. U. (Ed.). (1999). The Berlin aging study. Aging from 70 to 100.Berlin, Germany: Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences.

Bloom, F. E. Beal, F. and Kupfer, D. (2003). The DNA guide to brain health. New York: DANA

Press.Bruer, J. T. (1999). In search of Brain-based education.Phi Delta Kappa: 649-657.Carter, R. (1998).Mapping the mind. Berkeley: University of California Press.Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design.

AAACE Journal. 16(2). 137-159.Cercone, K. (2006). Brain Based Learning. In E. K. Sorensen and D. O. Murchu,Enhancing

Learning Through Technology. Idea Group, Inc.Gura, T. (2005).Big plans for little brains. Nature. 435, 1156-1158. Proquest Medical Library.

Retrived July 2011, www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7046/full/4351156a.htmlHebb, D. O. (1994). The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. New York:

John Wiley and Sons.Hill, L H. (2001) The brain and consciousness: Sources of information for understanding adult

learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, n89 p73-81www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch

Howard, P. J. (2000). The owners manual for the brain, (2nd ed.). Austin: Bard Press.Hyland, K. P. (2001).New neurons in brain shown to help form new memories. UniSci-Daily

University Science News.Kandel, E. R. and ODell, T. (1992).Are adult learning mechanisms also used for development?

Science. 258, 5080, 243-245. Proquest Medical Library.Kline, P. (1998). The new psychometrics. London: Routledge.Wilson, C. A. (2006).No one is too old to learn: Neuroandragogy: A theoretical perspective on

adult brain functions and adult learning. New York: iUniverse, Inc.

Clive A. Wilson, Department of Social Sciences, Finger Lake Community College, Canandaigua,NY 14424, USA., E-mail: [email protected] thanks go to M. Graham, M. Nash, Y. Capozzi and my wife, Dureen for their valuableinput and assistance with the editing of this work.

Presented at the Midwest Research-to Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and CommunityEducation, Lindenwood University, St. Louis, MO, September 21-23, 2011.

wilson - neuroandragogy

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