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Materi Kuliah Morphology & Syntax

June 12, 2010 at 7:23 am | Posted inUncategorized|1 Comment

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Languageis a system for the communication of meaning through sounds.

Linguisticis the scientific study of language.

Language as system consist of three subsystem: Semantic, Sysnantic,

Phonological

Language is a system of symbols. Why?

Each language has different pronunciation.

e.g: Could you tell me where the station is?

/kud yuw tel miy hwer ./

Phonologyis the study the smallest units of speech sounds that make a difference

in meaning.

Morphologyis the study of meaningful form or the smallest meaningful units oflanguage.

There are two basic divisions in morphology :

(1) lexicalor derivational morphology; studies word formation which produces

new words such as nationnational.

(2) inflectional morphology; studies word formation related to grammatical

affixes: prular, past tense and possession.

A wordis a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level and above.

A morpheneis the smallest unit of language that has meaning. For example Cats

has to morphemes- cat (singular) and cats (plural). Uneventful has three

morphemes. event, eventful, and uneventful. Each morpheme changes the

meaning of the word.

Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful elements in a language.

There are two types of morpheme. They are free morpheme and bound

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morpheme.

Free morphemeis the one that can stand alone such as: cat, dog, horse, car, bike,

bus etc.Bound morphemeis the one that cannot stand alone such as in affixation namely

prefix, infix and suffix. Prefixes occur before the base, e.g. (un)tidy, pre(school),

(dis)like. Suffixes occur in the middle of the base, e.g. kind(ness), angri(ly),

judge(ment), teach(er).

Inflectionis modification of words in accordance with their forms.

English verbs consists of five forms, namely: infinitive (see), the third singular

present (sees), past form (saw), past participle (seen) and gerund or present

participle (seeing).

eg.: I love a peaceful life. love is a verb.

Love is blue. love is a noun.Do you like love potion? love is an adjective.

Analysis of inflections.We must determine (1) the patterns of selection, (2) the arrangement of inflected

elements and (3) any modifications involved.

Selectionmeans parts of speech. These are classified by word patterns of

inflection.

e.g: The verb live (regular) and give (irregular).

live is inflected by means of suffix: lives [z], lived [d], living [i] while give

is inflected by means of patterns underlying forms, namely irregular verbs. give,

gives, gave, given, giving.

Derivationis the process of adding derivational morphemes, which create a new

word from existing words, sometimes by simply changing grammatical category

(for example, changing a noun to a verb).

ParadigmaticA dissimilar thing that can be exchanged for the thing of which the value is to be

determined

SyntagmaticSimilar things that can be compared with the thing of which the value is to be

determined

PARADIGMATIC AND SYNTAGMATIC. Contrasting terms in (structural)

LINGUISTICS. Every item of language has a paradigmatic relationship with

every other item which can be substituted for it (such as cat with dog), and a

syntagmatic relationship with items which occur within the same construction (for

example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the mat). The

relationships are like axes, as shown in the accompanying diagram.

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syntagmatic

The cat sat on the mat.

paradigmatic His dog slept under that table.Our parrot perched in its cage.

Paradigmatic contrasts at the level of sounds allow one to identify the phonemes

(minimal distinctive sound units) of a language: for example, bat, fat, mat contrast

with one another on the basis of a single sound, as do bat, bet, bit, and bat, bap,

ban. Stylistically, rhyme is due to the paradigmatic substitution of sounds at the

beginning of syllables or words, as in: Tyger! Tyger! burning bright / In the

forests of the night.

On the lexical level, paradigmatic contrasts indicate which words are likely to

belong to the same word class (part of speech): cat, dog, parrot in the diagram areall nouns, sat, slept, perched are all verbs. Syntagmatic relations between words

enable one to build up a picture of co-occurrence restrictions within SYNTAX,

for example, the verbs hit, kick have to be followed by a noun (Paul hit the wall,

not *Paul hit), but sleep, doze do not normally do so (Peter slept, not *Peter slept

the bed). On the semantic level, paradigmatic substitutions allow items from a

semantic set to be grouped together, for example Angela came on Tuesday

(Wednesday, Thursday, etc.), while syntagmatic associations indicate compatible

combinations: rotten apple, the duck quacked, rather than *curdled apple, *the

duck squeaked.

PARTS OF SPEECH: WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF

WORDS?

a. Verb : swim : swims, swam, swum, swimming

b. Noun : chair : chairman, head : headmaster; cloud : cloudy

c. Pronoun : I : me/my/mine; we : our/ours/us

d. Adjective : happy : happily/happiness/happier/happiest

d. Adverb

e. Preposition

f. Conjunction

g. Interjection

Syntax: The study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form

sentences in a language.

Syntactics: Science which studies the elements of sentence structure and

interrelationshios with the rules governing the arrangement of sentences in

sequences.

Affixationis the process of attaching an inflection or, more generally, a bound

morpheme to a word. This can occur at the beginning or end and occasionally in

the middle of a word form.

Affixes are classified into three types:

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to express a statement, question and comment.

Consist of S and V, can stand alone and has meaning and sometimes

consist more than one clause, e.g. I wrote a letter yesterday

There are five signals of syntactic structure:

1. word-orderthe linear of time sequence in which word appear in an utterance,

or the positions of words relative to each other in time.

2. prosodymusical pattern of stress, pitch and juncture in which the words an

utterance are spoken, or combination or patterns of pitch, stress and juncture.

3. function wordwords with little or no lexical meaning which are used in

combining other words into larger structures.

Words largely divide of lexical meaning that used to indicate various functional

relationship among the lexical words of an utterance (doesnt have meaning ingrammatical but in lexical), e.g. Does she go there?

There are nine types of function word: noun determiner; all, twice, one, third, a, an, this, that, these, those, etc.

auxiliaries; verb, is, am, are, has, have, do, does, did, will

qualifiers/ compare; fairly, merely, very, pretty, quite, etc.

preposition; in, on, at, of, over, etc

conjunction/ coordinator; and, but, noror, not onlybut also, etc

interrogator; who, which, what, etc

includes; when, like, that, whatever, etc

sentence linkers; consequently, accordingly, however, even though, as a result

miscellaneous/ interjection

There are two kinds of meaning:

a) lexical meaning: the meaning of morphemes and words considered in isolation

(dictionary meaning).

b) Grammatical/structural meaning: the meaning of the way words are combined

in larger structures (sentence)

* the word am does not has meaning if stand alone, buthas meaning if we

combine with other words or we put in a sentence.

e.g. I am being interviewed

4. inflectionsuffixes, always final, which adapt words to fit varying of structural

positions without changing their lexical meaning or part of speech.

Morphemic changes without changing the lexical meaning, e.g.ed, plural (s/es)

work worked (change in the form of word to show a past tense)

book books ( to show a plural)

5. derivational contrastderivational prefixes and suffixes which change words

from one part of speech to another. In short, addition of the prefixes or suffixes

that change the world class.

e.g. managemanagementmanager

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leadleaderleadership

testpre-test

morphophoneme(linguistics) the phonemes (or strings of phonemes) that

constitute the various allomorphs of a morpheme.

Eg. imperfect = in + perfect

Irregular = in + regular

linguisticsthe scientific study of language

allomorpha variant phonological representation of a morpheme; the final

sounds of `bets and `beds and `horses and `oxen are allomorphs of the English

plural morpheme

Assimilationis a common phonological process by which the phonetics of aspeech segment becomes more like that of another segment in a word (or at a

word boundary). A common example of assimilation would be dont be silly

where the /n/ and /t/ in dont are assimilated to /m/ and /p/ by the following /b/,

where said naturally in many accents and discourse styles (dombe silly).

Progressive assimilation; changes with reference to a preceding segment are

traditionally.

Regresive assimilation; if a sound changes with reference to a following segment.

Dissimilation; opposite of assimilation; is the change of one or more sounds to be

articulated like another sound or is a phenomenom whereby similar consonant or

vowel sound in a word become less similar.

e.g. turtle tur-tur

Branches of phonetic study:

1.Articulation phonetics: The study of the way speech sounds are made by vocal

organ.

2.Acoustic phonetics: The study of speech sounds related to physical properties as

transmitted between mouth and ear.

3.Auditory phonetics: The study of speech sounds based on the perceptual

response of auditory nerve and brain: using physical apparatus such as devices formeasuring airflow or for analyzing sound waves.

Stress: The use of significant intensity in speech.

e.g: naturally (naetserlly)

nat surely will come (naet serliy el kem)

Pitch: Intonation which gives contribution to meaning varieties of the sentence.

Timing: Juncture (the type of connection or pause we get between syllables or

words)

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Definition of sentence:

A sentenceis sequence of selected syntactic items combined into a unit in

accordance with certain patterns of arrangement, modification, and intonation inany given language.

A sentenceis any string of morphemes ending with a final intonation pattern.

To provide the means for analyzing sentences or any other syntactic entities, two

terms are used: construction and constituent. A constructionis any complete

group of words or morphemes. A constituentis a morphemes, a combination of

morphemes, or a construction that is a component of a construction.

Basic elements of the sentence.

Subject + Predicate.

Subject:The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being

something. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb. Ask

the question, "Who or what verbs or verbed?" and the answer to that question

is the subject.

Predicate:

A predicate is the completer of a sentence. The subject names the "do-er" or "be-

er of the sentence; the predicate does the rest of the work. A simple predicate

consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound verb:

The glacier melted.

The glacier has been melting.

The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.

Coordination (conjoining)is one of the basic syntactic devices from which

parallel entities are arrangeed side by side.

e.g: John takes cream. John takes sugar.

The two sentences above can be coordinated into : John takes cream and sugar.

Subordination (embedding)is combining two sentences into one sentence by

using English relatives and subordinating conjuction.

e.g: John, who likes sugar.

Endocentric constructionis one in which the primary constituent(s) are

comparable to the complete construction.

e.g: Good old John. John and Mary

Exocentric constructionis one in which the primary constituent(s) do not

function like the complete construction.

e.g: in the house

Substitution (pro-form), stand for the central entities of basic patterns.

As substitutesfor nouns: John likes cream. He likes cream. He likes it.

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Substitutes may also be usedfor verbs: He likes coffee and she does too.

Modals are also widely used as substitutes: Hell take coffee and so will she.

Entities used as substitutes generally fall into the set of items known as function

words. These convey relationships among the content words, such as nouns and

verbs, in a language. Examples of function words are auxiliaries, conjunctions,

determiners, interjections, postpositions, prepositions and relatives.

Concord, or congruence, is the agreement in form of one word with an other. For

example, this must be modified to these before plurals, as in this tie, these

ties.

Government is the determination of one from by another. For example, her

rather than she is required in He saw her and to her.

The two basic favorite sentence types of English, verb sentence and BE sentence.

Verb sentence:

They came. N1 V

They became friends. N1 V N(1)

They saw her. N1 V N2

They gave her candy. N1 V N2 N3

They elected her mayor. N1 V N2 N(2)

BE sentence:

It is cold. N BE Adj

It is here. N BE Adv

It is Jack. N BE N

Intransitive verbsthat do not require a following noun or adjective.

Transitive verbsare subdivided here into two large groups, one of which requires

only an object, the other an object plus a noun or a pronoun and those that do.

Some grammars call verbs like become and seem linking verbs.

Overt selection classes, the subject performs an action affecting the object,

whereas in I saw her, there is no such effect.

Covert selection classes, the relationship expressed by verbs like stop is hiddenin They stopped the car, with the former object as subject: The car stopped.

Subclasses of English function wordsare often specified according to gross sets:

those used with verbs as auxiliaries and those used nouns as determiners and

prepostions.

e.g: His car broke down and His broke down.

Subclasses of English noun.

The use of determiners, in turn, permits subclassification of nouns. Proper nouns

may be distinguished from common nouns by the impossibility of placing

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determiners before proper nouns. For example, Jack is a proper noun in Jack

dealt the cards but not in He dealt a jack to each of the players.

Some eggs> count nouns

Some sugar> mass nouns

They moved last week> move is intranstive verb

They moved the last house on the block> move is transitive

Expansion of the verb phrase:

They may give her candy.

They have given her candy.

They are giving her candy.

They may have given her candy.

They may be giving her candy.They have been giving her candy.

They may have been giving her candy.

Expansion of the noun phrase:

their old neighbors

their fine old neighbors

their fine old retired neighbors

their many fine old retired neighbors

all their fine old retired neighbors

Alterations of simple sentences:

1. Question

with change of intonation, for example, He came?

with wh-words, for example, Who came?

with auxiliaries or do, for example, May he come? or Did he come?

2. Negative

They didnt come.

3. Emphatics

They came

4. Requests

Will you come?5. Passives

She was seen by him

Compound sentences; the clauses so modified are referred to as coordinate and

subordinate clauses, and the resulting sentences.

Example: They came and saw her.

Minor sentence types.

Completive; consist of subject plus auxiliary. For example: (Did they come?)

They did.

Elliptical; consist of any single sentence component. For example: (How did he

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come?) Slowly.

Aphoristic; consist of parallel comparison. For example: First come, first served.

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Materi Kuliah Intro to Linguistics

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Materi Kuliah SociolinguisticsWith 3 comments

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alhamdulilah artikel tsb bermanfaat bagi anda. thanks

Comment by koesnandar1964May 19, 2011#

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