XenophonThis article is about the ancient Greek writer Xenophon.For other people named Xenophon, see Xenophon(disambiguation).Xenophon (/znfn, -fn/; Greek: [ksenop n], Xenophn; c. 430354BC), sonofGryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, also known asXenophonofAthens,was a Greek historian,soldier,mercenary,[1] and student of Socrates. While not referredto as a philosopher by his contemporaries, his status assuch is now a topic of debate. He is known for writingabout the history of his own times, the late 5th and early4th centuries BC, especially for his account of the nalyears of the Peloponnesian War. His Hellenica, whichrecounts these times, is considered to be the continuationof ThucydidesHistory of the Peloponnesian War. Hisyouthful participation in the failed campaign of Cyrusthe Younger to claim the Persian throne inspired him towrite his most famous work, Anabasis.Despite his birth-association with Athens, Xenophon af-liated himself with Sparta for most of his life. Hispro-oligarchic views, service under Spartan generals inthe Persian campaign and beyond, as well as his friend-ship with King Agesilaus II endeared Xenophon to theSpartans, and them to him. A number of his writingsdisplay his pro-Spartan bias and admiration, especiallyAgesilaus and Constitution of Sparta. Other than Plato,Xenophon is the foremost authority on Socrates, havinglearned under the great philosopher while a young man.He greatly admired his teacher, and well after Socratesdeath in 399 Xenophon wrote several Socratic dialogues,including an Apology concerning the events of his trialand death. Xenophons works cover a wide range of gen-res and are written in very uncomplicated Attic Greek.Xenophons works are among the rst that many studentsof Ancient Greek translate on account of the straightfor-ward and succinct nature of his prose. This sentimentwas apparent even in ancient times, as Diogenes Laer-tius states in his Lives of Eminent Philosophers (2.6) thatXenophon was sometimes known as the Attic Muse forthe sweetness of his diction.1 Life1.1 Early yearsLittle is known about Xenophon other than what he wroteabout himself. Xenophon was born around 430 BC nearthe city of Athens to a wealthy equestrian family.[2] Theyears of his youth are not well attested before 401 BC.It was in this year that Xenophon was convinced by hisBoeotian friend Proxenus (Anabasis 3.1.9) to participatein the expedition led by Cyrus the Younger against hisolder brother, King Artaxerxes II of Persia.1.2 Anabasis1.2.1 Expedition with CyrusWritten years after these events, Xenophons bookAnabasis (Greek: , literally going up)[3] ishis recordof theentireexpeditionof Cyrus againstthe Persians and the Greek mercenaries journey home.Xenophon writes that he had asked the veteran Socratesfor advice on whether to go with Cyrus, and thatSocrates referred him to the divinely inspired Delphic or-acle. Xenophons query to the oracle, however, was notwhether or not to accept Cyrus invitation, but to whichof the gods he must pray and do sacrice, so that he mightbest accomplish his intended journey and return in safety,with good fortune. The oracle answered his questionand told him to which gods to pray and sacrice. WhenXenophon returned to Athens and told Socrates of the or-acles advice, Socrates chastised him for asking so disin-genuous a question (Anabasis 3.1.57).Under the pretext of ghting Tissaphernes, the Persiansatrap of Ionia, Cyrus assembled a massive army com-posed of native Persian soldiers, but also a large num-ber of Greeks. Prior to waging war against Artaxerxes,Cyrus proposed that the enemy was the Pisidians, and sothe Greeks were unaware that they were to battle againstthe larger army of King Artaxerxes II (Anabasis 1.1.811). At Tarsus the soldiers became aware of Cyrussplans to depose the king, and as a result, refused to con-tinue (Anabasis 1.3.1). However, Clearchus, a Spartangeneral, convinced the Greeks to continue with the ex-pedition. The army of Cyrus met the army of Artax-erxes II in the Battle of Cunaxa. Despite eective ghtingby the Greeks, Cyrus was killed in the battle (Anabasis1.8.271.9.1).Shortly thereafter, Clearchus was invitedto a peace conference, where, alongside four other gen-erals and many captains, he was betrayed and executed(Anabasis 2.5.3132).12 2 XENOPHONS POLITICSRoute of Xenophon and the Ten Thousand1.2.2 ReturnThe mercenaries, known as the Ten Thousand, foundthemselves without leadership far from the sea, deep inhostile territory near the heart of Mesopotamia. Theyelected new leaders,including Xenophon himself,andfought their way north along the Tigris through hostilePersians and Medes to Trapezus on the coast of the BlackSea (Anabasis 4.8.22). They then made their way west-ward back to Greece via Chrysopolis (Anabasis 6.3.16).Once there, they helped Seuthes II make himself king ofThrace, before being recruited into the army of the Spar-tan general Thibron. The Spartans were at war with Tis-saphernes and Pharnabazus, Persian satraps in Anatolia,probably on account of the aforementioned treacherousslaughter of their general Clearchus. Xenophons mili-tary activity with these Spartans marks the nal episodesof the Anabasis (Books 67).1.3 Exile and deathUpon his return to Greece proper, Xenophon continuedto associate with the Spartans, even so far as to ght un-der the Spartan king Agesilaus II against his native Athensat Coronea in 394 BC.[4] On account of this he was ex-iled from Athens. However, there may have been con-tributory causes, such as his support for Socrates, as wellas the fact that he had taken service with the Persians.[5]The Spartans gave him property at Scillus, near Olympiain Elis, where he likely composed the Anabasis.[6] How-ever, because his son Gryllus fought and died for Athensat the Battle of Mantinea while Xenophon was still alive,Xenophons banishment may have been revoked. Never-theless, after the Battle of Leuktra in 371 and the endof Spartan hegemony, Xenophon moved to Corinth orAthens where he died. He died around 355 BCE, butthe exact date is uncertain;[7] historians know only thathe survived his patron Agesilaus II, for whom he wrotean encomium which shared the Spartan kings name.2 Xenophons politicsXenophon has long been associated with the oppositionof democracy. Although Xenophon seems to prefer oli-garchy, orat least thearistocracy, especiallyinlightof his associations with Sparta, none of his works ex-plicitly attack democracy, unless his account of demo-cratic proceedings in the Anabasis be interpreted as anti-democracy when deliberations are intimidated by cries ofpelt if a speaker says something others disagree with.Some scholars[8] go so far as to say his views aligned withthose of the democracy in his time. However, certainworks of Xenophon, in particular the Cyropaedia, ap-pear to display his pro-oligarchic politics. This historical-ction serves as a forum for Xenophon to subtly displayhis political inclinations.2.1 Cyropaedia2.1.1 Relations between Medes and Persians in theCyropaediaIt is generally recognized that the purpose of Xenophonin writing the Cyropaedia was to present his political andmoral philosophy. To this end, he chose a historicalgure, Cyrus, and endowed him with the qualities thatXenophon thought should be possessed by an ideal ruler.The question may be asked whether it was not just the g-ure of Cyrus, but also signicant historical events in hislife, that formed the framework for Xenophons portrait.The contemporary consensus answers this in the negative,choosing to follow instead the outline of Cyruss careeras given in the Histories of Herodotus. But Steven Hirschwrites, Yet there are occasions when it can be conrmedfrom Oriental evidence that Xenophon is correct whereHerodotus is wrong or lacks information. A case in pointinvolves the ancestry of Cyrus.[9] Herodotus contradictsXenophon at several other points,most notably in thematter of Cyruss relationship with the Median King-dom. Herodotus says that Cyrus led a rebellion againsthis maternal grandfather, Astyages king of Media, anddefeated him, thereafter (improbably) keeping Astyagesin his court for the remainder of his life (Histories 1.130).The Medes were thus reduced to subjection (1.130) andbecame slaves (1.129) to the Persians 20 years beforethe capture of Babylon in 539 B.C.TheCyropaedia relates instead that Astyages died andwas succeeded by his son Cyaxares II, the maternal un-cle of Cyrus (1.5.2). In the initialcampaign againstthe Lydians, Babylonians and their allies, the Medianswere led by Cyaxares and the Persians by Cyrus, whowas crown prince of the Persians, since his father wasstill alive (4.5.17). Xenophon relates that at this timethe Medes were the strongest of the kingdoms that op-posedtheBabylonians(1.5.2). Thereisanechoofthis statement, verifyingXenophonandcontradictingHerodotus, in the Harran Stele, a document from the2.1 Cyropaedia 3court of Nabonidus.[10] In the entry for year 14 or 15 ofhis reign (542-540 B.C.), Nabonidus speaks of his ene-mies as the kings of Egypt, the Medes, and the Arabs.There is no mention of the Persians, although accordingto Herodotus and the current consensus the Medians hadbeen made slaves of the Persians several years previ-ously. It does not seem that Nabonidus would be com-pletely misled about who his enemies were, or who wasreally in control over the Medes and Persians just one tothree years before his kingdom fell to their armies.Other archaeological evidencesupportingXenophonspicture of a confederation of Medes and Persians, ratherthan a subjugation of the Medes by the Persians, comesfrom the bas-reliefs in the stairway at Persepolis.Theseshow no distinction in ocialrank or status betweenthe Persian and Median nobility. Although Olmsteadfollowed the consensus view that Cyrus subjugated theMedes, heneverthelesswrote, Medeswerehonoredequally with Persians; they were employed in high oceand were chosen to lead Persian armies.[11] A more ex-tensive list of considerations related to the credibility ofthe Cyropaedias picture of the relationship between theMedes and Persians is found on the Cyropaedia page.Both Herodotus (1.123,214) and Xenophon (1.5.1,2,4,8.5.20) present Cyrus as about 40 years old when hisforces captured Babylon. In the Nabonidus Chronicle,there is mention of the death of the wife of the king(name not given) within a month after the capture ofBabylon.[12] It has been conjectured that this was Cyrussrstwife, which lends credibility to theCyropaediasstatement (8.5.19) that Cyaxares II gave his daughter inmarriage to Cyrus soon (but not immediately) after thefall of the city, with the kingdom of Media as her dowry.When Cyaxares died about two years later the Mediankingdom passed peaceably to Cyrus, so that this wouldbe the true beginning of the Medo-Persian Empire underjust one monarch.2.1.2 Persians as centaursThe Cyropaedia as a whole lavishes a great deal of praiseon the rst Persian emperor Cyrus the Great on accountof his virtue and leadership quality, and it was through hisgreatness that the Persian Empire held together. Thus thisbook is normally read as a positive treatise about Cyrus.However, following the lead of Leo Strauss, David John-son suggests that there is a subtle but strong layer to thebook in which Xenophon conveys criticism of not onlythe Persians but the Spartans and Athenians as well.[13]In section 4.3 of the Cyropaedia Cyrus makes clear hisdesire to institute cavalry. He even goes so far to say thathe desires that no Persian kalokagathos (noble and goodman literally, or simply noble) ever be seen on footbut always on a horse, so much so that the Persians mayactually seem to be centaurs (4.3.2223). Centaurs wereoften thought of as creatures of ill repute, which makeseven Cyrus own advisors wary of the label. His min-ister Chrysantas admires the centaurs for their dual na-ture, but also warns that the dual nature does not allowcentaurs to fully enjoy or act as either one of their as-pects in full (4.3.1920). In labeling Persians as centaursthrough the mouth of Cyrus, Xenophon plays upon thepopular post-Persian-war propagandistic paradigm of us-ing mythological imagery to represent the Greco-Persianconict. Examples of this include the wedding of theLapiths, giantomachy, Trojan War, and Amazonomachyon the Parthenon frieze. Johnson reads even more deeplyinto the centaur label. He believes that the unstable di-chotomy of man and horse found in a centaur is indica-tive of the unstable and unnaturalalliance of Persianand Mede formulated by Cyrus.[14] The Persian hardinessand austerity is combined with the luxuriousness of theMedes, two qualities that cannot coexist. He cites the re-gression of the Persians directly after the death of Cyrusas a result of this instability, a union made possible onlythrough the impeccable character of Cyrus.[15] In a fur-ther analysis of the centaur model, Cyrus is likened to acentaur such as Chiron, a noble example from an ignoblerace. Thus this entire paradigm seems to be a jab at thePersians and an indication of Xenophons general distastefor the Persians.2.1.3 Against empire/monarchyThe strength of Cyrus in holding the empire together ispraiseworthy according to Xenophon. However, the em-pire began to decline upon the death of Cyrus. By thisexample Xenophon sought to show that empires lackedstability and could only be maintained by a person of re-markable prowess, such as Cyrus.[16] Cyrus is idealizedgreatly in the narrative. Xenophon displays Cyrus as acold, passionless man. This is not to say that he was nota good ruler, but he is depicted as surreal and not subjectto the foibles of other men. By showing that only some-one who is almost beyond human could conduct such anenterprise as empire, Xenophon indirectly censures im-perial design. Thus he also reects on the state of hisown reality in an even more indirect fashion, using theexample of the Persians to decry the attempts at empiremade by Athens and Sparta.[17] Although partially gracedwith hindsight, having written the Cyropaedia after thedownfall of Athens in the Peloponnesian War, this workcriticizes the Greek attempts at empire and monarchy,dooming them to failure.2.1.4 Against democracyAnother passage that Johnson cites as criticismof monar-chy and empire concerns the devaluation of the homoti-moi. The manner in which this occurs seems also to bea subtle yet poignant jab at democracy. Homotimoi werehighly and thoroughly educated and thus became the coreof the soldiery as heavy infantry. As the name homo-timoi (equal, or same honors i.e. peers) suggests,4 3 SOCRATIC WORKS AND DIALOGUEStheir small band (1000 when Cyrus fought the Assyrians)shared equally in the spoils of war.[18] However, in theface of overwhelming numbers in a campaign againstthe Assyrians, Cyrus armed the commoners with similararms instead of their normal light ranged armament (Cy-ropaedia 2.1.9). Argument ensued as to how the spoilswould now be split, and Cyrus enforced a meritocracy.Many homotimoi found this unfair because their militarytraining was no better than the commoners, only their ed-ucation, and hand-to-hand combat was less a matter ofskill than strength and bravery.As Johnson asserts, thispassage decries imperial meritocracy and corruption, forthe homotimoi now had to sychophantize to the emperorfor positions and honors;[19] from this point they were re-ferred to as entimoi, no longer of the same honors buthaving to be in to get the honor. On the other hand, thepassage seems to be critical of democracy, or at least sym-pathetic to aristocrats within democracy, for the homo-timoi (aristocracy/oligarchs) are devalued upon the em-powerment of the commoners (demos). Although empireemerges in this case, this is also a sequence of events as-sociated with democracy. Through his dual critique ofempire and democracy, Xenophon subtly relates his sup-port of oligarchy.2.2 Constitution of the SpartansThe Spartans wrote nothing about themselves, or if theydid it is lost. Therefore, what we know about themcomesexclusivelyfromoutsiders, suchasXenophon.Xenophons anity for the Spartans is clear intheConstitution of the Spartans, as well as his penchant foroligarchy. The opening line reads:It occurred to me one day that Sparta, though among themost thinly populated of states, was evidently the mostpowerful and most celebrated city in Greece; and I fellto wondering how this could have happened. But whenI considered the institutions of the Spartans, I wonderedno longer. Xenophon goes on to describe in detail themain aspects of the Lacedaemonian state, handing to usthe most comprehensive extant analysis of the institutionsof Sparta.2.3 Old OligarchA short treatise on the Constitution of Athens exists thatwas once thought to be by Xenophon, but which was prob-ably written when Xenophon was about ve years old.The author, often called in English the "Old Oligarch"or Pseudo-Xenophon, detests the democracy of Athensand the poorer classes, but he argues that the Pericleaninstitutions are well designed for their deplorable pur-poses. Although the real Xenophon seems to prefer oli-garchy over democracy, none of his works so ardently de-cry democracy as does the Constitution of the Athenians.However, this treatise makes evident that anti-democraticsentiments were extant in Athens in the late 5th centuryB.C. and were only increased after its shortcomings wereexploited and made apparent during the PeloponnesianWar.3 Socratic works and dialoguesXenophons variegated corpus includes a signicant se-lection of Socratic dialogues. His completely pre-servedSocraticwritings, alongwiththedialoguesofPlato, are the only surviving representatives of thegenre of Sokratikoi logoi(Socratic dialogues). Theseworks include his Apology, Memorabilia, Symposium, andOeconomicus. The Symposium outlines the character ofSocrates as he and his companions discuss what attributethey take pride in. InOeconomicus Socrates explainshow to manage the household well. Both theApologyand Memorabilia serve to defend Socrates character andteachings. The former is set during the trial of Socrates,essentially defending Socrates loss and death, while thelatter as a general defense of Socrates, explaining hismoral principles and that he was not a corrupter of theyouth.3.1 Relationship with SocratesXenophon was a student of Socrates, and their personalrelationship is evident through a direct conversation be-tween the two in Xenophons Anabasis. His admirationfor his teacher is clear in writings such asSymposium,Apology, and Memorabilia. Xenophon was o on his Per-sian campaign when Socrates died, so he was not presentfor the trial of his old master. Nevertheless, much of hisSocratic writing, especially Apology, concerns that verytrial and the defense Socrates put forward. In his Livesof Eminent Philosophers, the Greek biographer DiogenesLaertius reports how Xenophon came to be associatedwith Socrates. They say that Socrates met him in a nar-row lane, and put his stick across it and prevented himfrom passing by, asking him where all kinds of necessarythings were sold. And when he had answered him, heasked him again where men were made good and virtu-ous. And as he did not know, he said, Follow me, then,and learn. And from this time forth, Xenophon becamea follower of Socrates.[20]3.2 Socrates: Xenophon vs. PlatoBoth Plato and Xenophon wrote an Apology concerningthe death of Socrates. The two writers seem more con-cerned about answering questions that arose after the trialthan about the actual charges. In particular, Xenophonand Plato are concerned with the failures of Socratesto defend himself. The Socrates that Xenophon por-trayed was dierent from Platos in multiple respects.5Xenophon asserts that Socrates dealt with his prosecutionin an exceedingly arrogant manner, or at least was per-ceived to have spoken arrogantly.Conversely, while notomitting it completely, Plato worked to temper that ar-rogance in his own Apology. Xenophon framed Socratesdefense, which both men admit was not prepared at all,not as failure to eectively argue his side, but as striv-ing for death even in the light of unconvincing charges.As Danzig interprets it, convincing the jury to condemnhim even on unconvincing charges would be a rhetori-cal challenge worthy of the great persuader.[21] Xenophonuses this interpretation as justication for Socrates arro-gant stance and conventional failure. By contrast, Platodoes not go so far as to claim that Socrates actually de-sired death, but seems to argue that Socrates was at-tempting to demonstrate a higher moralstandard andteach a lesson,although his defense failed by conven-tional standards. This places Socrates in a higher moralposition than his prosecutors, a typical Platonic exampleof absolving Socrates from blame in every conceivableway.[22]3.3 Historical realityAlthough Xenophon claims to have been present at theSymposium, this is impossible as he was only a young boyat the date which he proposes it occurred. And again,Xenophon was not present at the trial of Socrates, havingbeen on campaign in Anatolia and Persia. Thus he putsinto the latters mouth what he would have thought him tosay. It seems that Xenophon wrote his Apology and Mem-orabilia as defenses of his former teacher, not to explainSocrates relationship to the actual charges incurred.[23]3.4 Modern receptionXenophons standing as a political philosopher has beendefended in recent times by Leo Strauss, who devotedaconsiderablepart ofhisphilosophicanalysistotheworksofXenophon, returningtothehighjudgmentofXenophonasathinker expressedbyShaftesbury,Winckelmann, Machiavelli and John Adams.Xenophons lessons on leadership have been reconsideredfor their modern-day value. Jennifer OFlannery holdsthat discussions of leadership and civic virtue should in-clude the work of Xenophon....on public education forpublic service.[24] The Cyropaedia, in outlining Cyrus asan ideal leader having mastered the qualities of educa-tion, equality, consensus, justice and service to state, isthe work that she suggests be used as a guide or examplefor those striving to be leaders (see Mirrors for Princes).The linking of moral code and education is an especiallypertinent quality subscribed to Cyrus that OFlannery be-lieves is in line with modern perceptions of leadership.[25]4 List of worksXenophons entire corpus is extant. The following listof his works exhibits the extensive breadth of genres inwhich Xenophon wrote.4.1 Historical and biographical worksAnabasis (also: The Persian Expeditionor TheMarch Up Country or The Expedition of Cyrus): Pro-vides an early life biography of Xenophon. Anaba-sis was used as a eld guide by Alexander the Greatduring the early phases of his expedition into Persia.Cyropaedia (also: The Education of Cyrus)Hellenica: His Hellenica is a major primary sourcefor events in Greece from411 to 362 BC, and is con-sidered to be the continuation of the History of thePeloponnesian War by Thucydides, going so far asto begin with the phrase Following these events....The Hellenica recounts the last seven years of thePeloponnesian war, as well as its aftermath.Agesilaus: The biography of Agesilaus II, king ofSparta and companion of Xenophon.Constitution of Sparta:Xenophons history and de-scription of the Spartan government and institutions.4.2 Socratic works and dialogues4.2.1 Defenses of SocratesMemorabilia: Collection of Socratic dialogues serv-ing as a defense of Socrates outside of court.Apology: Xenophons defense of Socrates in court.4.2.2 Other Socratic dialoguesOeconomicus: Socratic dialogue of a dierent sort,pertaining to household management.Symposium: Symposic literature in which Socratesand his companions discuss what they take pride inwith respect to themselves.4.2.3 MiscellaneousHiero: Dialogue of Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, withthe lyric poet Simonides, with the topic of conver-sation being happiness.6 6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING4.3 Short treatisesThese works were probably written by Xenophon when hewas living in Scillus. His days were likely spent in relativeleisure here, and he wrote these treatises about the sortsof activities he spent time on.On Horsemanship: Treatise on how to break, train,and care for horses.Hipparchikos: Outlines the duties of a cavalry o-cer.Hunting with Dogs: Treatise on the proper methodsof hunting with dogs and the advantages of hunting.Ways and Means: Describes howAthens should dealwith nancial and economic crisis.5 Citations[1] Mercenary#Classic era[2] Xenophon. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 21September 2009.[3] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus[4] Lee, John. 2005. Xenophons Anabasis and the Originsof Military Autobiography, in Alex Vernon, ed.,Armsand the Self: War, the Military, and Autobiographical Dis-course, pp. 4160, Kent: Kent State U Press.[5] Lee, John. 2005. Xenophons Anabasis and the Originsof Military Autobiography, in Alex Vernon, ed.,Armsand the Self: War, the Military, and Autobiographical Dis-course, pp. 4160, Kent: Kent State U Press.[6] Lee, John. 2005. Xenophons Anabasis and the Originsof Military Autobiography, in Alex Vernon, ed.,Armsand the Self: War, the Military, and Autobiographical Dis-course, pp. 4160, Kent: Kent State U Press.[7] Lee, John. 2005. Xenophons Anabasis and the Originsof Military Autobiography, in Alex Vernon, ed.,Armsand the Self: War, the Military, and Autobiographical Dis-course, pp. 4160, Kent: Kent State U Press.[8] Farrell, Christopher A. 2012. Laconismand Democracy:Re-reading the Lakedaimonin Politeia and Re-thinkingXenophon in Joanne Paul ed., Governing Diversities, pp.1035, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Pub-lishing.[9] Steven W.Hirsch, 1001 Iranian Nights: History andFiction in Xenophons Cyropaedia, in The Greek Histo-rians: Literature and History: Papers Presented to A. E.Raubitschek. Saratoga CA: ANMA Libr, 1985, p. 80.[10] Pritchard, ed., James B. (1969). Ancient NearEasternTexts Relating to the Old Testament (3rd ed.). Princeton:Princeton Univ. Press. pp. 56263.[11] Olmsted, A. T. (1948). History of the Persian Empire.Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. p. 37.[12] Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 306b.[13] Johnson, D. M. 2005. Persians as Centaurs inXenophons Cyropaedia. Transactions of the AmericanPhilological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177207.[14] Johnson, D. M. 2005. Persians as Centaurs inXenophons Cyropaedia. Transactions of the AmericanPhilological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177207.[15] Johnson, D. M. 2005. Persians as Centaurs inXenophons Cyropaedia. Transactions of the AmericanPhilological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177207.[16] Johnson, D. M. 2005. Persians as Centaurs inXenophons Cyropaedia. Transactions of the AmericanPhilological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177207.[17] Johnson, D. M. 2005. Persians as Centaurs inXenophons Cyropaedia. Transactions of the AmericanPhilological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177207[18] Johnson, D. M. 2005. Persians as Centaurs inXenophons Cyropaedia. Transactions of the AmericanPhilological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177207.[19] Johnson, D. M. 2005. Persians as Centaurs inXenophons Cyropaedia. Transactions of the AmericanPhilological Association. Vol 135, No. 1, pp. 177207.[20] Laertius, Diogenes. thegreatthinkers.org. GreatThinkers. Retrieved 6 October 2014.[21] Danzig, Gabriel. 2003. Apologizing for Socrates: Platoand Xenophon on Socrates Behavior in Court. Transac-tions of the American Philological Association. Vol. 133,No. 2, pp. 281321.[22] Danzig, Gabriel. 2003. Apologizing for Socrates: Platoand Xenophon on Socrates Behavior in Court. Transac-tions of the American Philological Association. Vol. 133,No. 2, pp. 281321.[23] Danzig, Gabriel. 2003. Apologizing for Socrates: Platoand Xenophon on Socrates Behavior in Court. Transac-tions of the American Philological Association. Vol. 133,No. 2, pp. 281321.[24] OFlannery, Jennifer. 2003. Xenophons (The Educa-tion of Cyrus) and Ideal Leadership Lessons for ModernPublic Administration. Public Administration Quarterly.Vol. 27, No. 1/2, pp. 4164.[25] OFlannery, Jennifer. 2003. Xenophons (The Educa-tion of Cyrus) and Ideal Leadership Lessons for ModernPublic Administration. Public Administration Quarterly.Vol. 27, No. 1/2, pp. 4164.6 References and further readingBradley, PatrickJ. Irony andthe Narrator inXenophons Anabasis, in Xenophon. Ed. VivienneJ. Gray. Oxford University Press, 2010 (ISBN 978-0-19-921618-5; ISBN 0-19-921618-5).7Anderson,J.K. Xenophon. London: Duckworth,2001 (paperback, ISBN 1-85399-619-X).Xnophonet Socrate: actesducolloqued'Aix-en-Provence(69novembre2003). Ed. par Narcy,Michel and Alonso Tordesillas. Paris: J. Vrin, 2008.322 p. Bibliothque d'histoire de la philosophie.Nouvelle srie, ISBN 978-2-7116-1987-0.Dillery, John. XenophonandtheHistoryofHisTimes. London; New York: Routledge, 1995 (hard-cover, ISBN 0-415-09139-X).Evans, R.L.S. Xenophon in The Dictionary of Lit-erary Biography: Greek Writers. Ed.Ward Briggs.Vol. 176, 1997.Gray, V.J.The Years 375 to371 BC:A CaseStudy in the Reliability of Diodorus Siculus andXenophon, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 2.(1980), pp. 306326.Higgins, William Edward. Xenophon the Athenian:TheProblemoftheIndividual andtheSocietyofthe Polis. Albany:State University of New YorkPress, 1977 (hardcover, ISBN 0-87395-369-X).Hirsch, Steven W. The Friendship of the Barbarians:Xenophon and the Persian Empire. Hanover; Lon-don: University Press of New England, 1985 (hard-cover, ISBN 0-87451-322-7).Hutchinson, Godfrey. XenophonandtheArt ofCommand.London: Greenhill Books, 2000 (hard-cover, ISBN 1-85367-417-6).The Long March: Xenophon and the Ten Thousand,edited by Robin Lane Fox. New Heaven, Connecti-cut; London: Yale University Press,2004 (hard-cover, ISBN 0-300-10403-0).Kierkegaard, Sren A.TheConcept ofIronywithContinual Reference to Socrates. Princeton: Prince-ton University Press, 1992 (ISBN 978-069-102072-3)Moles, J.L. XenophonandCallicratidas, TheJournal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 114. (1994), pp.7084.Nadon, Christopher. Xenophons Prince: Republicand Empire in the Cyropaedia. Berkeley; Los An-geles; London: University of California Press, 2001(hardcover, ISBN 0-520-22404-3).Nussbaum, G.B. The Ten Thousand: A Study in So-cial Organization and Action in Xenophons Anaba-sis. (Social and Economic Commentaries on Classi-cal Texts; 4). Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1967.Phillips, A.A & Willcock M.M. Xenophon & Ar-rian On Hunting With Hounds, contains Cynegeticusoriginal texts, translations & commentary. Warmin-ster: Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1999 (paperback ISBN0-85668-706-5).Rahn, Peter J. Xenophons Developing Historiog-raphy, Transactions and Proceedings of the Ameri-can Philological Association, Vol. 102. (1971), pp.497508.Rood, Tim. The Sea! The Sea!: The Shout of theTen Thousand in the Modern Imagination. London:Duckworth Publishing, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-7156-3308-2); Woodstock, New York; New York:The Overlook Press, (hardcover, ISBN 1-58567-664-0); 2006 (paperback, ISBN 1-58567-824-4).Strauss,Leo. XenophonsSocrates. Ithaca,NewYork; London: Cornell UniversityPress, 1972(hardcover, ISBN 0-8014-0712-5); South Bend, In-diana: St. AugustinesPress, 2004(paperback,ISBN 1-58731-966-7).Stronk, J.P. The TenThousandin Thrace: AnArchaeological and Historical Commentary onXenophons Anabasis, Books VI, iiivi VIII (Ams-terdam Classical Monographs; 2). Amsterdam: J.C.Gieben, 1995 (hardcover, ISBN 90-5063-396-X).Usher, S. Xenophon, Critias and Theramenes, TheJournal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 88. (1968), pp.128135.Watereld, Robin. Xenophons Retreat: Greece, Per-sia and the End of the Golden Age. Cambridge, Mas-sachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard Univer-sity Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-674-02356-0);London:Faber and Faber, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN978-0-571-22383-1).Xenophon, Cyropaedia, translated by Walter Miller.Harvard University Press, 1914, ISBN 978-0-674-99057-9, ISBN 0-674-99057-9 (Books 15) andISBN978-0-674-99058-6, ISBN0-674-99058-7(Books 58).7 External linksXenophon entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Phi-losophyGraham Olivers Xenophon HomepageXenophons Education of Cyrus (Cyropaedia) WebdirectoryFamous Quotes by XenophonSanders (1903) Ph D Thesis on The CynegeticusXenophon at Somni8 7 EXTERNAL LINKSOnline worksDiogenes Lartius, Life of Xenophon, translated byRobert Drew Hicks (1925).Links to English translations of Xenophons worksLeoStrauss Seminar Transcripts on Xenophon(1962,1966); and an audio recording of the en-tire course on Xenophons Oeconomicus (1969) areavailable for reading, listening or download.Works by Xenophon at Project GutenbergWorks by or about Xenophon at Internet ArchiveWorks by Xenophon at LibriVox (public domain au-diobooks)98 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses8.1 Text Xenophon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophon?oldid=675606169 Contributors: Magnus Manske, MichaelTinkler,Dreamyshade, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Andre Engels, Josh Grosse, Danny, Christian List, LapoLuchini, Fransvannes, Pamplemousse,Llywrch, Paul A, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Kricxjo, Stan Shebs, Susan Mason, Jniemenmaa, Cimon Avaro, John K, EALacey, Patrick0Moran,Grendelkhan, Jnc, AnonMoos, Banno, PBS, Texture, Jpbrenna, DocWatson42, WHEELER, Varlaam, Macrakis, Wmahan, RichM, Pi-otrus, Kuralyov, Pmanderson, Neutrality, Pitchka, Jayjg, Haiduc, Lectiodicilior, Rich Farmbrough, Hidaspal, MeltBanana, MaksymYe., TimBray, Paul August, Bender235, Aecis, Gilgamesh he, Wareh, Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Ruszewski, Ypacara, Infocidal, Rje, Alex-alderman,Obradovic Goran,MPerel,Crust,Chicago god,APPER, Polarscribe,Ricky81682,SlimVirgin,Ksnow,Binabik80,SidP,Garzo, Huerlisi, Sleigh, SteinbDJ, Dejvid, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Briangotts, Chochopk, Sdgjake, Stritz, Stancollins, JRHorse, Gra-ham87, FreplySpang, AllanBz, Jorunn, Koavf, Jweiss11, Mike s, Nandesuka, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Algri, Hibana, XkarlmagneX, Scim-itar, Soul assassin~enwiki, Jaraalbe, Damac, Bgwhite, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, RobotE, Splash, RJC, Stephenb, Kyorosuke, Wiki alf,Chooserr, Larsinio, Kermitmorningstar, Aldux, Misza13, Nlu, Slicing, Deville, Lt-wiki-bot, Andrew Lancaster, Th1rt3en, Barbatus, Cro-mag, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Kimon, Kth, Vald, Wegesrand, Jagged 85, AndreasJS, Eventer, Timeshifter, Wittylama, Alsandro,Srnec, Anthony Maki, Hmains, Durova, Enkyklios, Jprg1966, Thumperward, MalafayaBot, Colonies Chris, JohnWheater, Sumahoy, MPar-shall, Huon, Bigturtle, Nakon, EVula, Acentam, Dacxjo, RandomWalker, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, Yohan euan o4, Xenaphon, Xenophon ofEphesus, Euchiasmus, Peterlewis, 3210, MarkSutton, Rkmlai, AdultSwim, Dr.K., H, Isokrates, Hu12, Iridescent, RekishiEJ, Bifgis, John-nydc, Bertport, Albertod4, Tanthalas39, Bridesmill, Fumblebruschi, Dukeleto7, Smitdl00, Montanabw, Cydebot, Jackyd101, Andergri,Beefnut, Billyodell, Asiaticus, SpK, Thijs!bot, Wandalstouring, Epbr123, TonyTheTiger, Bobblehead, James086, Nick Number, RichardHawkins, AntiVandalBot, Chaleyer61, Seaphoto, Dr. Blofeld, D. 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