3

Оглавление

Предисловие. Программа курса 4

Рекомендуемая литература 6

Методические указания 7

Первый год обучения

Грамматический материал 12

Первый семестр контрольно-тренировочные упражнения 13

Контрольная работа №1(Вариант №1-Вариант№5) 22

Тексты для дополнительного чтения 29

Зооинженерный факультет 29

Факультет агротехнологий и декоративного растениеводства 39

Строительный факультет 49

Энергетический факультет 60

Институт инженерных систем, сервиса и энергетики 71

Второй год обучения

Грамматический материал 83

Второй семестр контрольно-тренировочные упражнения 84

Контрольная работа №2 (Вариант №1-Вариант№5) 91

Тексты для дополнительного чтения 97

Зооинженерный факультет 97

Факультет агротехнологий и декоративного растениеводства 106

Строительный факультет 115

Энергетический факультет 126

Институт инженерных систем, сервиса и энергетики 136

Список использованной литературы 148

4

Предисловие

Иностранный язык - один из немногих предметов, изучение которого

обязательно во всех вузах. Владение иностранным языком необходимо

специалисту любого профиля, так как способствует поиску, извлечению и

широкому практическому использованию информации из разных источников,

обеспечивает возможность контактов с зарубежными коллегами. Процесс

изучения иностранного языка чрезвычайно развивает мыслительные

способности, тренирует память, расширяет кругозор.

Курс заочного обучения английскому языку предполагает выработку

следующих навыков и умений:

Чтение литературы по специальности на английском языке с целью

извлечения необходимой информации

Перевод текстов по специальности с английского языка на русский

В соответствии с действующими учебными планами на курс заочного

обучения английскому языку отводится 50-60 часов аудиторных занятий

(установочных, контрольно-закрепительных, итоговых) и около 300 часов

самостоятельной работы. Количество учебных часов может быть несколько

уменьшено или увеличено в зависимости от специальности.

Программа предполагает преемственность вузовского курса обучения по

отношению к школьному, при этом учтена возможность возобновить изучение

английского языка после значительного перерыва, вызвавшего утрату

большинства навыков и умений.

ПРОГРАММА КУРСА

Фонетика

Фонетический строй английского языка. Система гласных. Система

согласных. Основные правила чтения букв и буквосочетаний. Ударение.

Членение речевого потока. Ритмическая группа. Синтагма. Основные

интонационные типы.

Лексика

Морфологическая структура слова. Словообразовательные модели.

Префиксальное и суффиксальное словообразование. Роль суффиксов в

распознавании частей речи. Интернациональные префиксы и суффиксы.

Переход слов из одной части речи в другую. «Ложные друзья» переводчика.

Понятие фразеологического оборота. Идиома. Синонимы, антонимы.

Сокращения. К концу обучения лексический минимум должен составить

примерно 2000 единиц. В этот минимум не входят слова и выражения,

усвоенные в средней школе (не менее 350 единиц).

Грамматика

Морфология

Артикль. Определенный, неопределенный. Опущение артикля.

Имя существительное. Грамматические категории числа и падежа имен

существительных. Род существительных.

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Имя прилагательное. Степени сравнения прилагательных. Место

прилагательного в предложении.

Имя числительное. Количественные и порядковые числительные.

Хронологические даты. Дробные числительные.

Местоимение. Личные, указательные, притяжательные, относительные,

вопросительные, неопределенные, возвратные местоимения. Местоимение it.

Глагол. Грамматические категории глагола. Вспомогательные глаголы.

Действительный и страдательный залоги. Отрицательная и вопросительная

формы. Система видо-временных форм глагола (Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect,

Perfect Continuous). Сравнительная характеристика форм настоящего,

прошедшего и будущего времени. Модальные глаголы. Повелительное

наклонение. Сослагательное наклонение. Неличные формы глагола:

инфинитив, причастие, герундий.

Наречие. Образование наречий. Степени сравнения наречий.

Предлог. Функции и значения предлогов. Сложные предлоги.

Многозначность предлогов.

Союз. Простые, производные и составные союзы.

Синтаксис

Типы предложений. Простое предложение. Главные и второстепенные

члены предложения. Прямой и обратный (инверсия) порядок слов. Виды

вопросительных предложений. Сказуемое простое и составное. Место

второстепенных членов предложения. Сложное предложение.

Сложносочиненное и сложноподчиненное предложение. Виды придаточных

предложений. Прямая речь, косвенная речь. Согласование временю

Инфинитивные конструкции. Причастные обороты.

УЧЕБНЫЕ ТЕКСТЫ. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОГО ЧТЕНИЯ

При изучении английского языка студент использует следующие виды

учебной литературы:

Тексты контрольных работ

Учебные тексты

Тексты для дополнительного чтения

Цель контрольной работы – помочь студенту в самостоятельном

изучении английского языка и проверить, насколько хорошо он усвоил

пройденный учебный материал. Требования к выполнению и оформлению

контрольных работ приведены ниже.

Чтение учебных текстов поможет студенту выработать навыки,

необходимые для успешного овладения языком, закрепить соответствующие

грамматические правила, приобрести необходимый запас слов. Объем

прочитанных текстов должен составлять не меньше 7 000 и 8000 печатных

знаков***

на первом и втором курсе, соответственно, т. е. около 15 000 печатных

знаков за полный курс обучения. Тексты для чтения включены в методические

указания. Первый курс: адаптированные тексты страноведческого характера и

по специальности. Второй курс: адаптированные тексты страноведческого

6

характера, неадаптированные или частично адаптированные тексты по

специальности.

***

Подсчет количества печатных знаков: число печатных знаков (считая

знаки препинания) в полной строке умножается на количество строк.

Обычно на странице бывает 1800-2000 печатных знаков.

Итоговый контроль

В соответствии с учебным планом в конце 1-2 семестров студент сдает

дифференцированный зачет.

Для получения зачета или допуска к зачету студент должен:

1) В срок сдать контрольные работы (на первом курсе №1, на втором курсе

№2), при необходимости исправить ошибки или выполнить всю работу

заново для получения оценки «зачтено».

2) Сдать норму чтения и перевода (тексты контрольных работ, тексты для

дополнительного чтения).

Содержание билета на экзамене по английскому языку:

1. Изучающее чтение и передача содержания в виде полного письменного

перевода незнакомого текста по специальности объемом до 1000

печатных знаков за один академический час (со словарем)

2. Ознакомительное чтение незнакомого текста объемом до 1200 печатных

знаков и изложение его содержания на русском или английском языке.

Время на подготовку 15 минут.

3. Просмотровое чтение и перевод на русский язык одного из текстов для

обязательного дополнительного чтения (без словаря). Время на

подготовку 5 минут.

Рекомендуемая литература:

Учебники и учебные пособия:

1.Английский язык. Методические указания к контрольным заданиям для

студентов агробиологических и агроинженерных направлений заочной формы

обучения. СПбГАУ. СПб., 2010

2. Бжиская Ю. В.. Английский для строительных специальностей. Ростов-на-

Дону, 2007

3..Бугрова А. С., Вихрова Е. И. Английский для биологических специальностей.

М., 2009

4. Голицынский Ю. Б. Грамматика. Сборник упражнений. СПб, 2009

5. Качалова К. Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского

языка. М., 2005

6. Комарова Е. Н. Английский для направлений «зооинженерия» и

«ветеринария». Москва, 2009

7. Крылова И. П., Крылова Е. В. Практическая грамматика английского языка.

Учебное пособие. М., 1997

8. Новицкая Т. М. Практическая грамматика английского языка. Москва, 2004

7

9. Орловская И. В., Самсонова А. И., Скубриева. Учебник английского языка

для технических университетов и вузов. М., 2006

10. Полякова Т. Ю. Английский для инженеров. М., 2008

Словари:

Англо-русский словарь под ред. В. К. Мюллера. М, 2008

Отраслевые словари:

Англо-русский автотракторный словарь. М, 1954

Англо-русский биологический словарь. М.1976

Англо-русский словарь по животноводству. М, 1972

Англо-русский словарь по землепользованию. М., 2007

Англо-русский сельскохозяйственный словарь. М, 1983

Англо-русский словарь по сельскохозяйственной технике. М., 1965

Англо-русский почвенно-агрохимический словарь. М. 1967

Англо-русский словарь по физиологии высших растений. М.,1972

Англо-русский электротехнический словарь. М., 1951

Электронные словари:

MULTITRAN

LINGUA

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ

Произношение и чтение

Правильное произношение-гарантия понимания не только устной, но и

письменной речи, так как чтение и письмо происходят под контролем слуха и

сопровождаются проговариванием на уровне внутренней речи. Неправильное

чтение приводит к его неправильному запоминанию и не узнаванию.

Основные сложности овладения английским произношением

обусловлены следующими причинами:

Несовпадением языковых систем русского и английского языков.

Следует изучить фонетическую систему английского языка, научиться

правильно и четко произносить звуки.

Отсутствием автоматизации фонетических навыков. Следует регулярно

выполнять фонетические упражнения, прослушивать звукозаписи и

передачи с английской речью, смотреть фильмы и телепередачи на

английском языке.

Частым несовпадением звучания и написания. Следует изучить правила

чтения букв и буквосочетаний, регулярно повторять их.

Несовпадение интонационных систем английского и русского языков

Следует изучить правила слогоотделения, членения речевого потока на

ритмические группы и синтагмы, усвоить основные интонационные модели.

8

Лексика

За полный курс обучения студент должен выучить и активно

использовать около 2000 новых лексических единиц, т. е. по 1000 слов на

каждом курсе. Потенциальный запас лексики может быть увеличен за счет

усвоения системы английского словообразования, запоминания значений

словообразовательных элементов (суффиксов, префиксов) , что позволит

выводить значения производных слов, изучение интернациональной лексики.

Работая над переводом текста или упражнения, следует выписывать в

тетрадь-словарик встречающиеся незнакомые слова в их исходной (словарно)

форме: глаголы- в неопределенной форме, существительные в форме

единственного числа, прилагательные- в форме положительной степени. Найдя

слово в словаре, внимательно прочитайте всю словарную статью. Помните, что

словарь чаще всего дает не однозначный перевод слова с одного языка на

другой, а предлагает несколько , иногда много, значений. Правильный перевод

возможен только с учетом общего смысла, контекста.

Заучивать следует в первую очередь наиболее часто встречающиеся

слова. Их надо сразу выделять в тетради-словарике и работать над ними:

повторять, писать под диктовку, составлять с ними словосочетания и

предложения, стараться в дальнейшем находить в тексте их однокоренные

слова, определять их синонимы, антонимы и т. д. Нельзя забывать, что только

постоянная работа над лексикой поможет выучить и активно использовать

нужное количество слов.

Грамматика

Грамматика обеспечивает связь слов в предложении и позволяет понять

смысл текста. В каждой контрольной работе указаны грамматические темы,

подлежащие изучению.

Пользуясь учебниками, пособиями, справочниками, таблицами, изучите

данный раздел, выполните несколько упражнений, чтобы закрепить

пройденное. В дальнейшем, читая тексты или слушая английскую речь,

старайтесь распознавать выученную грамматическую форму. Особое и

постоянное внимание следует уделять глагольным формам. Работайте над

каждым глаголом: определите его видо-временную форму, проспрягайте в уже

изученных временах, образуйте вопросительную и отрицательную формы

Ни один грамматический раздел не должен оставаться неусвоенным. В

случае необходимости следует обращаться за консультацией (письменной или

устной) к преподавателю.

Работа над текстом

В зависимости от цели, которую ставит перед собой читающий, и от

скорости чтения выделяют:

-изучающее

-селективное (быстрое) чтение, включающее ознакомительное, просмотровое и

поисковое.

Изучающее чтение предполагает полное и адекватное понимание всей

информации текста.

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Ознакомительное чтение предусматривает быстрое прочтение всего

текста с полным пониманием основной информации текста.

Просмотровое чтение позволяет выяснить, о чем идет речь в тексте. Это

вид чтения используется, когда необходимо определить, насколько важна или

интересна для читающего информация, содержащаяся в тексте.

Поисковое чтение дает возможность находить в тексте те элементы

информации, о которых заранее известно, что они имеются в тексте.

Курс заочного обучения английскому языку предусматривает освоение

всех видов чтения, при некотором доминировании изучающего.

Изучающее чтение предполагает полный письменный или устный

перевод текста с использованием словаря.

При письменном переводе текста рекомендуется следующая

последовательность действий:

1. Прочитать весь текст и постараться понять, о чем идет речь. Это поможет

выбрать нужный эквивалент незнакомого слова при пользовании

словарем. Прочитать первое предложение, обращая внимание на знаки

препинания, знакомые слова. Союзы, артикли, и постараться определить,

простое это предложение или сложное. Каждое простое предложение в

составе сложного следует переводить отдельно.

2. Найти сказуемое и подлежащее, ориентируясь на порядок слов и

формальные признаки

3. Перевести двучлен «подлежащее-сказуемое». Перевод этого двучлена и

составит ядро перевода всей фразы.

4. Перевести слова, относящиеся к подлежащему (группу подлежащего).

5. Перевести группу сказуемого.

6. Перевести то, что осталось за рамками групп подлежащего и сказуемого.

7. Перевести все предложение целиком.

8. Отредактировать перевод, т. е., проверит насколько четко и ясно передана

мысль автора, соответствует ли ее изложение нормам русского языка.

Не следует выписывать незнакомые слова сразу из всего текста и

переводить их изолированно. Этот способ не оправдывает себя: во–

первых, о значении некоторых слов можно догадаться, переведя

предыдущую часть текста. Во-вторых, придется выписывать либо все

значения многозначного слова, либо первое попавшееся, которое может

и не подойти для данного предложения, и тогда нужно будет снова

обращаться к словарю, отыскивая другое, подходящее значение слова.

При устном переводе текста последовательность действий остается

практически той же. Следует только более тщательно переводить новые

слова, что поможет при сдаче текста преподавателю.

Все виды селективного (быстрого) чтения предполагают охват

общего содержания текста без использования словаря. Следует

постараться уловить смысл прочитанного, опираясь на знакомые слова.

Контроль понимания может осуществляться разными способами; студент

должен изложить своими словами на русском или английском языке

содержание всего текста или его части; составить план пересказа;

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озаглавить абзацы или другие структурные единицы текста; ответить на

вопросы или выбрать правильный ответ из нескольких предложенных

вариантов и т. д.

Дополнительное чтение

Дополнительное чтение литературы на английском языке

способствует расширению словарного запаса, повторению и закреплению

пройденного грамматического материала, совершенствованию техники

чтения, автоматизации навыка работы со словарем. При работе над

дополнительными текстами следует все незнакомые слова и выражения

выписывать в отдельную тетрадь-словарь в исходной (словарной) форме.

Для удобства пользования рекомендуется указывать номер

страницы, с которой выписаны слова. Можно даже пронумеровать абзацы

и отмечать те слова, которые студент отбирает при выучивании.

При сдаче дополнительного чтения студент должен:

1) Уметь правильно читать любой отрывок из текста;

2) предъявить преподавателю для контроля тетрадь-словарь с

выписанными и переведенными незнакомыми словами из

прочитанного текста;

3) адекватно перевести на русский язык любой отрывок из прочитанного

текста, пользуясь тетрадью-словарем. Полный письменный перевод

текста делать не рекомендуется. При ответе преподавателю

пользоваться письменным переводом запрещается;

4) знать новые слова, отобранные и выученные в процессе подготовки

дополнительного чтения;

5) уметь объяснить любое фонетическое, лексическое, грамматическое

явление текста в объеме, предусмотренном программой для данного

курса.

Контрольные задания.

На первом курсе студенты выполняют контрольное задание №1, а на

втором курсе задание №2. Выбор варианта контрольной работы осуществляется

в соответствии с последней цифрой номера студенческого билета; 1 вариант

выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося на 1, 6; 2

вариант выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося на 2, 7;

3 вариант выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося на 3,

8; 4 вариант выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося на

4, 9; 5 вариант выполняется студентами с номерами шифра, оканчивающегося

на 5, 0;

Выполненные контрольные работы присылаются или сдаются в деканат

заочного отделения в установленные сроки. Контрольная работа должна быть

зарегистрирована. Работы, не имеющие входящего номера, на рецензию не

принимаются.

При оформлении контрольных заданий придерживайтесь следующих

указаний:

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Выполняйте каждую контрольную работу в отдельной тетради. На

обложке напишите свою фамилию, имя, отчество, адрес.

Работа должна быть выполнена аккуратно, четко , разборчиво, без

сокращений. Для замечаний, объяснений, указаний рецензента оставляйте

в тетради широкие поля.

Выполняйте работы в той последовательности, в которой они даны в

настоящем пособии. Присылайте на проверку только одну работу.

Обязательно указывайте номер упражнения и переписывайте задание.

Модель выполнения можно не переписывать.

При выполнении работы лист следует разделить пополам и слева писать

предложения по-английски, а справа их перевод.

Если контрольная работа выполнена неясно, небрежно, не полностью или

не в соответствии с указаниями, она возвращается студенту без проверки.

Исправления контрольной работы на основе рецензии.

Проверенная преподавателем контрольная работа возвращается студенту

с рецензией и оценкой «зачтено» или «не зачтено». Студент должен

ознакомиться с рецензией, с исправлениями, замечаниями, указаниями на полях

работы, проанализировать их.

Если работа зачтена, но в ней допущен ряд ошибок, то их надо исправить.

Руководствуясь указаниями рецензента, повторите соответствующий

грамматический материал, проверьте значение неверно переведенных слов по

словарю и т. д. Обязательно уясните сущность каждой допущенной ошибки.

Все предложения, в которых были ошибки, перепишите в конце контрольной

работы в исправленном виде. Контрольная работа с исправлением ошибок

предъявляется преподавателю на зачѐтно-экзаменационной сессии.

Если работа не зачтена, ее следует переделать целиком или частично, в

зависимости от указаний преподавателя, и вновь выслать на проверку вместе с

не зачтенной работой.

Контрольные работы являются учебными документами, которые

необходимо сохранять и предъявлять на зачетах и экзаменах. При сдаче зачета

или экзамена преподаватель может провести опрос и по контрольной работе.

Занятия по английскому языку во время сессии.

На занятиях по английскому языку студент должен иметь:

Англо-русский словарь

Прорецензированную контрольную работу

Переведенные учебные тексты, тексты по дополнительному чтению и

тетрадь-словарь с выписанными и переведенными словами к ним

Тетради с дополнительными упражнениями по грамматике

Используемые учебники и пособия

Данные методические указания

12

I СЕМЕСТР

ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ МАТЕРИАЛ

1. Особенности произнесения гласных звуков английского языка.

Изменения значения слова в зависимости от долготы и краткости гласного.

Особенности произнесения согласных звуков английского языка.

2. Простое распространенное предложение; прямой порядок слов

повествовательного предложения в утвердительных и отрицательных формах;

обратный порядок слов вопросительного предложения.

3. Спряжение глаголов to be, to have в Present, Past и Future Indefinite.

4. Оборот there is (are).

5. Времена группы Indefinite в действительном залоге.

6. Множественное число имен существительных. Выражение падежных

отношений в английском языке с помощью предлогов, окончания ’s и порядка

слов.

7. Повелительное наклонение и его отрицательная форма.

8. Степени сравнения имен прилагательных и наречий.

9. Местоимения: личные, притяжательные, вопросительные, указательные,

относительные.

10. Времена группы Continuous в действительном залоге.

11. Словообразование – основные суффиксы и префиксы. Использование

слов, одинаковых по форме, но представляющих собой различные части речи.

Артикли и предлоги как показатели имени существительного и его падежных

отношений. Вспомогательные глаголы как средство образования временных

форм.

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Первый семестр

КОНТРОЛЬНО-ТРЕНИРОВОЧНЫЕ УПРАЖНЕНИЯ (1)

1. В каждой колонке подчеркните слова, в которых гласная буква

произносится так же, как и выделенная гласная в первом слове:

apple

candy

that

lay

flash

ran

wait

sad

face

fish

him

it

light

is

thing

pink

trick

fine

box

drop

stop

pole

shop

on

snow

top

rode

egg

seen

bed

get

well

wheel

let

tree

tent

cup

trunch

just

use

uncle

fruit

lunch

sun

such

2. Образуйте множественное число существительных с помощью суффикса

-s (-es):

atom, set, group, work, climate, trade, name, art, play, star, year, idea, sorrow, ray,

culture, nature, doctor, sculpture, teacher, counter, conductor, leaf, life, shelf, knife,

wife.

3. Напишите следующие существительные во множественном числе.

Укажите, в каких случаях суффикс множественного числа произносится

как [s], [z], [iz]:

Образец: map – maps[s] atom – atoms[z] cage – сages [iz]

student, party, chair, ring, glass, face, leaf, fat, time, way, university, language, wing,

salt, energy, design, book, problem, dictionary, class, change, subject, speech, rule.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения, вставляя данные в скобках

существительные в единственном или множественном числе:

1) Ann’s father told some funny circus .... The funniest ... was about a giant clown.

(story, stories)

2) Many ... live in an apartment house. Tom’s ... lives on the fourth floor. (family,

families)

3) Do you know the name of your ... ? The travellers will see many .... (country,

countries)

4) Ben’s dog has five brown ... . One little ... has a flat nose. (puppy, puppies)

5) Small ... laugh and play. Jack’s ... has a nice toy. (baby, babies)

5. Замените существительные с предлогом of существительными в

притяжательном падеже:

a meeting of students, the flat of my mother-in-law, the rays of the sun, a distance of

two miles, the joys of life, the house of his parents, the theatres of Moscow, the

children of my sister Mary, the rights of the women, the name of my friend.

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6. Переведите следующие словосочетания па английский язык, употребляя

притяжательный падеж:

письмо моего друга, рассказы этого писателя, библиотека института, дочь моей

младшей сестры, младшая дочь моей сестры, стены этого старого дома, старые

стены этого дома.

7. Образуйте степени сравнения следующих прилагательных и наречий с

помощью суффиксов -er, -est:

short, cold, wide, early, big, near, late, fast, small, old, nice, young, large, kind, long,

quick, easy.

8. Образуйте степени сравнения следующих прилагательных и наречий с

помощью слов more, (the) most:

interesting, carefully, comfortable, progressive, efficient, clearly, beautiful, difficult,

beautifully, regularly, prominent, brightly, especially, wonderful, realistic,

remarkable, special, dependent, attentively, important.

9. Употребите прилагательные и наречия, данные в скобках, в нужной

степени сравнения:

1) My brother is much ... than myself. (young)

2) The opera theatre is one of ... buildings in the city. (beautiful)

3) The sound grew ... and ... . (faint)

4) The party was not so ... as I had expected. (funny)

5) I have no one ... than you. (near)

6) What is the ... news? (late)

7) Yesterday I came home ... than usual. (late)

8) Ann sings far ... than Nina. (well)

9) I like this picture ... of all. (well)

10. Заполните пропуски притяжательными местоимениями,

соответствующими личным местоимениям, данным в скобках:

1) (Не) ... composition is very interesting.

2) (We) ... son goes to school.

3) (You) ... sister is young.

4) (They) ... knowledge of the subject is very poor.

5) (He) ... name is John.

6) (I) ... family lives in Kiev.

7) (She) ... friends often visit her.

11. Употребите нужную форму личных местоимений:

1) I often see (they, them) in the bus.

2) She lives near (we, us).

3) (We, us) always walk to school together.

4) He teaches (we, us) English.

5) She sits near (I, me) during the lesson.

15

6) I always speak to (he, him) in English.

7) What is the matter with (he, him) today?

8) He explains the lesson to (we, us) each morning,

9) There are some letters here for you and (I, me).

10) I know (she, her) and her sister very well.

12. Употребите нужную форму притяжательных местоимений:

1) Would you like to see some of (her, hers) poems?

2) (Their, theirs) knowledge of the subject is not much superior to (our, ours).

3) You take care of (your, yours) things and I’ll take care of (my, mine).

4) All (our, ours) clothes were dirty, and (my, mine) especially so.

5) (Their, theirs) boat was faster than (our, ours).

6) I’m afraid they will take (your, yours) words against (her, hers).

7) (Their, theirs) home is pretty but (our, ours) is prettier.

13. Заполните пропуски указательными местоимениями this, that, these,

those:

1) All ... is very interesting. 2) ... exercises are very easy. 3) ... will do. 4) ... chair is

very comfortable. 5) ... is my English book. 6) Try one of ... . 7) ... are the TV sets of

the latest type. 8) ... office at the end of the hall is the administration office. 9) ...

books are over there on the table.

14. Заполните пропуски глаголом to be, употребляя соответствующую

форму настоящего времени:

1) Не ... a good student. 2) They ... old friends. 3) I ... a teacher. 4) John ... absent

from class today. 5) The weather ... good today. 6) The sky ... clear. 7) We ... both

students. 8) Mr. Smith ... sick today. 9) She and I ... cousins.

15. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

1) They are in Europe now. 2) She is a clever girl. 3) It is cold today. 4) He is in his

office. 5) They are members of the country club. 6) Both sisters are tall. 7) John is

angry with you. 8) She is a good tennis player. 9) The stamps are in my desk. 10) She

is a good teacher. 11) I am her cousin.

16. Заполните пропуски глаголом to have, употребляя соответствующую

форму настоящего времени:

1) She ... one sister and two brothers. 2) We ... a large library at school. 3) They ... a

new car. 4) She ... green eyes. 5) Helen ... a headache. 6) The secretary ... a new

typewriter. 7) Mr. Smith’s office ... three large windows. 8) We ... many friends in

Moscow. 9) Both brothers ... red hair. 10) Harry’s dog ... a long tail. 11) He and I ...

many things in common.

16

17. Употребите оборот there is (are) в следующих предложениях.

Переведите их на русский язык:

1) ... a new moon tonight. 2) ... someone at the door. 3) ... a lot of students absent

today. 4) ... three lamps in the room. 5) ... two large windows in the room. 6) But ...

only one door. 7) ... a lot of English classes in our school. 8) ... nobody in the room

now. 9) ... no one at home. 10) ... twelve months in a year. 11) ... a letter for you on

the table. 12) ... several beautiful parks in this city.

18. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

Образец: There is a flag on the top of the building.

Is there a flag on the top of the building?

There isn’t a flag on the top of the building.

1) There is a big parade today. 2) There are two lamps in the room. 3) There are ten

new words in the lesson. 4) There are enough chairs for everyone. 5) There is a good

restaurant near here. 6) There is a comfortable chair in each room.7) There are many

pictures on the walls of our room. 8) There are more than ten sentences in each exer-

cise.

19. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Present Indefinite:

1) We (read) the newspaper in class every day.

2) He always (prepare) his homework carefully.

3) We always (play) tennis on Saturdays.

4) She (speak) several foreign languages.

5) The children (play) in the park every afternoon.

6) Helen (work) very hard.

7) They (take) a lot of trips together.

8) We always (travel) by car.

9) I (eat) lunch in the cafeteria every day.

20. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

Образец: John goes there twice a week.

Does John go there twice a week?

John doesn’t go there twice a week.

1) He knows French perfectly. 2) I understand everything he says. 3) She makes

mistakes in spelling. 4) They enjoy their English lessons. 5) They live in Kiev. 6) We

use our books in class. 7) The plane leaves at ten o’clock. 8) She always comes to

class late. 9) I always take the same bus to work.

21. Образуйте повелительное наклонение и его отрицательную форму.

Переведите предложения на русский язык:

Образец: (Tell) her about it.

Tell her about it. – Скажи ей об этом.

Don’t tell her about it. – He говори ей об этом.

17

1) (Give) this to John. 2) (Open) the door. 3) (Close) the door. 4) (Telephone) him in

the morning. 5) (Let) him talk with her. 6) (Turn) off the light. 7) (Leave) your hat on

the chair. 8) (Lend) me a pencil. 9) (Help) him with his homework.

22. Заполните пропуски глаголом to be, употребляя соответствующую

форму прошедшего времени:

1) Ann ... absent from school yesterday.

2) The exercises in the last lesson ... difficult.

3) She ... in the same class as Nick last year.

4) We ... tired after our long walk.

5) The weather yesterday ... very warm.

6) There ... a lot of students absent from class yesterday.

7) I ... hungry after so many exercises.

8) I ... busy all day yesterday.

9) We ... good friends for many years.

23. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

1) We were pleased to receive your letter.

2) The door of the office was open.

3) The wind last night was very strong.

4) He and his brother were sick two days ago.

5) There were few passengers in the compartment.

6) There was a very interesting lecture last Monday.

7) There were two examinations last spring.

8) There was a large picture in her room.

24. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Past Indefinite:

1) We (work) in our garden all day yesterday.

2) I (listen) to the radio until twelve o’clock last night.

3) He always (want) to learn English.

4) Ann and I (talk) over the telephone yesterday.

5) They (live) in France for many years.

6) The meeting (last) about two hours.

7) I (wait) almost two hours for Helen yesterday.

8) She (study) in our class last semester.

9) We (watch) television until eleven o’clock last night.

25. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

Образец: Не prepared his lesson well.

Did he prepare his lesson well?

He didn’t prepare his lesson well.

1) They stayed in Moscow all summer. 2) She planned her work well. 3) The crowd

waited a long time to see the famous actor. 4) He worked in that Institute for many

18

years. 5) We arrived home late. 6) He entered this class in April. 7) Ann passed all

her examinations. 8) The meeting lasted a long time. 9) They travelled there by train.

10) She decided to write a letter to her parents at home.

26. Образуйте Past Indefinite и Participle II от следующих глаголов.

Проверьте себя по таблице неправильных глаголов:

to build, to think, to go, to see, to give, to meet, to write, to read, to know, to take, to

teach, to feel, to have, to come, to begin, to find, to get, to say, to tell, to put, to leave,

to do, to sing, to lose, to stand.

27. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Past Indefinite.

Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1) I (forget) to bring my notebook to class yesterday.

2) The telephone (ring) twice but no one answered it.

3) George (think) about his troubles continuously.

4) Last year Professor Johnes (teach) us both English and mathematics.

5) I (lose) my English book yesterday but (find) it later.

6) The Petrovs (take) their two children to the South with them.

7) He (tell) the whole story to us.

8) The meeting (begin) at ten o’clock yesterday.

9) They (go) to the park after the lesson.

28. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной форме,

употребляя данные в скобках вопросительные слова:

Образец: Не arrived at ten o’clock. (What time) What time did he arrive?

1) They sat in the first row. (In which row)

2) The performance lasted two hours. (How long)

3) He went to Leningrad to see some friends. (Why)

4) She put the mail on my desk. (Where)

5) He walked to school with Mary. (Whom with)

6) They spoke to us in French. (In what language)

7) He arrived home very late. (When)

29. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной форме,

употребляя вопросительные слова who, what:

Образец: My friend likes music very much. Who likes music very much?

1) She wants to visit Moscow.

2) Speech is a kind of vibration.

3) Painting is an ancient art.

4) He collects the paintings of old masters.

5) Every substance is a kind of matter.

6) Metals are the best conductors of heat.

7) The Romans made portraits in stone.

8) Poor lighting makes a piece of sculpture look uninteresting.

9) We know little about early painters.

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30. Заполните пропуски глаголом to be, употребляя соответствующую

форму будущего времени:

1) She ... our new teacher.

2) These exercises ... very difficult for you.

3) They ... glad to see their old friends.

4) There ... many examinations next term.

5) There ... a new club in our town next year.

6) We ... very tired after the long walk.

7) I ... happy to be here again.

8) We ... interested in his progress.

31. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Future Indefinite:

1) Helen (find) the book which you need.

2) They (see) us tomorrow.

3) I (finish) the work in April.

4) The shops (close) at noon today.

5) We (arrive) at three o’clock.

6) She (tell) you all about it.

7) We (spend) two months in the South.

8) The plant (die) because of lack of sunshine.

9) The meeting (begin) at eight o’clock. 10) The film (last) an hour.

32. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

Образец: They will arrive at three o’clock.

Will they arrive at three o’clock?

They won’t arrive at three o’clock.

1) They will return in October.

2) These exercises will be easy for you.

3) He will be able to meet us later.

4) Our drama society will present a new play this year.

5) The lesson will be over at twelve o’clock.

6) There will be three new students in the class.

7) She will leave a message on the table for him.

8) They will write to us on Wednesday.

9) We shall take the children to the park.

33. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Present Continuous:

Образцы: 1) Look! It (begin) to rain.

Look! It is beginning to rain.

2) They (wait) for us on the corner now.

They are waiting for us on the corner now.

1) I see that you (wear) your new suit today.

2) Listen! Someone (knock) at the door.

20

3) The bus (stop) for us now.

4) Please, be quiet! The baby (sleep).

5) The leaves (begin) to fall from the trees.

6) John (have) lunch in the cafeteria now.

7) Listen! I think the telephone (ring).

8) Ann seems to be very busy. I guess she (prepare) her English lesson.

34. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

Образец: They are working.

Are they working?

They aren’t working.

1) You are doing that exercise correctly.

2) He is looking for the book which he lost.

3) All the birds are flying south.

4) The sky is getting very dark.

5) They are laughing at what you said.

6) They are travelling in Europe at present.

7) Helen is taking dancing lessons at the country club.

8) Mr. Evans is writing a series of articles on the economic situation.

9) Ann is doing well in her studies at present.

35. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Past Continuous:

Образцы: 1) They (eat) dinner when we came.

They were eating dinner when we came.

2) It (rain) when I left home.

It was raining when I left home.

1) When you telephoned, I (have) dinner.

2) The baby (sleep) soundly when I went to wake him.

3) She (talk) with Mr. Smith when I saw her in the hall.

4) The accident happened while they (travel) in the South.

5) When I got up this morning, the sun (shine) brightly.

6) At seven o’clock, when you telephoned, I (read) the newspaper.

7) Mary (play) the piano when I arrived.

8) Helen fell just as she (get) off the bus.

9) The wind (blow) hard when I came to work this morning.

36. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Future Continuous:

Образец: At ten o’clock tomorrow morning she (have) her music lesson.

At ten o’clock tomorrow morning she will be having her music lesson.

1) I (wait) on the corner for you at the usual time tomorrow morning.

2) It probably (rain) when you get back.

3) If you come before six, I (work) in my garden.

4) At this time tomorrow afternoon I (take) my final English examination.

5) If we go there now, they (have) dinner. But if we go later, they (watch) television.

21

6) At this time next year he (study) at the university.

37. Заполните пропуски относительными местоимениями who, whom,

which. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1) The film ... we saw last night was not good.

2) She is the girl ... I saw at the party yesterday.

3) This is the kind of exercise ... I like best.

4) Was it Helen ... said that?

5) The book ... I read last night was very interesting.

6) Is this the book ... you lost?

7) The teacher with ... I studied English last year no longer teaches in our school.

38. Заполните пропуски соответствующими артиклями. Переведите

предложения на русский язык:

1) ... man whom Mr. Smith telephoned this morning is here now. 2) ... book which I

am reading now belongs to John. 3) There is ... pencil on the desk. 4) She is ... good

teacher. 5) Is this ... book which you need? 6) I want to buy ... new briefcase. 7) ...

good book is always a pleasure for me. 8) It is ... good idea. 9) ... picture painted by

the student is beautiful.

39. Заполните пропуски соответствующими предлогами: of, about, down,

for, in, with, to, at. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1) Не thanked me ... my interest ... the matter. 2) This book belongs ... our teacher. 3)

We all went ... a walk ... the park. 4) Nick usually sits ... this desk. 5) I make many

mistakes ... spelling. 6) The man walked quickly across the room and sat … . 7) She

spends a lot ... time ... her English. 8) We read ... the accident ... the newspaper this

morning. 9) They told me ... their trip ... the North.

40. Образуйте существительные от следующих глаголов с помощью

суффиксов -ег, -or, -ment, -ation, -ion. Переведите существительные на

русский язык:

Образцы: 1) to teach – учить; teacher – учитель

2) to inform – информировать; information – информация

to introduce, to work, to develop, to collect, to visit, to write, to contribute, to

educate, to wait, to settle, to approach, to complete, to create, to build.

41. Образуйте прилагательные от следующих существительных с

помощью суффиксов -able, -ible, -al, -ic, -ful. Переведите прилагательные на

русский язык:

respect, nation, pay, wonder, care, skill, advice, comfort.

42. Образуйте наречия от следующих прилагательных с помощью

суффикса -lу. Переведите наречия на русский язык:

bad, quick, correct, sudden, loud, easy, free, especial, careful, secret.

22

КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №1

1. Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте по-английски на вопросы,

следующие за текстом.

2. Выпишите существительные в единственном числе и поставьте их во

множественном числе.

3. Выпишите из текста предложенные конструкции с предлогом of и

переведите их на русский язык.

4. Выпишите из текста прилагательные и наречия, переведите их на русский

язык и образуйте степени сравнения.

5. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых

употреблены местоимения. Укажите, к какой группе они относятся

(личные, указательные, вопросительные, относительные).

6. Выпишите из текста все неправильные глаголы, запишите их основные

формы и переведите их на русский язык.

7. Выпишите из текста 5 предложений в Present Indefinite и переведите их

на русский язык. Напишите эти предложения в вопросительной и

отрицательной формах. Преобразуйте эти же предложения в Past и Future

Indefinite и переведите их на русский язык. Напишите их в

вопросительной и отрицательной формах.

8. Переведите письменно отрывок текста контрольной работы №1 на

русский язык. При переводе пользуйтесь англо-русским словарем.

23

Вариант №1

THE LAND OF WHITE NIGHTS

Saint-Petersburg was founded on 16 May, 1703. Several generations of

talented Russian and foreign architects were engaged in the planning and con-

struction of Petersburg’s centre. The Peter and Paul Fortress was built to

protect the Neva banks from Swedish invasion. Later D.Trezzini, the famous

Swiss architect, reconstructed the fortress. It became a prison. Now it is a

museum. D.Trezzini erected the Peter and Paul Cathedral here, which is a

masterpiece of architecture. Russian tsars were buried in it. Petersburg is one of

the world's most beautiful cities.

The Summer Garden, the Winter Palace, the Hermitage, the monument

to Peter I, the Russian Museum are the city's remarkable architectural sights.

Soon after Petersburg appeared, it turned into the main center of Russian sci-

ence and culture. Outstanding scholars like M.V. Lomonosov, D.I. Mendeleyev, I.P.

Pavlov and many others engaged themselves in activities of the Academy of Sciences

and the University. A.S. Pushkin, M.Y. Lermontov, N.A. Nekrasov glorified the city

in many of their works.

There are many memorial places in the city that relate to life and creative work

of the great Russian writers N.V. Gogol, T.M. Dostoevsky, the composers M.I.

Glinka, P.I. Chaikovskiy, M.P. Musorgskiy. N.A. Rimskiy - Korsakov, the painters

K.P. Bryullov, I.Y. Repin, I.N. Kramskoy, V.I. Surikov, etc.

St. Petersburg today is a centre of science and culture, well-developed

industries including shipbuilding, a large international port on the Baltic Sea.

St. Petersburg is famous for its suburbs. Petrodvorets (Peterhof), Pushkin

(Tsarskoe Selo), Pavlovsk, Lomonosov are museums of history and art. Russian and

foreign tourists visit St-Petersburg suburbs to see outstanding pieces of Russian art.

Magnificent architectural ensembles, sculptures, a unique water-duct system

for numerous fountains, fine examples of park-landscape art make one solemnly

proud of the generations of Russian people who have managed to create, in rotten

swamp, such great masterpieces of human genius.

Anyone who visits St-Petersburg will always be tempted to come back.

Questions: 1. When was the town of St. Petersburg founded?

2. St. Petersburg is one of the world's most beautiful cities, isn't it?

3. What is St. Petersburg famous for?

4. Is St. Petersburg a centre of science and culture?

Вариант №2

THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies

about one-seventh of the earth's surface. It covers the eastern part of Europe

and the northern part of Asia. Its total area is about 17 million square

kilometres. The country is washed by 12 seas of 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic

and the Atlantic. Russia borders on many countries.

24

So great variety of scenery and vegetation can be found here. We have

steppes in the south, plains and forests in the midland, tundra and taiga in the

north, highlands and deserts in the east.

There are two great plains in Russia: the Great Russian Plain and the

West Siberian Lowland. There are several mountain chains on the territory of

the country: the Urals, the Caucasus, the Altai and others. There are over two million rivers in Russia. Europe's biggest river, the Volga,

flows into the Caspian Sea. The main Siberian rivers — the Ob, the Yenisei and the

Lena.

Russia is rich in beautiful lakes. The world's deepest lake (1,600 metres) is

Lake Baikal

Russia has one-sixth of the world's forests. They are concentrated in the

European north of the country, in Siberia and in the Far East.

On the vast territory of the country there are various types of climate, from

arctic in the north to subtropical in the south. In the middle of the country the climate

is temperate and continental.

Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron, natural gas, copper, nickel and other

mineral resources.

According to the Constitution, which was adopted by national referendum on

12 December 1991, Russia is a federation. The President is the head of state and the

Prime Minister is the head of government. The Russian Federation is fundamentally

structured as a representative democracy.

The federal government is composed of three branches:

Legislative: The Federal Assembly is made up of the State Duma and the

Federation Council , It adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, and

has power of impeachment, by which it can remove the President.

Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto

legislative bills before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other

officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.

Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Supreme Court of

Arbitration and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the

Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and

can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term Ministries of the

government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected

other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the

Prime Minister . The national legislature is the Federal Assembly, which consists of

two chambers; the 450-member State Duma and the 176-member Federation Council.

Leading political parties in Russia include United Russia, the Communist Party, the

Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, and Fair Russia.

Notes: to occupy – занимать

surface – поверхность

total area – общая площадь

25

to wash – омывать

to border – граничить с

variety – разнообразие, множество

scenery – пейзаж, ландшафт

vast territory – обширная территория

head of state – глава государства

Questions:

1. Where is the Russian Federation situated?

2. What is the total area of the country?

3. What mineral resources is the Russian Federation rich in?

4. What is the climate like in Russia?

5. When was Moscow founded?

Вариант №3

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE OF GREAT BRITAIN

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) is the

official name of the state which is situated in the British Isles. It consists of four

countries which are England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Their capitals

are London, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast.

The UK is also washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the north and the North Sea in

the east.

More than 56 million people live in Britain. Many of them live in big

industrial cities like London, Manchester and Liverpool, for example, are big

industrial cities in the centre of England. But foreigners are often surprised by the fact

that much of land in Britain is open country. There are many lonely hills, quiet rivers,

deep lakes and just farmlands especially in the south of the country.

The f lag of the United Kingdom is known as the Union Jack. It is made up of

three crosses: the cross of St. George (the patron saint1 of England), the cross of St.

Andrew (the patron saint of Scotland) and the cross of St. Patrick (the patron saint of

Ireland).

It is rather difficult to understand the British way of ruling the country. In

Britain the Queen is the Head of State, but in fact she doesn't rule the country as she

has no power. The Queen is a symbol of the country history and its traditions. She is

very rich. She travels about the United Kingdom meets different people and visits

schools, hospitals and other special places. So do all the members of the Royal

family: the Queen's husband, her son Prince Charles the Queen daughter Princess

Anna, and Princess Margaret.

The real power in the country belongs to the British Parliament and to the

British Government. The British Parliament has two 'houses': the House of

Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords doesn't have much

power but it is very important as it can offer and change laws, it can delay laws

too. The House of Commons makes laws about the policy of the country, taxes

and many other things.

26

The members of the House of Lords are not elected. These members are

permanent. They are often aristocrats, peopled the church, lawyers and former

politicians.

The members of the House of Commons are elected. The British people

elect 650 members of the House of Commons every five years.

Notes: the patron saint - святой покровитель

His Majesty - Его Величество

the House of Lords — палата лордов

the House of Commons — палата общин

taxes - налоги

Questions:

1. Where is the UK situated?

2. What languages are spoken in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern

Ireland?

3. What is the Union Jack? What do you know about it?

4. Who is the Head of State in Britain?

5. What do you know about the Royal family?

Вариант №4

The United States of America

The United States of America is the fourth largest country in the world

after Russia, Canada and China. It occupies the central part of the North

American continent.

The United States of America is a federal republic, consisting of 50 states.

The country is washed by 3 oceans: the Arctic, the Atlantic and the

Pacific. The country has many lakes. There are also many rivers on the US

territory. The longest of them are the Mississippi, the Missouri , the Columbia,

the Rio Grande and some other. On the US territory there are mountains and

lowlands.

The climate conditions are rather different. The country is rich in natural

and mineral resources: oil, gas, iron ore, coal and various metals.

The USA is a highly developed industrial and agricultural country. The

main industrial branches are aircraft, rocket, automobile, electronics, radio

engineering.

Americans are made up from nearly all nations and races. The country

population is over 250 million. The national symbol of the USA is its national flag

―Stars and Stripes‖, having 50 white stars and 13 white and red stripes on its field,

symbolizing the number of the original states.

The United States of America is federal state, headed by the President.

According to the US Constitution the powers of the Government are divided in to 3

branches: Legislative, Executive and Judicial.

The Legislative power belongs to the Congress, consisting of the Senate and

the House of Representatives. The Senate represents the states while the House of the

Representatives – the population. The Executive power belongs to the President and

27

his Administration (Vice-President and Cabinet of Ministers). The Judicial power

belongs to the Supreme Court and the system of Federal, State and District courts.

There are several political parties in the USA, the largest of them are the Republican

(symbolized by a donkey) and the Democratic (symbolized by an elephant).

Notes: branch- ветвь власти

Legislative ['leʤɪslətɪv] - законодательная

Executive [ɪg'zekjutɪv] - исполнительная

Judicial [ʤuː'dɪʃ(ə)l]- судебная

House of Representatives- палата представителей

Questions:

1. How many states does the USA include?

2. What oceans is the USA washed by?

3. What are the main industrial branches?

4. How many branches of power are there in the USA according to the US

Constitution?

5. What political parties are there in the USA?

Вариант №5

NEW YORK New York is a city where all the languages of the world are spoken and where

people live on the ground, travel under the ground and work in the sky.

New York makes a great impression on all visitors because of its many high

buildings, its theatres, museums and hotels, its beautiful bridges, and its expensive

shops with their fabulous (баснословный) prices. The first permanent white settlers

(поселенцы) came to New York from Holland in 1626. These Dutch settlers bought all of

Manhattan Island (остров) from the Indians for the equivalent of twenty-five dollars, while

today some of this land costs a million dollars an acre. This island is the heart of the city.

It is on Manhattan Island where most of the skyscrapers are located. This island is

connected by six long bridges, as well as by tunnels and ferries (паром), with the other four

districts that constitute New York City.

New York is the largest city in the United States. Today there are more people living

in the New York City than in Australia, Peru or Sweden.

For transportation New York depends (зависеть) mainly on buses, the subway, taxis

and ferries. The buses are slow because of the crowded streets, whereas the subway train can

go as fast as railroad trains, sometimes stopping only at the most important stations. We may

go all day by the subway for the same rare, if we only change trains but do not go out of the

stations.

New York moves vertically as well as horizontally, taking its people by elevator

to their offices on the fortieth, sixtieth, and eightieth floor.

New York is the richest and the poorest, the most modem and the most old-

fashioned (старомодный) of cities, with expensive hotels and cheap boarding houses,

the home of symphonies and popular jazz clubs, cathedrals (собор) and night clubs; the

home of the famous Metropolitan Opera and the Metropolitan Museum of Art; the

28

home of most of the largest publishing houses (издательство) of the United States and

the biggest newspapers. On the Fifth Avenue there are many expensive stores of

international fame, but around the comer one may find little shops where imitation

diamonds and cheap souvenirs are sold.

Questions:

1. What kind of city is New York?

2. When and where did the first white settlers come from?

3. Where are the most skyscrapers located?

4. What does New York transportation depend on?

5. How does New York move?

6. What are there on the Fifth Avenue?

29

Тексты для дополнительного чтения по направлениям

Зооинженерный факультет

ВАРИАНТ №1

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Agriculture provides people with food, feed and other useful products. All

over the world farmers cultivate valuable plants and raise productive domesticated

animals. There are two main branches in modern agriculture: crop production (or

crop farming) and animal husbandry (or animal farming).

Nowadays, in many countries people are still relying on meat, milk and eggs

as main sources of food. Both breeders and farmers have already bred and are still

breeding highly productive agricultural animals. Animal farming is a process in

which a farmer breeds, raises and cares for livestock either for commerce or private

use.

The word "livestock" refers to domesticated animals such as beef and dairy

cattle, sheep, goats, swine (hogs), horses, donkeys and mules, buffalo, oxen, rabbits

or "exotic" animals, for example, camels, emus, ostriches, or any animal which a

farmer keeps and uses either for food or pleasure. Sometimes animal scientists

include in this term also poultry, such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys, but they

include neither honey bees nor fish within the term "livestock". However, poultry

farming and beekeeping are important branches of agriculture as well as

aquaculture1.

There are over a hundred large land mammals in the world but man has

domesticated only few types into livestock. There are two main requirements for

domestication of mammals: 1) the availability2

of feed which a farmer can easily

control and provide; 2) a rapid rate of reproduction3. As cattle, sheep and horses are

herbivorous mammals, farmers try to keep these domestic animals on pastures.

However, farmers often grow either cereals or other agricultural crops as additional

feed for their animals. Such ruminant animals as cattle, sheep and goats are important

for people because they convert large quantities of grasses or other types of feeds, as

well as non-protein nitrogen into meat, milk and wool. Poultry also convert feed

efficiently into protein.

Historically, livestock and poultry have provided the following benefits to

humanity4: meat, eggs, dairy products, raw materials, fertiliser, labour,

management5 of land.

1) Meat and eggs. In many countries livestock replaced wild game6

as the main

source of animal protein because only livestock convert various food sources into

human food. Poultry provide people with white meat as well as with eggs.

2) Dairy products. People process milk of cows, sheep, goats into a variety of

valuable dairy products such as yoghurt, cheese, butter, ice cream, kefir, and

koumiss.

30

3) Raw materials. Livestock produce useful raw materials, for example, horses and

cows provide leather, poultry produce feather and down7, sheep and goats provide

wool for textile industry.

4) Fertiliser. Livestock leave behind manure which farmers spread on fields and this

increases yields of crops many times. Historically, plant and animal farming have

been closely linked.

5) Labour. In modern agriculture neither cattle nor horses are the main source of

mechanical energy. However, in some poor countries people are still using livestock

as draft cattle.

6) Management of land. Sometimes farmers use the grazing of livestock as a way to

control weeds8.

When a farmer is planning to rear livestock, he usually chooses the most

suitable type for the local conditions. Both climate and type of land, as well as local

traditions influence a farmer's choice.

Notes: 1 aquaculture – аквакультура

2 availability – наличие (доступность)

3 a rate of reproduction – зд. скорость воспроизводства

4 the following benefits to humanity – следующие выгоды для

человечества 5 management – зд. возделывание

6 wild game – дикие животные

7 feather, down – перо, пух

8 a way to control weeds – способ борьбы с сорняками

ANIMAL SCIENTISTS

Animal scientists help farmers to develop and improve agricultural industry.

Different animal sciences are important for specialists who work in the field of

animal farming such as: animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology

and ethology, livestock and poultry management.

Students of animal science are interested in processes how agricultural

animals convert feeds into food and other useful things which people need. They

conduct research in different fields of animal husbandry1 and try to improve

production, yield and growth of various animals. Thus, they mainly specialise in

such disciplines as nutrition, genetics and breeding, or reproductive physiology2.

There are special courses to train veterinary scientists who study diseases of farm

animals, methods of vaccination and animal treatment.

Graduates3 of the faculty of animal husbandry work in veterinary and human

pharmaceutical industries, in industries which provide farms with livestock and feeds

as well as in educational institutes. They can work both for private research firms and

federal or state experimental stations.

An animal breeder is one of the oldest world professions. Historically, there

are certain sub-professions within the field of animal husbandry. They have specific

names according to the animal for which a person cares, for example, a cattle breeder

31

(or a cattleman), a pig breeder (a hogman), a sheep breeder (a sheepman), a horse

breeder (a horseman), a poultry breeder (a poultryman), a beekeeper or an apiarist, a

dog breeder or a cynologist.

Today, managers of commercial farms organize the work of many different

specialists who raise thousands of various animals. Farms and ranches employ

breeders, veterinary surgeons (or vets), feeders and milkmen who help to care for the

animals. Nowadays farmers use modern techniques and achievements of different

natural sciences because this helps to improve the ability of animals to convert feed

into meat, milk, or fibre more efficiently and improve the quality of the final

products. Notes: 1

animal husbandry – животноводство 2

reproductive physiology – репродуктивная физиология 3graduates – выпускники

ВАРИАНТ №2

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

The word "physiology" originated from the Greek language and it consists of

two parts: physis which means "nature" and logos which is "word". In general,

physiology is the study of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living

organisms1. Physiology has traditionally been divided into plant physiology, animal

physiology and human physiology but the physiology principles are universal, even

if a particular organism is being studied.

Animal physiology is the study of animal functions that is the study of "how

animals work". The rapid development of animal physiology as a distinct discipline

began in the 19th century and was stimulated by the requirements of animal

husbandry and veterinary science. Animal physiology is subdivided into the four

main parts, such as general physiology, special physiology, comparative physiology2

and age physiology3. General physiology deals with the analysis of such universal

and important processes as blood circulation4, metabolism, respirations

5 etc. Special

physiology applies general physiological principles in order to investigate

characteristics of a particular animal species. Comparative physiology concentrates

on similarities and differences of physiological functions of various living

organisms. The problems of how physiological functions change with animal age are

of special interest to age physiology.

The main approach in animal physiology is to study the evolutionary origins

of the physiological mechanisms in order to understand the significance of these

mechanisms for modern-day animals6. Modern physiology which is based on

chemical, physical and anatomical methods investigates biological organisation of

the animal body at different levels, that is, cells, tissues, organs.

One of the parts of special physiology is devoted to farm animal physiology.

The aim of this science is not only to study physiological functions of the farm

animal body, but to control them in order to increase the production of eggs,

offspring, milk, meat and wool. The problem of how to maintain good health of farm

32

animals throughout a long lifetime of high production is of great importance to farm

specialists as well.

Farm animal physiology is closely related to veterinary science as it is

necessary to know physiological standards and the physiological reactions which

take place in the body of a healthy animal in order to cure sick animals7 and prevent

different animal diseases. The problems of sterility and nutritional disorders8 are

studied by physiologists as well as by veterinary surgeons.

Animal requirements in nutrients and energy depend on their physiological

features, so feeding rations are calculated on the basis of physiological data. The

feeding systems for rearing young animals are being developed on physiological

parameters as well. Physiological characteristics such as age and weight are

considered by the scientists when animals are fed with vitamins, antibiotics,

microelements or hormones.

Farmers should take into account some important physiological features of

animals in different situations, for instance, when a farmer is going to use artificial

insemination9 or train sport horses or dogs. Physiological parameters of farm animals

are of special value to engineers who design different farm mechanisms, such as

milking or feeding machines.

Other major branches of scientific study that have grown out of physiology

research include biochemistry, biophysics, biomechanics, pharmacology, cytology as

well as genetics which are known as the biological bases for rational animal

husbandry. Notes: 1 living organism – живой организм

2 comparative physiology – сравнительная физиология

3 age physiology – возрастная физиология

4 blood circulation – кровообращение

5 respiration – дыхание

6 modern-day animals – современные животные

7 to cure sick animals – лечить больных животных

8 nutritional disorder – проблема, вызванная недостаточным питанием

9 artificial insemination – искусственное осеменение

ANIMAL BREEDING

The aim of farm animals breeding is to improve qualities which are

considered desirable by humans. Long before the scientific principles to the selection

of superior animals were developed and the planning of mating combinations was

introduced in practice, all species of farm animals were subjected to selective

breeding to some extent. At present, in order to modify livestock and poultry and

control propagation of domestic animals, breeding procedures involve the application

of several basic sciences, mainly reproductive physiology1, genetics and statistics.

Animals are bred for utility, sport, pleasure, and research. The purposes of

animal breeding vary with regard to species, local conditions, and time. For instance,

early in history horses were bred mainly for riding and as draft animals; and

nowadays, to a large extent, horses are being bred for sport (racing and hunting). As

33

to poultry, in the past chickens bred for the combined production of eggs and meat,

but nowadays most European countries farmers mainly specialise in such breeds and

crosses which produce either eggs or meat.

At present, farmers are using special breeding programmes in order to

maintain herds and flocks of higher genetic merit. These programmes include such

steps as: 1) the estimation of the breeding value of animals; 2) thorough selection of

animals for breeding; 3) the application of one of the mating systems.

The problem how to estimate the breeding value of animals has been

researched thoroughly by scientists for different kinds of animals. On the one hand, it

is necessary to select animals for breeding on the basis of objective measurements of

traits that are decisive for the production. On the other hand, it is often impossible to

judge animals' productivity only on the basis of their appearance, so farmers started

systematic recordings of such individual animal characteristics as milk yields,

growth rate and muscle development for bulls etc. Progeny testing and performance

testing have been introduced to judge young males (bulls, rams, and boars) that will

be used for breeding. Actual measurement of an individual animal's performance is a

rather recent innovation in animal breeding and it has established the foundation of

breeding programmes.

Nowadays it is known that the breeding value of an animal depends on the

genes which it passes on to its offspring, so genetics has become the basis of animal

selection and breeding. It has been found that some traits (coat colour, blood type

etc.) are inherited in accordance with the laws of heredity, while other traits (wool

yield, egg production etc.) are subjected to variations and are greatly influenced by

the environmental factors.

Selection is based on the breeding value of animals and can be carried out in

different ways such as mass selection2, pedigree selection

3, family selection

4, and

progeny selection. There are certain advantages and disadvantages of these systems,

thus selection is usually made in a number of steps. With regard to dairy, bulls

selection on the basis of pedigree is made soon after birth; a second selection is made

later and based on growth rate during the first year of life and fertility in the first

series of inseminations; and, finally, a third selection depends on the results of

progeny tests, when offspring are old enough and may be judged.

Animal breeders apply different mating systems such as inbreeding5,

outbreeding6, linebreeding

7, crossbreeding

8 as well. The purpose of any method of

breeding is to exclude undesirable traits and combine the most essential

characteristics in a new animal breed. Along with various breeding methods, the

introduction of such techniques as artificial insemination, transplantation of embryo

from donor females of high merit has become of great use in breeding all species of

farm animals.

To sum up, scientists apply the same basic principles of breeding to any

animal species, though the practical approach to the problem may differ to a certain

extent and it depends on the rate of animal reproduction, selection method, mating

system, as well as on some genetic and environmental factors. Notes: 1 reproductive physiology — репродуктивная физиология

34

2 mass selection — массовый отбор

3 pedigree selection — отбор по родословной

4 family selection — семейственный отбор

5 inbreeding — межродственное скрещивание

6 outbreeding — аутбридинг (неродственное спаривание)

7 linebreeding —разведение в пределах одной линии

8 crossbreeding — кроссбридинг, метизация (скрещивание особей разных пород или

разновидностей)

ВАРИАНТ №3

ANIMAL NUTRITION

Since animal nutrition research began to develop rapidly during the 1930s,

many discoveries about animal metabolism and nutrient requirements have been

made. Nutrition is interpreted as the study of organic process by which an organism

assimilates1 and uses food and liquids

2 for normal functioning. Adequate nutrition for

any living organism is necessary for the following reasons: 1) in order to provide

adequate energy levels; 2) to maintain proper body structures and processes, for

instance, muscle function, immune protection, bone density3 and strength; 3) to

ensure the repair and development of all organism's systems, thus to maintain

balance between health and disease. In the case of farm animals, proper nutrition is

affected by various factors, such as animal species and breed, animal age, body shape

and size and other physiological characteristics. The lack of or deficiency in any

nutrient may cause animal weakness and even illness.

A nutrient is any element or compound which is necessary for an organism's

metabolism, growth, development or other functions. It is essential to provide farm

animals with adequate amounts of nutrients which they get from various feeds. In

general, animals require the same nutrients as humans. There are six basic nutrients

which are important animals' health and they are classified into the two main groups:

substances that provide energy; 2) substances that support metabolism, former group

includes carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the latter comprises minerals (for instance,

phosphorus, calcium), vitamins and water.

It has been found that any particular substance can play more than role in the

body. For example, most animals get energy from carbohydrates and fats, which are

oxidised in the body. However, protein supplies energy if other sources are

inadequate or if it is supplied in great excess above the requirements of the body.

Moreover, proteins provide the building blocks (amino acids) for enzymes and other

proteins within the body. Thus, for most living organisms nutrients provide not only

the energy necessary for certain vital processes but also the various materials from

which all structural and functional components can be made up.

On the one hand, there are so-called non-essential nutrients which are

synthesised by the cell if they are unavailable to the living organism with the food or

feed. On the other hand, there are essential nutrients which cannot be manufactured

within the cell in the body. Consequently, it is important to supply farm animals with

feeds which contain certain essential amino acids as well as essential fatty acids.

35

The problem of proper feed supply is of great importance to animal

husbandry. Thus, various animal feeds are grown or developed for livestock and

poultry, selected and prepared in order to provide highly nutritional diets that both

maintain the health of the animals and increase the quality of such farm products as

meat, milk, or eggs.

Scientists have studied the usefulness of different feeds as sources of

essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates.

They also have suggested the proper balance of available nutrients in the animal diet

and as a result different nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies4 have

been developed. Since the 1950s, antibiotics and other growth stimulants have been

added to feeding rations in order to increase the rate of growth and reduce death loss

of farm animals. Antibiotics help to overcome5 the growth-depressing effects of an

inadequate and poor-quality diet or of imperfect management practices6, but their

effectiveness differs among animal species.

The achievements of animal physiology and special studies of life processes

in farm animals have ensured the development of the optimal diet for each animal.

Many of the feeds have appeared as the result of research, experimentation, and

chemical analyses which were conducted by animal scientists. However, the problem

of adequate animal nutrition is still the subject of current studies for farm scientists.

Human nutrition has been improved as a result of animal nutrition investigations. Notes: 1 to assimilate – зд. поглощать, усваивать

2 liquid – жидкость

3 bone density – плотность кости

4 feed-processing technologies – технологии по переработке корма

5 to overcome – преодолеть

6 management practices – способы содержания животных

ВАРИАНТ №4

ANIMAL ECOLOGY

The word ecology originates from the Greek language and means "the study

of the place to live". In general, ecology as a branch of biology deals with the

relationships between living organisms and their environment. Animal ecology

began to develop rapidly as an applied area of ecology only in the middle of the 20th

century. Animal ecology concerns the study of population dynamics1, distribution,

behaviour, and the interrelations of animals and their environment. In the beginning,

animal ecology developed separately from plant physiology. However, animals

depend upon plants for food and shelter, so it is impossible to understand animal

ecology without plant ecology. This is particularly true in such applied areas of

ecology as farm animal ecology as well as ecology of wildlife2. Modern ecology

considers interrelationship of both plant and animal communities as a whole biotic

unit3.

Ecology is mainly based on the ecosystem concept which is applied to units

of various sizes such as a pond, a field, a pasture, a forest or a large ecoregion. When

an ecologist is going to analyse any ecosystem, he will study the living organisms

which inhabit this specific area, the physical environment, and all interrelations in

36

this particular unit of space. The term "environment" includes both physical

surroundings and biotic communities. The former means a large variety of local

abiotic (nonliving) factors like temperature, sunlight, minerals, soil, and water.

Different plants and other organisms that share the organism habitat are known as

biotic communities. In farm animal ecology, the emphasis is put on farm animal

relationships to human society and the whole economy within a particular ecosystem.

For example, before a large commercial hog breeding farm is built, ecologists will

study such problems as the pollution of the soil and water resources by the animal

wastes4, the influence of grazing on the ecology of the nearest pastures etc. Thus, a

farm will not be built until the problems of water recycling and utilisation of animal

wastes are considered and solved.

Within the ecosystem, species are connected and they depend upon one

another in the food chain, and exchange energy and matter between themselves and

with their environment. The concepts of the food chain and ecological niche were

described in the theses by Charles Sutherland Elton (1900-1991), a British biologist

and naturalist. The following food chain "the grass (or other plants) → the herbivore

(cattle, sheep) → the man" is of great interest to farm animal ecology.

Human interference in the development of ecosystems is widely spread.

Farming is the deliberate maintenance of such an ecosystem which is highly

productive but relatively unstable. Consequently, the proper management of

ecosystems for optimal food production as well as thorough study and analysis of

various natural cycles (such as a water cycle or a nitrogen cycle) are of great

importance to ecologists.

Farmers have widely adopted intensive systems of crop and animal

production which provide bases for reliable food production. However, there are

some advantages and disadvantages of intensive farming. On the one hand, if farmers

apply modern cultivation practices and fertilisation in order to increase the soil

fertility, yields of forage crops will be higher and farm animals will be provided with

enough amounts of feed. Farmers widely use intensive methods for producing animal

products which include confinement of poultry in small cages, swine in small pens,

and sheep and cattle in small lots5. Thus, the study of the relationships between farm

animals and their surroundings such as temperature, air and light conditions is of

special importance to ecologists. It has been found that proper lighting management

may increase both poultry and livestock production, so lightening is controlled on

any type of farm now. Furthermore, it has been shown that confinement leads to

savings in labour, feed, and other production costs6. Besides, when animals are kept

in individual pens, it will be easier to ensure proper disease control. So, the

introduction of new methods of intensive farming has enabled farmers to satisfy the

needs of population in animal food product.

On the other hand, in the long run7, such intensive systems of farming may

cause serious ecological problems and even ecological crises. It has been shown that

cultivation and fertilisation result in a disbalance of nutrients, an increase in

pollutants, in pesticides accumulation in the soil, or an increase in susceptibility to

plant diseases. Moreover, confinement of farm animals has come under attack8 as

37

cruel9 to the animals, and protective legislation

10 of animal right has been

advocated11

.

Nevertheless, livestock and poultry farmers claim that if the animals are

under any stressful conditions, they will show sharp decreases in productivity, but

milk yields and egg production are maintained at high levels on commercial farms.

Since the 1970s, the behavioural adaptation of animals to their surroundings and the

effects of environmental stress on the immune status of livestock and poultry have

been studied thoroughly by ecologists.

At present, ecology is a multi-disciplinary science which involves plant and

animal biology, physiology, genetics, behaviour, meteorology, geology, sociology

etc. It is often difficult to draw a sharp line between ecology and any of these

sciences. The knowledge of ecology provides the necessary basis for proper

management and conservation of natural resources as well as for maintenance of

essential ecological processes and ecosystems.

Ecology is widely studied as one of the most important aspects of biology as

it has become clear that such problems as the increase in population, food scarcity,

environmental pollution, and some sociological and political problems are to a great

degree ecological. Notes: 1 population dynamics – математическая генетика

2 wildlife – живая природа

3 biotic unit – зд. биотическая единица

4 animal wastes – отходы животноводства

5 cage; pen; lot – клетка; бокс (секция); участок

6 production costs – производственные издержки

7 in the long run – в конце концов

8 to come under attack – зд. подвергать критике

9 cruel – жестокий

10 protective legislation – зд. закон о защите

11 to advocate – поддерживать, пропагандировать

ВАРИАНТ №5

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Veterinary Science is also called veterinary medicine and includes the

prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the diseases of domestic animals and the

management of other animal disorders. The field also deals with those diseases that

are intercommunicable1 between animals and humans.

Persons who serve as doctors to animals have existed since early times, and

veterinary practice was already established as a specialty as early as 2000 BC in

Babylonia and Egypt and the ancient Greeks had "horse-doctors". The first

veterinary schools in Europe were established in the mid-18th century and since that

time veterinary science has rapidly developed alongside with2modern medicine.

Animal health is to ensure the efficient production of wholesome animal

products. Farm animals are susceptible to various infectious diseases and may suffer

from viruses and harmful bacteria, so animals should be examined by veterinary

surgeons regularly in order to notice disease symptoms in time and take the

38

necessary preventive and control measures. Such common animal diseases as

mastitis, brucellosis, swine fever, erysipelas, anthrax, and leptospirosis can quickly

spread and cause major losses among stock animals, so they must be controlled or

prevented by veterinary surgeons.

Vaccination and immunisation, sanitary measures, and the severe

segregation, or quarantine, of sick animals should be used by farmers and veterinary

surgeons to prevent the spread of infectious diseases such as anthrax, bovine

tuberculosis, brucellosis, canine distemper, and rabies. Sanitary control of animal

housing and proper pasture management are to eliminate any carriers of animal

infectious diseases which can be easily transmitted by water and soil.

The governmental officials must be informed about the outbreak of a

notifiable disease in order to prevent the disease spread. If an animal has contact the

infectious disease and cannot be cured, it will have to be slaughtered.

Veterinary surgeons also treat parasitical infections, unsanitary conditions

which may cause lower fertility in livestock, and nutritional disorders, and they often

have to set broken limbs3 and neuter

4 domestic pets. Besides, veterinary scientists

investigate the chronic infectious diseases associated with high morbidity rates5 and

various metabolic disorders. The development of vaccine to control Marek's disease

in chickens is an example of the economic effect of animal-disease research that was

conducted by veterinary scientists.

A veterinary surgeon's training must include the study of the basic preclinical

disciplines of anatomy, histology, physiology, pharmacology, microbiology as well

as bacteriology, virology, parasitology, and pathology. The clinical subjects of study

may be divided into internal medicine, preventive medicine, surgery and clinical

practice.

Internal medicine includes the diagnosis and treatment of diseases as they

affect animals. Preventive medicine should consider the aspects of disease prevention

and control, especially such diseases that can be transmitted between animals and

humans or diseases that may influence human health. Generally, several preventive

techniques are available for the use in the prevention of disease in an animal

population such as quarantine, immunisation, environmental control, various

methods of disease control and eradication, early diagnosis of a disease. It has been

proved that animal diseases may be prevented to a great extent by ensuring proper

hygienic and sanitary conditions on a farm, which include the maintenance of safe

water supplies, air sanitation, pest control, the improvement of animal housing etc.

Surgery includes wound treatment6, fracture repair

7, the excision

8 of body parts, and

the use of such techniques as radiology, anesthesiology, obstetrics9, treatment of

lameness10

etc. In most veterinary schools, clinical practice enables students,

especially future veterinary surgeons, to observe and assist with actual cases of

disease or other conditions which require attention. In both medical and surgical

treatment, the same techniques are to be used as in medical practice on humans.

In most countries of the world, professional veterinary surgeons must

complete a special educational programme. According to this programme students

are to study for four or six years at the university and only after such a course of

study the degree of doctor of veterinary medicine is to be awarded. Moreover, in

39

many countries veterinary surgeons must obtain a licence to start their practice from

some duly constituted authority11

. Veterinary surgeons may specialize either in the

care of small animals such as pets and work in banian hospitals, while others may

treat mainly livestock. A few veterinary surgeons may be employed by zoos or

circuses to examine and take care of wild animals.

Notes: 1 intercommunicable – зд. передаваемый

2 alongside with – наряду с

3 to set broken limbs – зд. лечить сломанные конечности

4 to neuter – кастрировать

5 morbidity rate – показатель заболеваемости

6 wound treatment – обработка ран

7 fracture repair – лечение переломов

8 excision – удаление

9 obstetrics – акушерство

10 lameness – хромота

11 duly constituted authority – должным образом уполномоченные законом власти

Факультет агротехнологий и декоративного растениеводства

ВАРИАНТ №1

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the production of food and goods1 through farming. Agriculture

was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the

husbandry of domesticated animals2 and plants (i.e. crops) creating food surpluses

that enabled the development of more densely populated3 societies. The study of

agriculture is known as agricultural science.

Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties and techniques,

including ways to expand the lands suitable for plant raising, by digging water-

channels and other forms of irrigation. Cultivation of crops on arable land4 and the

pastoral herding of livestock on rangeland remain at the foundation of agriculture. In

the past century there has been increasing concern to identify and quantify various

forms of agriculture. In the developed world the range usually extends between

sustainable agriculture (e.g. organic agriculture) and intensive farming (e.g. industrial

agriculture).

Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and

technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, and at

the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health

effects. Selective breeding5 and modern practices in animal husbandry such as

intensive pig farming6 (and similar practices applied to the chicken) have similarly

increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal cruelty and the

health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly

used in industrial meat production.

40

The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods,

fibers, fuels, and raw materials. In the 2000s, plants have been used to grow biofuels,

biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics7, and pharmaceuticals. Specific foods include cereals,

vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw

materials include lumber and bamboo. Other useful materials are produced by plants,

such as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut

flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of the

ornamental products.

In 2007, about one third of the world's workers were employed in agriculture.

The services sector has overtaken agriculture as the economic sector employing the

most people worldwide. Despite the size of its workforce, agricultural production

accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product8

(an aggregate of all

gross domestic products9).

Notes: 1goods - товары

2domesticated animals - домашние животные

3densely populated - густо населенный

4arable land - пахотные угодья

5selective breeding - разведение селекционных пород скота

6intensive pig farming - интенсивное свиноводство

7biofuel, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics - биотопливо, биофармацевтические препараты,

биопластик 8

gross world product - мировой валовый продукт 9

gross domestic product - внутренний валовый продукт

AGRICULTURE SAFETY AND HEALTH

Agriculture ranks among the most hazardous1 industries. Farmers are at high

risk for fatal and nonfatal injuries2, work-related lung diseases

3, hearing loss, skin

diseases, and certain cancers associated with chemical use and prolonged sun

exposure4. Farming is one of the few industries in which the families (who often

share the work and live on the premises5) are also at risk for injuries, illness, and

death. In an average year, 516 workers die doing farm work in the U.S. (1992-2005).

Of these deaths, 101 are caused by tractor overturns. Every day, about 243

agricultural workers suffer lost-work-time injuries, and about 5% of these result in

permanent impairment6.

Agriculture is the most dangerous industry for young workers,

accounting for 42% of all work-related fatalities of young workers in the U.S.

between 1992 and 2000. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculture

were under age 15.For young agricultural workers aged 15–17, the risk of fatal injury

is four times the risk for young workers in other workplaces. Agricultural work

exposes young workers to safety hazards such as machinery, confined spaces, work at

elevations, and work around livestock7.

An estimated 1.26 million children and adolescents under 20 years of

age resided on farms in 2004, with about 699,000 of these youth performing work on

the farms. In addition to the youth who live on farms, an additional 337,000 children

and adolescents were hired to work8 on U.S. farms in 2004. On average, 103 children

41

are killed9 annually on farms (1990-1996). Approximately 40 percent of these deaths

were work-related. In 2004, an estimated 27,600 children and adolescents were

injured on farms; 8,100 of these injuries were due to farm work. Notes: 1hazardous-опасный, серьезный

2injuries- повреждения

3lung diseases-заболевания легких

4prolonged sun exposure-продолжительное пребывание на солнце

5premises-дома с прилегающими пристройками и участком

6impairment-повреждение

7livestock-домашний скот

8adolescents were hired to work-подростки были приняты на работу

9children are killed-дети погибают

ВАРИАНТ №2

MODERN ERA: BRITISH AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION AND GREEN

REVOLUTION

After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds1

occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the tomato, maize, potato,

manioc, cocoa bean and tobacco going from the New World to the Old, and several

varieties of wheat, spices2, coffee, and sugar cane going from the Old World to the

New. The most important animal exportation from the Old World to the New were

those of the horse and dog.

The potato became an important staple crop in northern Europe. Since being

introduced by Portuguese in the 16th century, maize and manioc have replaced

traditional African crops as the continent's most important staple food crops.

By the early 1800s, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and

cultivated plants3 had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen

in the Middle Ages. With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th and 20th

centuries, particularly in the form of the tractor. These advances have led to

efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel,

Germany, and a few other nations to output volumes of high-quality produce per land

unit. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by productivity, the

substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides4.

The cereals, rice, corn, and wheat provide 60% of human food supply.

Between 1700 and 1980, "the total area of cultivated land worldwide increased

466%" and yields increased dramatically, particularly because of selectively-bred

high-yielding varieties5, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and machinery. For

example, irrigation increased corn yields in eastern Colorado by 400 to 500% from

1940 to 1997.

Intensive agriculture has become associated with decreased soil quality in

India and Asia. The monocultures typically used in intensive agriculture increase the

number of pests, which are controlled through pesticides. Integrated pest

management (IPM)6, which has been promoted for decades and has had some notable

success. Although the "Green Revolution" significantly increased rice yields in Asia,

yield increases have not occurred in the past 15–20 years. The genetic "yield

42

potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased

since 1966. It takes a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds7 to emerge, and

insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade. Crop rotation helps to

prevent resistances.

Agricultural exploration expeditions, since the late nineteenth century, have

been mounted to find new species and new agricultural practices in different areas of

the world. Two early examples of expeditions include Frank N. Meyer's fruit- and

nut-collecting trip to China and Japan from 1916-1918 and the Dorsett-Morse

Oriental Agricultural Exploration Expedition to China, Japan, and Korea from 1929-

1931 to collect soybean germplasm8 to support the rise in soybean agriculture in the

United States.

In 2005, the agricultural output9 of China was the largest in the world,

accounting for almost one-sixth of world share, followed by the EU, India and the

USA. Six countries - the US, Canada, France, Australia, Argentina and Thailand -

supply 90% of grain exports. The United States controls almost half of world grain

exports. Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous

middle-sized countries, including Algeria, Iran, Egypt, and Mexico, may soon do the

same in larger countries, such as China or India. Notes: 1 livestock breeds - породы с/х животных

2 spices - пряности

3 cultivated plants-возделываемые растения

4 synthetic fertilizers and pesticides- синтетические минеральные удобрения и

пестициды 5 selectively-bred high- yielding varieties-селекционные высоко плодородные сорта

6 integrated pest management-комплексный контроль за насекомыми -вредителями

7 herbicide-resistant weeds- сорняки, устойчивые к действию гербицидов

8 soybean germplasm- протоплазма соевых бобов

9 agricultural output- выпуск с/х продукции

CROP PRODUCTION1 SYSTEMS

Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources,

geography and climate of the farm, government policy, economic, social and political

pressures, the philosophy and culture of the farmer. Shifting cultivation2 (or slash and

burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation

of annual and then perennial crops3 for a period of several years. Then the plot is left

fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many

more years (10-20). This period is shortened if population density4 grows. Annual

cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This

requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.

Further industrialization lead to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar5 is

planted on a large acreage. Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown

sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same

time are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.

In tropical environments, all of these cropping systems are practiced. In

subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be

43

limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring

irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate).

In temperate environments6, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or

prairie, highly productive annual cropping is the dominant farming system.

The last century has seen the intensification, concentration and specialization

of agriculture, relying upon new technologies of agricultural chemicals (fertilizers

and pesticides), mechanization, and plant breeding (hybrids and GMO's7).

Notes: 1 crop production - растениеводство

2 shifting cultivation - изменяющееся возделывание почвы ( вырубка и сжигание)

3 annual, perennial crops - однолетние, многолетние культуры

4 population density - плотность населения

5cultivar - культура

6temperate environments - умеренный климат

7GMO’s - измененный генетический код

ВАРИАНТ №3

TRANSGENIC PLANTS Transgenic plants

1 have been engineered to possess several desirable traits,

including resistance to pests, herbicides or harsh environmental conditions2,

improved product shelf life, and increased nutritional value. Since the first

commercial cultivation of genetically modified plants in 1996, they have been

modified to be tolerant to the herbicides glufosinate and glyphosate, to be resistant to

virus damage as in Ringspot virus3 resistant GM papaya, grown in Hawaii, and to

produce the Bt toxin, a potent insecticide. Most of transgenic varieties grown today

are known as first generation transgenics4, because the transgenic trait provides

benefits to farmers. Plants of the second generation should directly benefit the

consumer with nutritional enhancement, taste, texture etc. Transgenic plants of the

second generation are being developed by both public research institutions and

private companies. However currently there is no such transgenic variety5 on the

market. Genetically modified sweet potatoes have been enhanced with protein and

other nutrients, while golden rice, developed by the International Rice Research

Institute, has been discussed as a possible cure for Vitamin A deficiency. In January

2008, scientists altered a carrot so that it would produce calcium and become a

possible cure for osteoporosis; however, people would need to eat 1.5 kilograms of

carrots per day to reach the required amount of calcium.

The coexistence6 of GM plants with conventional and organic crops has

raised significant concern in many European countries. Since there is separate

legislation for GM crops7 and a high demand from consumers for the freedom of

choice between GM and non-GM foods, measures are required to separate foods and

feed produced from GMO plants from conventional and organic foods. European

research programmes such are investigating appropriate tools and rules. At the field

level, biological containment methods include isolation distances and pollen barriers.

44

Notes: 1transgenic plants - трансгенные растения

2 resistance to pests, herbicides or harsh environmental conditions - устойчивость к

насекомым-вредителям, гербицидам и неблагоприятным климатическим условиям 3 ring spot virus - вирус кольцевой гнили

4 first generation transgenic - первое поколение трансгенной продукции

5 transgenic variety - трасгенный сорт

6 coexistence - сосуществование

7separate legislation - отдельные правовые нормативы на ГМ культуры

CISGENIC PLANTS

While conventional transgenic plants are developed by introduction of a gene

originating from distant, sexually incompatible species into the host genome, cisgenic

plants1 contain genes which have been isolated either directly from the host species or

from sexually compatible species. The new genes are however introduced using

recombinant DNA methods2 and gene transfer

3. Principally the same result could be

obtained by classical breeding4. However the disadvantage of classical breeding is

that with one desired trait also a number of undesired traits5 are transferred and the

number of backcrosses necessary to remove these undesired traits approaches

infinity. Some scientist hope that the approval process of cisgenic plants might be

simpler than that of proper transgenics, but it remains to be seen.

Notes: 1cisgenic plants- цисгенные растения

2 recombinant DNA methods-смешанные методы ДНК

3gene transfer-пересадка гена

4 classical breeding- классическое выведение сорта

5undesired traits-нежелательная характерная черта

BIOLOGICAL PROCESS

The use of GMOs has sparked significant controversy in many areas. Some

groups or individuals see the generation and use of GMO as intolerable meddling

with biological states or processes that have naturally evolved over long periods of

time, while others are concerned about the limitations of modern science to fully

comprehend all of the potential negative ramifications of genetic manipulation.

FOODCHAIN

The safety of GMOs in the foodchain1 has been questioned by some

environmental groups, with concerns such as the possibilities that GMOs could

introduce new allergens into foods, or contribute to the spread of antibiotic

resistance2. Although all studies conducted to date have shown no adverse health

effects resulting from eating genetically modified foods, environmental groups still

discourage consumption in many countries, claiming that GM foods are unnatural

and therefore unsafe3. Such concerns have led to the adoption of laws and regulations

that require safety testing of any new organism produced for human consumption.

GM proponents note that because of the safety testing requirements imposed

on GM foods, the risk of introducing a plant variety with a new allergene or toxin

using genetic modification is much smaller than using traditional breeding processes.

45

An example of an allergenic plant created using traditional breeding include is the

kiwi. Notes: 1foodchain - магазины по продаже продовольствия

2antibiotic resistance - устойчивость к антибиотикам

3unnatural and unsafe - неестественный и небезопасный

TRADE IN EUROPE AND AFRICA

In response to negative public opinion, it was announced to remove seed

cereal business from Europe. Some African nations have refused emergency food aid

from developed countries, fearing that the food is unsafe. During a conference in the

Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, Kingsley Amoako, Executive Secretary of the

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA1), encouraged African

nations to accept genetically modified food and expressed dissatisfaction in the

public’s negative opinion of biotechnology. Notes: 1 the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA)-экономическая

комиссия по Африке при ООН

ВАРИАНТ №4

AGRICULTURAL SURPLUSES1

Chairman of the UK Food Group, accused some governments, especially the

US administration, of using GM food aid as a way to dispose of unwanted

agricultural surpluses. The UN blamed food companies2 of violating human rights,

calling on governments to regulate these profit-driven firms. It is widely believed that

the acceptance of biotechnology and genetically modified foods will also benefit rich

research companies and could possibly benefit them more than consumers in

underdeveloped nations.

LABELING

While some groups advocate the complete prohibition of GMOs, others call

for mandatory labeling3 of genetically modified food or other products.

Notes: 1agricultural surpluses-избытки с/х продукции

2The UN blamed food companies -ООН предъявила обвинения продовольственным

компаниям 3mandatory labeling—обязательная маркировка продукции , содержащая ГМО

UNDERDEVELOPED NATIONS

Some groups believe that underdeveloped nations will not reap the benefits of

biotechnology because they do not have easy access to these developments, cannot

afford modern agricultural equipment, and certain aspects of the system revolving

around intellectual property rights are unfair to undeveloped countries. For example,

The CGIAR (Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research)1 is an aid

and research organization that has been working to achieve sustainable food security

and decrease poverty in undeveloped countries since its formation in 1971. In an

evaluation of CGIAR, the World Bank praised its efforts but suggested a shift to

genetics research and productivity enhancement. This plan has several obstacles such

46

as patents, commercial licenses, and the difficulty that third world countries have in

accessing the international collection of genetic resources and other intellectual

property rights that would educate them about modern technology. The International

Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture2 has attempted to

remedy this problem, but results have been inconsistent. As a result, "orphan crops3",

such as teff, millets, cowpeas4, and indigenous plants

5, are important in the countries

where they are grown, but receive little investment. Notes: 1 The CGIAR (Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research)-

Международная консультативная группа по вопросам исследования сельского

хозяйства 2

The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture-

Международный договор по генетическим ресурсам продуктов питания и сельского

хозяйства 3 ―orphan crops‖- «сиротские культуры»

4 teff; millets; cowpeas- метличка абиссинская; просо; вигна китайская, фасоль

5 indigenous plants-местные растения

PRIVATE INVESTMENTS

The development and implementation of policies designed to encourage

private investments in research and marketing biotechnology that will meet the needs

of poverty-stricken nations, increased research on other problems faced by poor

nations, and joint efforts1 by the public and private sectors to ensure the efficient use

of technology developed by industrialized nations have been suggested. In addition,

industrialized nations have not tested GM technology2 on tropical plants, focusing on

those that grow in temperate climates3, even though undeveloped nations and the

people that need the extra food live primarily in tropical climates. Many European

scientists are disturbed4 by the fact that political factors and ideology prevent

unbiased assessment of the GM technology5 in some EU countries.

Notes: 1 joint efforts-совместные усилия

2 GM technology-ГМ технологии

3 temperate climates- умеренный климат

4 scientists are disturbed- ученые обеспокоены

5 unbiased assessment of the GM technology-беспристрастная сумма

обложения налогом ГМ технологий

TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS1

Another important controversy2 is the possibility of unforeseen local and

global effects as a result of transgenic organisms proliferating3.

Some critics have raised the concern that conventionally-bred crop plants4 can

be cross-pollinated5 (bred) from the pollen

6 of modified plants. Pollen can be

dispersed over large areas by wind, animals and insects. In 2007, the U.S.

Department of Agriculture7 fined Scotts Miracle-Gro

8 $500,000 when modified

genetic material from creeping bentgrass9 was found within close relatives of the

47

same genus (Agrostis) as well as in native grasses up to 21 km (13 miles) away from

the test sites, released when freshly cut grass was blown by the wind.

GM proponents point out that outcrossing10

, as this process is known, is not

new. The same thing happens with any new open-pollinated crop variety—newly

introduced traits can potentially cross out into neighboring crop plants of the same

species and, in some cases, to closely related wild relatives. Defenders of GM

technology11

point out that each GM crop is assessed on a case-by-case basis to

determine if there is any risk associated with the outcrossing of the GM trait into wild

plant populations. The fact that a GM plant may outcross with a related wild relative

is not, in itself, a risk unless such an occurrence has negative consequences. If, for

example, an herbicide resistance trait was to cross into a wild relative of a crop plant

it can be predicted that this would not have any consequences except in areas where

herbicides are sprayed, such as a farm. In such a setting the farmer can manage this

risk by rotating herbicides.

The European Union funds research programmes that investigate options and

technologies on the co-existence of GM and conventional farming. This also includes

research on biological containment strategies and other measures, to prevent

outcrossing and enable the implementation of co-existence.

If patented genes12

are outcrossed, even accidentally, to other commercial

fields and a person deliberately selects the outcrossed plants for subsequent planting

then the patent holder has the right to control the use of those crops.

Notes: 1transgenic organisms - трансгенные организмы

2controversy - бесспорно

3transgenic organisms proliferating-разрастание трансгенных организмов

4conventionally-bred crop plants- традиционно выведенные с/х культуры

5cross-pollinated-перекрестное опыление

6the pollen- пыльца

7the U.S. Department of Agriculture

–Департамент сельского хозяйства США

8fined Scotts Miracle-Gro-наложил штраф на компанию Скотс Мирэкл Груп

9creeping bentgrass-ползучая трава

10outcrossing- внешнее опыление

11defenders of GM technology- защитники ГМ технологий

12patented genes- доступные гены

ВАРИАНТ №5

"TERMINATOR"1 AND "TRAITOR

2"

"Technology Protection" is technology dubbed as 'Terminator'. This yet-to-

be-commercialized technology would allow the production of first generation crops

that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yield sterile

seeds3. The patent for this so-called "terminator" gene technology is owned by Delta

and Pine Land Company and the United States Department of Agriculture. Delta and

Pine Land was bought by Monsanto Company in August 2006. Similarly, the

hypothetical Trait-specific Genetic Use Restriction Technology4, also known as

'Traitor' or 'T-gut', requires application of a chemical to genetically modified crops to

reactivate engineered traits5. This technology is intended both to limit the spread of

48

genetically engineered plants, and to require farmers to pay yearly to reactivate the

genetically engineered traits of their crops. Traitor is under development by

companies including Monsanto and AstraZeneca.

In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology6 in

self-pollinating crops such as soybean (a generally contentious issue), another

purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits

from cross-pollinating crops into wild-type species7 by sterilizing any resultant

hybrids. Ironically, the terminator gene technology created a backlash8 among the

same groups that considered out crossing of GM plants dangerous. They felt the

technology would prevent re-use9 of seed by farmers growing such terminator

varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to exercise patent

claims10

.

Hybrid seeds11

were commonly used in the developed countries long before

the introduction of GM crops. Hybrid seeds cannot be saved, so purchasing new seed

every year is already a standard agricultural practice.

There are technologies evolving which contain the transgene by biological

means and still can provide fertile seeds using fertility restorer functions12

. Such

methods are being developed by several EU research programmes. Notes: 1terminator - «терминатор», (последовательность нуклеотидов оперона и

транскрибируемой на нем мРНК, обуславливающая прекращение (терминацию) синтеза

РНК; агент обрывающий цепь 2traitor - «изменник», «предатель»

3sterile seeds - стерильные семена

4hypothetical Trait-specific Genetic Use Restriction Technology -предположительная

технология использования специфических генетических особенностей 5engineered traits - инженерные особенности

6proprietary technology - патентованная технология

7wild-type species - дикие виды

8backlash - отрицательная реакция

9re-use - вторичное использование

10patent claims - патентные требования

11hybrid seeds - гибридные семена

12restorer functions - функции восстановителя

GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT AND OPPOSITION1

Australia.

Several states of Australia had placed bans2 on planting GM food crops,

beginning in 2003.However, in late 2007 the states of New South Wales and Victoria

lifted their bans3. Western Australia lifted their state's ban in December 2008, while

South Australia continues its ban. Tasmania has extended its moratorium until

November 2014. The state of Queensland has allowed the growing of GM crops since

1995 and has never had a GM ban.

Canada.

In 2005, a standing committee4 of the government of Prince Edward Island

(PEI) in Canada assessed a proposal to ban the production of GMOs in the province.

49

The ban was not passed. As of January 2008, the use of genetically modified crops on

PEI was rapidly increasing. Mainland Canada is one of the world's largest producers

of GM canola5.

Japan

As of 2009, Japan has no commercial farming of any kinds of genetically

modified food. Consumers have strongly resisted both imports and attempts to grow

GMO in the country. Campaigns by consumer groups and environmental groups,

such as Consumers Union of Japan6 and Greenpeace Japan, as well as local

campaigns, have been very successful. In Hokkaido, a special bylaw has made it

virtually impossible to grow GMOs, as the No! GMO Campaign collected over

200,000 signatures to oppose GMO farming. Consumers Union of Japan participated

at the Planet Diversity conference in Bonn, Germany on May 12-16, 2008, a global

congress on the future of food and agriculture, with a demonstration to celebrate

biodiversity, to oppose GMOs. Notes: 1governmental support and opposition- правительственная поддержка и оппозиция

2bans-запреты

3lifted bans–снял запреты

4standing committee- постоянный комитет

5canola- канола (разновидность рапса, название, которое дала своему продукту

канадская генно-инженерная фирма Can (ada) o (il) l (ow) a(cid) 6consumers Union of Japan-союз потребителей Японии

Строительный факультет

ВАРИАНТ№ 1

THE HISTORY OF BRIDGE AND TUNNEL BUILDING

1. An outstanding statesman once said in his speech, 'There can be little doubt that in

many ways the story of bridge-building is the story of civilization. By it we can

readily measure an important part of a people's progress." Great rivers are important

means of communication, for in many parts of the world they have been, and still are,

the chief roads. But they are also barriers to communication, and people have always

been concerned with finding ways to cross them.

2. For hundreds of years men have built bridges over fast-flowing rivers or deep and

rocky canyons. Early man probably got the idea of a bridge from a tree fallen across a

stream. From this, at a later stage, a bridge on a very simple bracket or cantilever

principle1 was evolved. Timber beams were embedded into the banks on each side of

the river with their ends extending over the water. These made simple supports for a

central beam reaching across from one bracket to the other. Bridges of this type are

still used in Japan, and in India. A simple bridge on the suspension principle2

was

made by early man by means of ropes, and is still used in countries such as Tibet.

Two parallel ropes suspended from rocks or trees on each bank of the river, with a

platform of woven mats laid across them, made a secure crossing. Further ropes as

handrails3 were added. When the Spaniards reached South America, they found that

50

the Incas of Peru used suspension bridges made of six strong cables, four of which

supported a platform and two served as rails.

3. All these bridges made possible crossings only over narrow rivers The type of

temporary floating bridge,4 the pontoon bridge, has been used for military purposes;

military engineers can construct a temporary bridge on this principle, able to carry all

the heavy equipment of a modem army, in an extremely short time.

The idea of driving wooden piles into the bed of the river in order to support a

platform was put into practice 3,500 years ago. This is the basis of the 'trestle' or pile

bridge5 which makes it possible to build a wider crossing easier for the transport of

animals and goods.

4. With the coming of the railway in the 19th century there was a great

demand for bridges, and the railways had capital for building them. The first railway

bridges were built of stone or brick. In many places long lines of viaducts were built to carry

railways; for instance, there are miles of brick viaducts supporting railways to London.

The next important development in bridge-building was the use of iron and, later, steel. The

first iron bridge crossed the river Severn in Great Britain.

The idea of a drawbridge6, a bridge hinged so that it can be lifted by chains from inside to

prevent passage, is an old one. Some St. Petersburg bridges were built on this principle.

A modern bridge probably demands greater skill from designer and builder than any other

civil engineering project. Many things should be taken into consideration,, and these may vary

widely according to local conditions. In deciding what type of bridge is most suitable the

designer has to consider the type and weight of the traffic, and width and depth of the gap to

be bridged, the nature of the foundations and the method of erecting the bridge. The designer

has to calculate carefully how the various loads would be distributed and to decide which

building materials are more suitable for carrying these loads.

Tunnels

5. Tunnelling is difficult, expensive and dangerous engineering work. Tunnels are built to

provide direct automobile or railway routes through mountain ranges, under or over rivers.

They can also provide underground channels for water, sewage or oil. Before the 19th century

men had not acquired enough skill in engineering to carry out extensive tunnelling. Tunnels,

however, were known in ancient times. They were, for instance, driven into the rock under the

Pyramids of Egypt, and the Romans built one in Rome for their chief drain, parts of which

still remain. One of the earliest tunnels known was made in Babylon. It passed under the

Euphrates river, and was built of arched brickwork being 12 feet high and 15 feet wide.

Other ancient tunnels were built for water supply and for drainage.

6. Modem tunnels are often very long and deep. The SimpIon Tunnel on the France-to-Italy

railway, for example, is 12 miles long and in one place the peaks of the Alps rise over 6,000

feet above it. Some tunnels are over 50 feet in diameter. Many are circular in cross-section.

Others are horseshoe-shaped7, with a level floor on which it is easy to lay permanent roads

and railways.

Tunnel Under Channel.

7. Connecting the Isles of Great Britain to mainland Europe is a fantasy that can be dated

back nearly 200 years.

We can name very few projects against which there existed a deeper and more powerful

prejudice than the construction of a railway tunnel between Dover and Calais.

51

The objections have been cultural, political and, of course, military. The British government

objected to the scheme mainly because they thought that the enemy could easily invade

England through such a tunnel.

The first suggestion to construct a tunnel came from Napoleon in 1800. His engineers even

drafted a tunnel plan, but Britain and France were at war at that time.

In 1988 the question of a Channel Tunnel was studied afresh by a group of French and British

engineers and the work actually began. They agreed to start boring for the Eurotunnel on both

English and French Coasts.

The Tunnel runs under the sea through a layer of dense chalk which is known to be free of

cracks and allows water to penetrate it slowly.

The work proceeded very quickly and was successfully completed in about six years. The

Tunnel was opened to traffic on May 7, 1994.

Two main tunnels, with service tunnel between, carry one-way rail traffic.

8. Original estimate was 7.2 billion dollars at current exchange rates, but cost to date is 13.1

billion dollars shared between Britain, France and other investors. So far the project is not

quite profitable and still needs more investments.

Cars and trucks carried by rail make the crossing in 35 minutes, about an hour less than by

ferry. Passengers remain in their vehicles.

The Tunnel personnel does its best to make passengers feel comfortable and safe during the

crossing. But as it was mentioned by the commercial director of the Tunnel, they still have

many serious problems and one of them is security. Nevertheless, the authorities are sure to be

able to solve all the problems successfully. Notes: 1. a bridge on a bracket or cantilever principle

(= a bracket or cantilever bridge) -

консольный мост

2. a bridge on the suspension principle (suspension bridge) – висячий (подвесной)

мост

3. handrails – поручни

4. a floating bridge - понтонный мост

5. a ―trestle‖ or pile bridge — мост на рамных основах

6. a drawbridge - разводной мост

7. horseshoe-shaped - подковообразный

ВАРИАНТ№ 2

THE TRIUMPH OF HUMAN SPIRIT

The Brooklyn Bridge was built in the year 1883. It is still one of the

most popular places of interest in New York.

The plan for the Brooklyn Bridge was made by a man named John Roebling.

This was in the year 1867.

Roebling was a German. He emigrated to the United States when he was

twenty-five. In 1867 Roebling was already quite famous. Years before he had

invented the steel cable (трос). Using this steel cable he built several bridges, one at

Niagara Falls (Ниагарский водопад) and a second across the Monogahela River at

Pittsburgh. He was sure he could build this new bridge.

52

It was decided to give Roebling a chance. A company was organized.

Roebling was head engineer. He began to work making the plans for the bridge. He

sent his son Washington to Europe to study some new bridges there. Some

experiments had been made with working in a large box under water.

And then the accident happened. Roebling was working near the river. A boat

struck the dock on which he was standing. Two weeks later he died. Before he died

he asked that his son Washington should continue his work.

W. Roebling began to work with the same interest and energy as his father.

The bridge was begun. There were many problems. According to the plans, there

were to be two large towers (башни). One of these towers was to be on the Brooklyn

side of the river and the other was to be on the I Manhattan side. From the towers

hung (свешиваться) a system of steel cables. These steel cables were to hold

(удерживать) the bridge.

Today engineers know how to do these things. They have had experience.

They have special machines. But at that time no one knew exactly how to do this

work. The Brooklyn Bridge was the first bridge of its kind in the world. They used

the new box that Washington Roebling had studied in Europe. The box was made of

wood and was about the size of a house. In this box men could work under water. Air

was forced into the box and the water was forced out of it. It was very dangerous. No

one understood the problems of this kind of work. Men became sick. There were

many accidents. Roebling himself worked with the men in the box. He tried to

encourage the men.

One day a worker went down into the box. He felt perfectly well. Within half

an hour he began to feel strong pains (боль). Five minutes later he was dead. The

same thing happened to other men. One day Roebling himself had a similar attack.

He could not talk. He could not hear. He became paralysed. After a week or two he

felt better. He went back again to work in the box. He had a second attack, more

serious than the first. He could not work again. In feet he was unable to work again

during the rest of his life. He remained a cripple (калека). Yet the work had to

continue. And Washington Roebling continued to direct the construction of the

bridge. His home was near the bridge. He used a telescope. He watched the work

every day. His wife helped him. Each day she went to the bridge. She carried her

husband's orders to the men. She worked with the men. At night she returned to her

husband. She told him about the work of the day. In this way, year after year, the

work continued.

In 1876 the first cable was placed from one tower to the other. In 1883 about

fifteen years after it was first begun, the bridge was officially opened. Many

important people, including the President of the US, took part in the ceremony.

Washington Roebling watched the ceremony through his telescope.

The bridge was one of the wonders of the nineteenth century. It is still today.

There is more traffic on it today than ever before. The bridge remains very strong. It

also remains a monument to the two men who built it, John Roebling and his son

Washington.

53

LONDON AS A PORT

1. What are the "hands" of London known for?

The port of London is to the east of the City. Here, today, are miles and miles of docks, and

the great industrial areas that depend upon shipping. This is the East End of London,

unattractive (непривлекательный) in appearance, but very important to the country's

commerce. The East End is a great proletarian area populated by factory workers, and small

craftsmen. The East End is the "hands" of London. The hands which have built the palaces,

theatres, shops and hotels, the hands which unload the cargoes in the docks, which make

furniture (мебель), dresses, motor cars, and a million and one other things which fill the

shops.

2. How were the goods unloaded in the early days?

The River Thames, flowing from west to east, divides London into two parts known as the

north bank and the south bank. Years ago the Thames used to overflow its banks when the

tide (прилив) came up, but now it has been banked up and you see a fine wide roadway

called the Embankment. The Thames estuary (устье) offered excellent facilities for shipping.

The deep channel and high tide of the lower river enable vessels to pass inland as far as the

bridge and unload in waters that were little troubled by heavy storms in the North Sea. In the

early days they anchored (бросать якорь) in the river and unloaded into small boats and

barges which carried the goods to landing-places on the banks.

3. How are the goods unloaded now?

As the ships grew larger this became too slow a process, and the river was overcrowded,

so docks were constructed, deep-water basins excavated in the banks of the river, where

vessels could come alongside and unloaded their cargoes directly on the wharves (пристань)

or even into lorries if necessary. Vessels increased rapidly in size during the last century and

are still growing, and hence, larger and larger docks have had to be constructed with deeper

and deeper basins.

4. When can ocean-going ships go up the Thames?

The Thames has the benefit (преимущество) of a good tidal range so that the biggest

vessels can go up the river and enter docks at high tide. By closing the dock gates and thus

shutting off their waters from the river, deep water can be maintained in the dock all the time

it is occupied by vessels. On the river there are ocean-going ships, and lines of barges pulled

along by tugs (буксир). Ships up to 6,000 tons can come as far as London Bridge below

which is the part of the river called the Pool.

5. How are the two halves of the drawbridge raised?

The ships can pass under Tower Bridge. It was designed by Sir Horace Jones, London

architect, and Sir John Wolfe Barry, civil engineer. It took eight years to build it (1886-1894).

It has permanent spans (пролет) 270 feet long, suspended on great chains, connecting them

with the river bank and smaller towers (башня) at the shore approaches. The two halves of

the drawbridge each weighing 100 tons, can be raised for the passage of ships by hydraulic

machinery in a minute and a half only.

ВАРИАНТ №3

FROM THE HISTORY OF HUMAN DWELLINGS

1. Where did primitive people look for protection?

54

Most of the time of a modern man is spent within the walls of some building. Houses are built

for dwelling; large buildings are constructed for industrial purposes; theatres, museums,

public and scientific institutions are built for cultural activities of the people. The purposes of

modern buildings differ widely, but all of them originate from the efforts of primitive (перво-

бытный) men to protect themselves from stormy weather, wild animals and human enemies.

Protection was looked for everywhere. In prehistoric times men looked for protection under

the branches of trees; some covered themselves with skins of animals to protect themselves

from cold and rain; others settled in caves (пещеры).

2. What are the earliest types of human dwellings?

When the Ice Age had passed, Europe remained very cold, at least in winter, and so the

people of the Old Stone Age had to find some warm and dry place to shelter from bad

weather. They chose caves, dwelling places that storm and cold could not destroy. On the

walls of their caves ancient people painted pictures. Such decorated caves are found in

Europe, Asia and Africa.

When man began to build a home for himself, caves were imitated in stone structures,

trees were taken as a model for huts built of branches, skins were raised on poles and formed

tents.

Primitive stone structures, huts and tents are the earliest types of human dwellings, they are

lost in the prehistoric past but serve as prototypes for structures of later historic times.

3. Why were the houses in town higher than in the country?

In the days of early civilization, once men had learnt how to build simple houses for their

families, they began to feel a need to have a number of different kinds of houses in one place.

At first the difference was mainly in size - the chief or leader had a larger hut or tent than the

rest of the people. Much later, when men began to build towns, there grew up a difference

between town houses and country houses. The streets in towns were very narrow and there

was not much place for building within the town walls, and therefore houses had to be built

higher than they were in the country. A typical town house consisted of a shop opening on the

street where the man did his work or sold his goods, with a kitchen behind and a bedroom

above

4. What were the houses in ancient Egypt built of?

In the country ordinary people lived in simple one-storey cottages which did not differ

much from the mud and stone huts of an earlier age.

The rich people in the country, on the other hand, built huge castles (замки) with thick

walls and narrow windows. These castles were built not only as dwellings, but also to stand

up to enemy attack and to be strong bases in time of war. The earliest houses of which

anything is known are those of ancient Egypt. They were built of bricks dried in the sun.

Some of them were built around a courtyard or garden with rooms opening into it.

5. How did the light come into early English houses?

Greek houses, too, had a courtyard in the middle and round their courtyard ran a covered

walk (аллея), its ceiling supported by pillars. There were special women's quarters, usually

upstairs on the second storey.

In Rome bricks were used for building and houses were often finished with plaster over

bricks on both inside and outside walls. The centre of family life was a garden-courtyard,

surrounded by columns and with rooms opening out into it.

55

The earliest houses in Britain were round, built of wood or wicker basket work (плетение

из прутьев) plastered over with clay. In the centre of the house was the hearth (очаг) and

light came in through the hole in the roof above it and through the door because there were no

windows.

IMPRESSIONS OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE

(A LETTER FROM ENGLAND) 1. You ask what I think of modern architecture. I don't know very much about

modem architecture in Europe, but styles are probably similar in most countries

today. I think this is because now architects have no opportunities they had in the

past. They are seldom asked to design buildings like wonderful churches and

cathedrals of the Middle Ages. Architects today have to design schools, hospitals and

huge blocks of flats and offices. If they, are asked to make plans for houses, these are

usually all alike or nearly alike.

2. Boxes - that's what a good deal of modern architecture reminds me of. The blocks

of flats in our big towns are huge boxes, whether the fronts and sides are square or

oblong. A man who lives in one of these boxes works in another big box, high up in

the air. If he falls ill, he goes to another big box called a hospital.

3. Architects have done some very good work in designing new schools. Many of

these are prefabricated, which means that as much of the building work as possible is

done not on the building site, but in factories where mass production methods can be

used. The parts are taken to a site and put together there. Children who attend the best

of these new schools are very happy. Their classrooms are light and big, and they

have a fine large assembly hall. The children have dinner at school, and there is a

dining-hall completed with modern kitchen.

4. I began this letter by saying that many modern buildings, especially the blocks of

flats and business offices, were like big boxes. They do look like boxes from the

outside, but when we go inside, we find them very well planned for their purposes.

An architect today has to be an engineer too. The best modern buildings help us to

live and work in comfort. They save plenty of unnecessary work. There is central

heating, for example, instead of the dusty open fires we used to have, with coal to be

carried up long stairs and ashes to be carried down.

5. have given my opinion on what I have seen in England. I know a lot of interesting

work has been done in Scandinavia, and, of course, I've read about the work of Le

Corbusier in France and I'd like to see what American architects are doing now. You

may know the work of the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. He designed the

Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. It was designed to resist earthquakes and it proved so strong

that it did. It was one of the few buildings in Tokyo that did not fall in the terrible

earthquake of 1923.

ВАРИАНТ №4

THE HOUSE

1. Man has always been a builder. This kind of house he built depended upon the

climate, upon his enemies, and upon the building materials at hand. The first houses in many

56

parts of the world were made of wood, for in those days the greater part of the Earth was

covered with forests. Men tied together the tops of several trees and covered them with the

skins of animals or with leaves and grass. So a tent, or hut, was the first house of the primitive

people who lived where there was much wood. In other regions the most convenient building

material was stone. Men began building houses out of stone very long ago. Although they

were built without cement, the remains of a few of them still exist.

It appears that the most ancient homes on the territory of Russia were earthenhouses. One

such home was discovered near Voronezh m 1927. It consisted of a shallow hole of oval

shape. The floor was covered with limestone slabs.1 The roof had been conical and stood on

poles (столб) covered by branches or animal skins. Such dwellings existed in that part of the

country in the Upper Paleolithic Period (from 40,000 to 12,000 years ago).

2. The ancient Egyptians built very simple houses, by present standards. Having dried the

bricks in the sun, they put up four walls, and above these they placed a flat roof. The roof was

flat because there was very little rain in Egypt. Although their buildings were simple in

construction, the Egyptian art of building was very beautiful. Their pyramids and monuments,

sphinxes and palaces arouse our admiration to this day. An important part in the history of

building has been played by the column, and it was ancient Egypt that gave the world its first

lessons in the art of making columns.

The Greeks learned much from Egypt. But they did not borrow the flat roof. They built a

slanting roof because there was much rain in their) country. The Greeks made the roof slant in

two directions from the middle. They also improved on Egypt's columns and soon became the

teachers of the world in column making.

The Romans, in turn, learned much from the Greeks. First of all they borrowed the

slanting roof and the columns. But they added the arch, thus adding much strength and beauty

to their buildings.

3. In Ancient Russia architecture flourished for the first time in Kiev Russ. Unfortunately only

a few of the church buildings of that period have remained, among them the famous

Cathedral of St Sophia, the cornerstone of which was laid in 1037 to commemorate the

victory over the Pechenegs. The churches of that time were strong buildings with thick walls

and small windows. They often had to serve as fortresses against enemy invasions. During the

Second World War the finest ancient architectural monuments were destroyed and great

effort has gone into restoring them.

4. In the Middle Ages in Europe numerous wars between different nations caused great

damages to the houses of crowded Medieval towns. Therefore many monarchs and nobles

built castles as a form of defence. Those castles had very strong walls, narrow windows and

projecting fortifications.

5. The Renaissance, which was a European movement, lasted roughly from the 14th to the

17th century. During this period, arts and sciences underwent great changes. In architecture

these changes were marked by a return to classical forms and proportions of ancient Roman

buildings.

6. Buildings of the 19th century are characterized by the use of new materials and by a great

diversity of architectural styles. From the end of the 18th century iron and steel became

widely used as alternatives to wood, for by that time many countries experienced shortage of

57

this material. Later the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production of building parts which

were manufactured at a factory and then simply assembled at a site.2

7. The 20th century is notable for widespread use of steel - reinforced concrete.3 Huge

reinforced concrete units manufactured in heated factory premises4 are brought to the site

which becomes something like an assembly shop.5 This technique has many advantages over

other building methods. First of all it cuts the labour needed for building by 60 to 70% and

extends the building season what is very important for countries where winter lasts for many

months Furthermore the duration of building is greatly cut. All this makes the building

process less expensive and much less labourous

Architecture of the 20th century is characterized by very high buildings - particularly

skyscrapers6 - and by great diversity of styles which completely differ from those of the past.

Notes:

1. limestone slab - известняковая плита

2. were simply assembled at a site - просто собирались на строительной площадке

3. reinforced concrete – железобетон

4. heated factory premises - отапливаемые заводские помещения

5. assembly shop - сборочный цех

6. skyscrapers – небоскребы

THE EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS

Architecture is the art which makes buildings beautiful to look at as well as useful. A

man who designs (проектировать) buildings and makes the plans for them is called an

architect. He has to think not only of what he wants the building to look like when it is

finished, but also what it is to be used for. He must not forget the sort of material to be used in

the building. This may be stone, brick, wood or steel and concrete.

There have been many different styles or kinds of architecture in the past and there are

many different styles today in different parts of the world.

The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are the colossal pyramids of

Egypt most of which were constructed about 6,000 years ago.

The pyramids are large triangular (треугольный) buildings which were placed over the

tombs (могила) of Egyptian kings. The best known of the pyramids are a group of three built

at Giza south of Cairo. The largest of these is 482 feet high. They tell us of the advanced

civilization of ancient Egypt which is much spoken about even in our days.

It was a country which had expert mathematicians and engineers, where

astronomy and philosophy were known and studied.

The country was rich in hard and durable (прочный) stone, but poor in timber and

metal, so that the main material used for construction was granite, and this was the

reason for the durability of the pyramids.

Large blocks of stone were transported over long distances by land and water, and

placed into position with the help of the most primitive equipment. That was done by

slaves (рабы) working for thirty or forty years. All this great amount of work was

done, masses of material and a large territory sometimes of about 52,000 square

meters were used, only for protecting the body of a dead king and constructing a

dwelling place for his happy life in the "other world".

58

ВАРИАНТ №5

AIR POLLUTION AND SMOG ARE THE PROBLEMS OF MODERN

CITIES

The word smog comes from smoke and fog. Smog is a sort of fog with other

substances mixed in. Smog has been here a long time. Billions of years ago,

volcanoes sent millions of tons of ash and smoke into the air. Winds whipped up dust

clouds. Animal and vegetable matter decayed, adding polluting gases.

When people came along, they began to produce their own kind of air

pollution. They discovered fire. In the Middle Ages, people in cities such as London

used soft coal to heat their homes. The smoke from these fires, combined with

moisture in the air, produced dense layers of smog. The smog would blanket the city

for days, particularly in winter. The heat generated in large cities tends to circulate air

within a dome-like shape. This traps the smog and holds it over the city.

Smog, and the chemicals and other substances in it, can be harmful, even

deadly. Smog blurs vision. It irritates the eyes, the throat, and the lungs. Eyes water,

throats get sore, people cough. Smog can make people ill. And it can make sick

people sicker. Air pollution has been linked to eczema, asthma, emphysema,

cardiovascular difficulties, and lung and stomach cancer. It also has a harmful effect

on the environment. Food crops and animals suffer. Paint may peel from houses. It is

obvious that we must do everything possible to reduce man-made atmospheric

pollutants and smog.

Smog, along with smoke, is the most visible evidence of atmospheric

pollution. But some atmospheric pollution is not visible and may not become visible

until it is mixed with moisture. Lead compounds from leaded gasoline, hydrocarbons

(unburned gasoline), carbon monoxide, and other gases may pollute the air without

being seen. All air is polluted to some extent. That is, all air carries some polluting

substances. Much of it is natural: smoke and ash from volcanoes, dust stirred up by

the wind, compounds given off by growing vegetation, gases given off by rotting

animal and vegetable matter, salt particles from the oceans, and so on. Man adds to

these pollutants by burning coal, oil, gas, gasoline, and many other things.

Before we get to the automobile, however, let us review what we know about

combustion. Most fuels, such as coal, gasoline, and wood, contain hydrogen and

carbon in various chemical combinations. During combustion, oxygen unites with the

hydrogen and carbon to form water (H20), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon

dioxide (C02).

In addition, many fuels contain sulfur; this burns to produce sulfur oxides.

Also, in the heat of combustion, some of the nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen

to form nitrogen oxides (NO). Some of the fuel may not burn completely, so that

smoke and ash are formed. Smoke is simply particles of unburned fuel and soot,

called particulates, mixed with air.

Altogether, it is estimated that 200 million tons of man-made pollutants enter

the air every year in the United States alone. This is about a ton for every man,

woman, and child in the country!

This man-made pollution is what clean-air laws are aimed at.

59

Consider Los Angeles, a large city set in a basin, with about 7,000,000

inhabitants. It is surrounded on three sides by mountains and on the fourth by the

Pacific Ocean. When the wind blows out over the ocean, it sweeps away pollutants.

But at other times, the air is stagnant. Smoke and other pollutants from industry and

automobiles do not blow away. They just build up into a thick, smelly, foggy layer of

smog. The location of Los Angeles, plus all the people and industry there, make it

one of the biggest "smog centers" in the country. And it is Los Angeles which has led

in measures to reduce smog.

Los Angeles has banned unrestricted burning, for example, burning trash.

Incinerators without pollution controls were outlawed. Industry was forced to change

combustion processes and add controls to reduce pollutants coming from their

chimneys. Laws were passed that required the addition of emission controls on

automobiles. All these measures have significantly reduced atmospheric pollution in

the Los Angeles area.

If not controlled, the automobile can give off pollutants from four places.

Pollutants can come from the fuel tank, the carburetor, the crank-case, and the tail

pipe. Pollutants from the fuel tank and carburetor consist of gasoline vapors.

Pollutants from the crankcase consist of partly burned air-fuel mixture that has blown

by the piston rings. Pollutants from the tail pipe consist of partly burned gasoline

(HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO), and - if there is sulfur in the

gasoline - sulfur oxides (SO).

THE STORY OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS

The first schools in America started in the 1600s. The Puritans, that is people who left

England because of their religious beliefs, wanted each person in New England to know the

Bible. So they organized schools to teach religion and basic subjects. But by the 19th century

large numbers of children did not attend school. The problem of children's education started a

great debate in America. There were three groups of people who had different ideas.

One group said that young people should spend their time at home helping their

families. As most Americans lived on farms there was always much agricultural work to be

done.

The second group, mostly businessmen, believed that children should work at

factories. America's Industrial Revolution had begun, and this group knew that there would be

many jobs in manufacturing. Some young people were already working at factories. They

were children from 7 to 16 years old and their working day lasted up to 13 hours.

The third group said that to help create a better society, young people should know

how to write and express their own ideas. Therefore each state should develop a system of

public schools, called free schools, or common schools. This idea had been supported by

Thomas Jefferson, the third president, and later by Abraham Lincoln who said that education

was very important for people.

In 1839 Horace Mann, a Massachusetts-born educator, a lawyer by profession,

opened the first common school in the United States. He devoted his life to this idea and

soon a lot of common schools were opened throughout the state of Massachusetts. His

example attracted national attention. Before long many states were doing what Massachusetts

had done. The free school supporters had won the debate.

60

Энергетический факультет

ВАРИАНТ № 1

FARM ELECTRIC MOTORS SELECTION ACCORDING TO STARTING

REQUIREMENTS

Single-phase electric motors1 are not inherently self-starting. Some special

component part or style of winding must be incorporated into their design before they

will start themselves and any attached load. Various electrical principles are used to

accomplish this purpose, and all except one of the single-phase electric motors are

named after the principle employed. This fact accounts for the following names: split-

phase, capacitor-start induction run capacitor motor, two-value capacitor motor,

repulsion motor2, repulsion-induction motor, repulsion-start induction motor, shaded-

pole motor, and the one exception - the universal motor.

Since different electrical-starting principles are employed, it is understandable

that the motors could very likely have different abilities to start a load. That is exactly

the situation. Therefore, the name not only indicates a certain starting principle but

also designates the motor's ability to develop starting torque. Furthermore, since one

of the motor's jobs is to start the load, the selection of a motor to perform this duty is

made according to the name of the motor.

The actual selection of a motor for starting a certain farm load is commonlyу

made from the three types of motors shown in Figs. 1 and 2 and three-phase type3 of

Fig. 3. The other types of motors are not as widely used, or are available only with

their associated equipment.

Machines that must be started with a part or all of their operating load

attached, or machines which in themselves present a fairly large amount of resisting

Fig. 2. (a) Repulsion-start induction

motor. This motor develops a very

high starting torque. (b) Two-value capacitor motor also

known as a capacitor-start capacitor-run

motor. The capacitors are located in the

base or in the end shields.

Fig. 2. (a) Repulsion-start induction

motor. This motor develops a very

high starting torque. (b) Two-value capacitor motor also

known as a capacitor-start capacitor-run

motor. The capacitors are located in the

base or in the end shields.

61

torque during the starting period, are said to be h a r d t о s t a r t. This category

includes such machines as a meat grinder, the vacuum pump of a milking machine,

Fig. 3. Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor. It is used when three-phase service

is available. This motor will not start or operate satisfactory on a single-phase system.

Notice that the bearings of this particular motor are lubricated for life.

a small air compressor, a piston-type water pump, and a large-diameter attic fan. The

smaller sizes of feed grinders and conveyers are also classed as h a r d t o s t a r t .

Loads of this type require a motor that develops a high-starting torque. The capacitor-

star induction motor and the three-phase induction (squirrel cage) motor fulfill this

requirement. For the average farm a three-phase supply is not available so the

capacitor-star motor is the suggested solution to the selection problem.

The capacitor-start induction motor is commonly available in sizes ranging

from 1.6 to 5 hp. However, loads in this category do not usually require a motor

larger than 1 hp. This motor develops more starting torque than an equivalent-size

split-phase motor and at the same time has less input current while starting. It has a

greater initial cost than the split-phase motor, from one and one half to two times

more, but other than starting, its operating characteristics are the same.

Many farm machines offer a very large resisting torque when being started,

since they must be started while completely loaded, or under conditions which cause

even greater loads than normal. Such machines as large air compressors or

refrigeration compressors, small feed grinders (up to 1 hp), certain elevator

conveyers, and many of the larger water pumps fall into this category.

The capacitor-start motor described in the previous section may be

satisfactory for these jobs. However, the repulsion-start induction-type motor

develops more starting torque and is best adapted for the h a r d e s t-t o-s t a r t loads.

The repulsion-start motor develops about 20 per cent more starting torque than the

capacitor-start motor, and even then it requires less input current. The lower value of

input current is very important since it means less voltage drop in the lines which

serve the motor. This line-voltage-drop factor validates still further the selection of a

repulsion-start induction motor for the very-hard-starting loads.

The repulsion-start induction motor has more parts than the capacitor-start

motor and may be 7 to 12 per cent more expensive in the smaller sizes, but the cost

from 1.2 hp and upward is usually the same. This motor has brushes and a

commutator which may require occasional attention and, in general, a variety of

sizes are not readily available in many electrical stores. The larger stores usually

stock the motor in sizes ranging from 1.6 to 10 hp. Its principal advantage is that it

62

has the highest starting torque per input ampere of any of the single-phase induction

motors.

Larger loads such as ensilage cutters, large feed mills, conveyers, gutter

cleaners4, mixers, and blowers are usually hard or very hard to start, and require

motor sizes such as 1.5, 2, 3, and 5 hp. This type of load is separated from the others

since the driving motor must develop a large running torque and consequently will

also develop a large starting torque. One type of motor which was previously

described, the repulsion-start type, will also be satisfactory for these larger loads. In

addition, two other types, the capacitor-start capacitor-run motor and the three-phase

induction motor (squirrel-cage type), are quite well adapted for these applications.

The capacitor-start capacitor-run type (also termed a two-value capacitor

motor) has essentially the same starting characteristics as the capacitor-start motor

but has better running performance. It has a higher efficiency and a higher power

factor and is in effect an improved capacitor-start motor for the larger-horsepower

sizes. The cost is approximately the same as that of the repulsion-start motor, and the

motor is normally available in sizes from 1.2 to 10 hp.

For sizes over 1 hp the three-phase induction motor is the least expensive of the three

types. It has about the same starting torque as the capacitor type and is the most

rugged, reliable, and satisfactory motor of the group. This motor is highly

recommended if three-phase power is available. It is manufactured in sizes ranging

from 1.6 hp upward. Notes: 1single-phase motor – однофазный мотор

2repulsion motor – репульсионный мотор

3three-phase motor – трехфазный мотор

4gutter cleaner - канавоочиститель

ВАРИАНТ №2

FARM ELECTRIC MOTORS SELECTION ACCORDING TO THE

SURROUNDINGS

After having determined the horsepower rating of the motor for driving the

load and the type of motor that will satisfactorily start the load, the remaining

decisions involve those selections which are related to the location and surroundings

in which the motor will be operated.

Enclosures1. The enclosure, or housing, is most important in protecting the

working parts of the motor. Frequently motor failures occur or the life of the motor is

greatly reduced because the type of enclosure was not given proper consideration.

There are six standard types of enclosures, but unless the farm motor application is

most exceptional, only three of these types need to be considered. These are the open-

dripproof, the splashproof, and the totally enclosed types.

The most common type of enclosure for electric motors is the open-dripproof

type2. The motors of Figs. 1 and 2 have this type of enclosure. It is applicable for

locations in which the atmosphere is relatively free from foreign particles or

splashing liquids. It should not be selected if the motor is to operate near a water

spray, in the rain, or in areas containing lint, dust, or metallic or grain particles. In

63

general, if the atmosphere bothers the operator, it is certain to be too much for this

type of enclosure. The ventilation openings are near the base of the enclosure and

provide for air circulation which cools the motor's windings. If excessive amounts of

foreign particles, water, or oil are pulled inside through these openings, they destroy

the insulation on the windings by causing overheating of the wires. The foreign

particles may also get into the bearings and cause excessive wear.

Regardless of this limitation, the open-dripproof enclosure is suggested for general-

purpose use around the farm.

The splashproof type3 of enclosure provides more protection against water

and dust than does the dripproof type. This enclosure is especially well suited for the

dairy farm and for processing rooms where washing of the equipment is required. It is

also installed outdoors but should be covered when not in use. The housing protects

the motor against water and particles, with the exception of the small amounts I hat

may enter at an angle upward from the floor. The over-lead and sides are completely

shielded. The splashproof enclosure is shown in Fig. 4.

The totally enclosed type of enclosure affords the most reliable protection for

the motor of any of these types. (No air is circulated through the motor since there are

no external openings, but the cooling is accomplished by direct radiation and by

convection.) The totally enclosed motor should be used in many places around the

farm, but so far its use is not too common. It is a good selection for the driving motor

of a feed grinder or similar machine where the atmosphere is filled with dust and

small pieces of grain, and it is also adapted to areas subjected to water sprays. A mo-

tor having a totally enclosed housing is shown in Fig. 5.

Overload Protection. An overload means that the amount of current flowing

to the motor is greater than the value of current marked on the nameplate of the

motor. A motor must have current in order to produce torque, but the current also

produces heat. The insulation on the motor's windings is not injured if the motor

temperature is within the rated limits (usually 40°C above room temperature) but is

Fig. 4. The motor wittua splash Fig. 5. The totally enclosedfmotor

proof type of enclosure. is adequately protected from water, dust, and

int.

64

damaged by higher temperatures. It is only logical that proper protection against

excessive current be provided before operating the motor. Excessive current flows to

a motor owing to any one of the following reasons:

1. the connected load is too great or becomes jammed;

2. the belt is too tight;

3. the bearings are worn or need lubrication;

4. the input voltage to the motor is too low;

5. the (V-type) pulleys are cut of line;

6. alignment of the bearings is faulty owing to unequal tightening of the end

shields or base.

It may appear that these items can be avoided, but it is quite unlikely that they

could all be avoided over a period of years.

There are four types of overload protection for farm electric motors. One of

these is installed by the manufacturer and is known as built-in-overload protection.

Most types and sizes of motors for farm use are available with this protection. It is

primarily suggested for motor sizes of 1 hp and less and is available in two styles -

the automatic reset and the manual reset4. The automatic reset stops the motor in case

of an overload and starts it again after it has cooled. This reset is not used for motors

driving machines around which people are working, as there is a possibility of

someone attempting to clear or clean the machine just as it starts again. Motors

equipped with a manual-reset built-in overload are restarted by pressing a small

button on the motor frame. These overload controls operate on the bimetallic-strip

principle, and a certain length of time for cooling is necessary before the motor can

be restarted.

A second type of overload protection is the time-delay fuse. It is the cheapest

of the four types so far as initial cost is concerned but must be replaced after it has

performed its function. The correct ampere size for the time-delay fuse is obtained by

multiplying the motor-nameplate current value by 1.15 or by selecting a fuse rating

which exactly corresponds with the nameplate value.

The manually operated motor starting switch is a very excellent type of

overload control for motor sizes up to 1 hp. A similar switch with a larger frame is

manufactured for sizes up to 3 hp. This overload control consists of a metal

enclosure, a switch, bimetallic strips or a solder-and-ratchet wheel mechanism and a

heater coil. The ampere rating of the heater coil or strip is selected by multiplying

1.15 by the motor-nameplate current value. The motor current flows through the

heater coil, and the coil is designed to supply the necessary amount of heat to trip the

switch mechanism if excessive current flows to the motor. The overload heater coil

upon installation its ampere-rating tab should be retained and fastened to the switch,

either in the switch lever or on the coil itself. The life of the coil is indefinite, but

owing to the wide variety of types and sizes, replacements are not usually stocked

locally, so it is well to include a spare with the initial order.

The fourth type of overload protection for farm electric motors is the

magnetic starting switch. The overload protection is once again gained as a result of

heat generated by a heater coil or strip. When a predetermined amount of heat is

being developed by the heater, the overload contacts open, thereby interrupting the

65

flow of current to the main coil of the switch. Deenergizing the main coil breaks the

contacts to the motor. The magnetic switch is operated with pushbutton control or

with a single-pole toggle switch5. The pushbutton control is available as an integral

part of the magnetic-switch enclosure or as a separate unit which can be remotely

located for the convenience of the operator. It is always good practice to have a

switch instead of using the plug cap of the attached cable as a switch. The larger the

motor size, the more necessary a switch becomes, and one should be used for all sizes

from 1.2 hp upward. The magnetic starting switch is especially suggested for the 3-

and 5-hp motors and is recommended for use with the 1.5 - and 2-hp sizes. It is a very

satisfactory type of switch and provided for no-voltage protection as well as

protection against excessive current. Compared to the contacts of a double-pole

manually operated switch, the fast-operating, positive-acting contact points of a

magnetic switch perform much better and last longer. Notes: 1enclosure – кожух, корпус, вид исполнения двигателя

2open – dripproof – каплезащитное исполнение

3splash – proof – брызгонепроницаемое исполнение

4reset – возврат

5single – pole toggle switch – однополюсный рычажный выключатель

ВАРИАНТ №3 MANUAL ELECTRIC DRIVE CONTROLS

Switches. Every electric circuit must have some type of switch. Therefore a

switch is the most basic of all electrical controls. Its purpose is to open and close an

electric circuit. It must start and stop the flow of electricity, and, in effect, it does this

by connecting and disconnecting wires. The switch contacts always become a part of

the electric wire that is used for supplying electricity to the appliance in question.

Therefore, when the switch contacts are open, the wire is effectively broken, and

when the contacts are closed, the wire is made to be continuous again.

In addition to having contacts that open and close, a switch must have a

second mechanical feature: The contacts must open and close quickly. This is known

as the s n a p - a c t i o n feature of a switch. A switch would operate without this

feature, but it would not last very long. There is an arc when the flow of electricity is

started and another arc when the flow is stopped. The latter arc causes the switch

contacts to become pitted, burned, and worn. The greater the arc, the greater is the

wear on the contacts. If the contacts open and close very quickly, the amount of

arcing will be greatly reduced. For this reason a mechanical means of-causing the

switch contacts to snap open or closed must be incorporated in the switch

mechanism. There is an exception to this requirement in the case of a mercury switch,

for its contacts do not move. The quick opening and closing is achieved by a sudden

movement of a p o o l of mercury.

Approved nomenclature relative to the p o l e and t h r o w designation of a

switch is shown by illustration in Fig. 6.

The AC Relay. A relay is a type of switch having contacts which are

operated by magnetism. The contacts of the relay open and close circuits just the

66

same as if the contacts had been operated by hand. The magnetism is created by

allowing an electric current to pass through a coil of wire, and the magnetism is

removed when the flow of current through the coil is stopped. A switch, separate

from the relay, is used to connect and disconnect the coil from the source of power.

The principle of operation of a relay is illustrated in Fig. 7. The separate

switch which connects the relay coil to the source of power may be any type of

manually operated switch, or it may be an automatically operated type. The

magnetism created by the coil causes certain metal parts to snap together. The

movement of one of the metal parts operates the contacts of the relay. The electrical

input to the appliance is controlled by the relay contacts. When the coil of Fig. 7 is

connected to the voltage source, the end moves upward and the contacts close. The

movable contact is insulated from the movable metal part.

Although the relay contacts of Fig. 7 are normally open and close when the

coil is energized, they could be arranged to be normally closed, and then would open

when the coil was magnetized. Most applications use the normally open type of

contact. A further variation in the contacts is obtained by using double-pole-switch

contacts (four-contact button) instead of the single-pole type illustrated in the figure.

The current rating of the contacts is very important, and proper selection depends

upon the current flow to the appliance which is to be controlled.

The main advantage in using a relay is that the switch and wires which

control the current flow to the relay coil do not conduct the current to the appliance.

Since the current required for energizing the coil is quite small (less than 1 amp), the

wire and switch can have low-current ratings and proportionately low costs. The large

appliance current is conducted through the contacts of the relay. Also the switch may

be placed at a distant position from the appliance since long lengths of small-size

wire between switch and coil do not cause voltage drop in the wires leading to the ap-

pliance. This type of arrangement is .well adapted for controlling motors, heaters, or

large lighting loads from remotely located small-size switches.

Pushbuttons.1 The momentary-contact manually operated pushbutton is the

most common type of remote control device for starting and stopping electric motors.

It is also used for .operating the electric-relay type of circuit.

This control is not the same as the pushbutton wall switches2 that-are

sometimes used in the home for controlling lights. That type of pushbutton is not

momentary contact; Instead its contacts remain open or closed until the opposite

button is pressed. Another difference is that the pushbutton wall switch is a complete

control in itself, whereas the momentary-contact pushbutton requires other equipment

in performing its controlling function.

The standard-duty pushbutton control for farm use is usually the two-button

type. The function of each button is clearly labeled on the button or on the metal

cover. Pushbutton use for circuit control is illustrated in Fig. 8. The buttons and their

related contacts are held in position by springs. The buttons are usually made of

bakelite or similar moulded insulation, and the contacts are silver or silver alloy. The

current rating of the button contacts is small (1, 2, or 3 amp) since the appliance

current does not flow through these contacts. Knockout holes for the wiring are

provided in the metal or bakelite cases.

67

The pushbutton control illustrated in Fig. 8 starts and stops the flow of current

to a relay coil. The contacts of the relay, in turn, control the power input to the

appliance. Which in this illustration is several electric strip heaters. When the start

button is pressed downward, current flows from L1 through both pushbuttons,

through the relay coil and back to L2. The contacts snap closed and the appliance is

on. When the start button is released, a spring3 causes it to return to its normal

position (the normal position is up ns shown in the figure). With the start pushbutton

in the released position current cannot flow through its contacts, but notice that the

relay contacts labeled x and у would be dosed and would conduct the current around

the start button find on to the coil. When the stop button is pressed downward, the

current flow to the coil is interrupted, the coil loses its magnetism, and the relay

contacts open, thereby disconnecting the appliance. Notes: 1pushbuttons – кнопки, клавиши

2pushbutton wall switch – настенный кнопочный выключатель

3a spring – пружина

ВАРИАНТ № 4

AUTOMATICAL ELECTRIC DRIVE CONTROLS

Thermostats. A thermostat is a switch, but it is a special kind of switch. Its switch

contacts must open and close automatically in response to1 changes in temperature. A

thermostat 18 therefore an automatic electric switch used for temperature control.

Classified according to usage, there are two general types of thermostats. The type

for heating equipment has contacts which close when temperature decreases. When the

temperature increases up to some predetermined value2, the contacts automatically open and

disconnect the heating equipment. If the temperature decreases a small amount (usually 1° to

4° F) below this predetermined value, the contacts close and the heating unit functions,

raising the temperature bask to the original value. The other type of thermostat is for cooling

and has contacts which close on a temperature rise. When the temperature increases up to a

certain value, the contacts of the thermostat close and start an air-conditioning unit, a fan, or a

refrigerator. When the temperature is back down to the desired value, the contacts open and

stop the cooling equipment.

Thermostats are undoubtedly the most widely used type of automatic control and

already have found many applications on the farmstead. They are used in hot-water systems,

electric hotbeds, electric brooders, electric incubators, refrigeration systems, crop driers,

ventilating-fan cooling systems, electric stock waterers, electric ovens, and electric irons and

for controlling the heating system of the farm residence and other farm buildings. Several

different types of thermostats are shown in Fig. 14.

It does not matter whether the thermostat is to be used for heating or for cooling; its

switch contacts could be operated by the action of a bellows. A bellows is like a balloon in

that It expands when the pressure inside is increased and contracts when the pressure is

decreased. Actually, the bellows lengthens and shortens rather than changing in diameter. The

change in the length of the bellows trips and resets the switch mechanism, and so to

understand why the switch contacts open and close, it is necessary to know why the pressure

inside the bellows changes in amount.

68

The bellows3 is connected by a small metal tube to a metal bulb which contains liquid

and gas. When the liquid inside the bulb is heated, it begins to boil (evaporate) and

change into gas. The additional gas created by the boiling liquid causes an increase in

pressure inside the bulb, the tube, and the bellows. The bellows will expand (get

longer), owing to this increase in pressure. When the gas inside the bulb is cooled, it

begins to condense thereby changing back into the liquid form. Less gas means less

pressure inside the bulb, the tube, and the bellows.

Fig. 14. Thermostats used on farms. The air switch shown on the left has a coiled bimetallic strip which operates a mercury

switch. The bellows type with bulb and capillary tube, the bimetallic-strip type, and the wafer type are also pictured in this

figure.

Owing to the decreased pressure, the bellows contracts (gets shorter) .and allows the

switch contacts to change position. It is significant to realize that the switch contacts

are opened and closed in accordance with the temperature surrounding the metal

bulb; therefore the location of the metal bulb is very important. The location of the

thermostat itself is not important in controlling temperature, but the length of the tube

which connects the bellows to the bulb must be considered when planning the various

installations4.

The amount of pressure required for expanding the bellows and operating the

switch contacts is influenced by spring tension. The tension is adjustable and opposes

the expansion of the bellows. The gas pressure inside the bellows will then have to be

greater before the bellows can expand. Accordingly, the switch contacts will not be

operated until the temperature increases, thus resulting in a greater gas pressure. Most

metals expand when heated, but they do not expand the same amount. Two unlike

metals which expand different amounts with an equal change in temperature provide

the important mechanism in a bimetallic thermostat. The unlike metals are bonded

together into one unit, and when the surrounding temperature increases, one metal

expands more than the other, which causes the unit to bend. This bending action is

used to trip and reset the switch contacts. Refer to Fig. 9 for an illustration of the

bimetallic-strip principle, but realize that the bimetallic strips of a thermostat

automatically reclose and do not need to be manually reset is do the contacts of the

unit shown in this figure.

Usually this type of thermostat is cheaper than the bellows type. It has fewer

parts. However, it differs in application in that the thermostat itself must be placed in

the location where the temperature control is desired. This placement is necessary

since the bimetallic strip is the item that responds to temperature changes, and it is

mounted inside the thermostat housing. In the bellows type the bulb responds to the

changes, and it is separated from its associated thermostat housing. The wafer

thermostat is the cheapest of the three types that are used on the farm in connection

69

with electric heating. It consists of two hollow metal disks5, the switch mid its

contacts, and a frame for holding the parts in place. The metal disks are filled with

gas. When the gas is heated, the pressure increases and the disks expand. The

expansion pushes the switch contacts open. When the disks are cooler, they contract

and the switch contacts close. The thermostat is not calibrated in degrees, but this

may be done locally. Like the bimetallic type, the entire thermostat must be located at

that position where the temperature is to be controlled.

Notes: 1in response – в ответ на…

2predetermined value – предопределенная величина

3the bellows – мембрана, сифон

4installation - установка

5hollow metal disk – полные металлический диск

ВАРИАНТ№ 5 PARAMETERS OF AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Parameters of an electric circuit are made up of three circuit components:

resistance, inductance and capacitance which determine the circuit characteristics.

1. The resistance of the circuit is determined by the properties of the conductor

of the circuit. It is not necessary that the circuit be made of segments of equal

resistance1.

2. The amount of magnetic linkage (the number of magnetic flux tubes linking

the circuit) per unit current is a mea of the inductance of the circuit:

3. If conductors are connected to metal plates, which are separated by a

vacuum or insulator, an electric potential will be built between the metal plates.

Electrical flux tubes will extend from one plate to the other. The intensity of the ele-

ctric field per unit potential is a measure of the capacitance2 of the circuit.

The purpose of any circuit is to transfer electric energy from an electric

generator battery of alternator3 to some other point of the circuit, where electric

energy is converted to some other form of energy, such as heat, light or mechanical

energy. It should be understood that energy is transmitted only when both electric and

magnetic field exist around the сconductor. The amount of energy transfer depends

on the intensities the electric and magnetic fields.

ELECTRIC MOTORS

The electric motor is exceptionally well suited for farm jobs, as it is efficient in

converting electric energy into mechanical energy, is easy to start and stop and can

be controlled automatically. Its overload capacity makes it particularly important as a

farm power unit since it can develop more than twice its rated power for periods of a

few minutes without damage. Electric motors when properly selected and installed

serve many years and require only periodic care. The electric motor has probably

done more to make the farmer's standard of living equal to that of the urban

resident than any other electric device including the electric lamp.

There are many different sizes of electric motors. Why are these different sizes

needed or, in other words, what is different about the various loads that causes one to

70

select one of motor for this application and another for a different application? The

answer is obtained by examining the characteristics of the various loads.

Any equipment4 requiring an electric motor has moving parts. The parts

represent an opposition to being moved, and in order for the motor to rotate it has to

develop enough force to overcome all opposition to its rotation. The turning effort

that the motor uses to overcome the opposition is called torque. The opposition is

called countertorque or resisting torque. The amount of counter-torque depends upon

the construction of the equipment and upon the amount of opposition added when the

machine is performing its job. Equipment with large, heavy, moving parts require-

more torque than equipment with lightweight parts. A 16-ft conveyor requires more

torque when it is operating at а 450 angle than it does when it is horizontal. The more

torque necessary) for turning the load, the larger is the horsepower rating5 of the

motor required for the job.

POWER TRANSFORMERS

The power transformer is an electric machine, without moving parts, for

transforming alternating voltage from a higher to a lower voltage or from a lower to a

higher voltage. It consists of two electric circuits called the primary and secondary

and a steel con (which forms a magnetic circuit). Either coil transformer may be used

as primary or secondary. Most transformers are designed for widely different

primary and secondary voltages. The coil with the high voltage is called the high-

tension winding and the one with low voltage the low-tension winding.

When a high voltage coil is the primary and the low voltage is secondary the

transformer is called a step-down transformer. When the reverse connection is used,

the transformer is called a step-up transformer. The ratio of the high-side voltage to

the low-side voltage the ratio of transformation.

Generally speaking, transformers may he designed for any desired ratio of

transformation. Common ratios are 5:1, 10:1, 20:1.

Transformer Name Plate. The name plate on the transformer gives the

voltage and kva ratings of the transformer and shows how the coils are connected. It

is common practice to build the lowvoltage winding in two coils and bring four

lead; to the outside of the transformer case. The coils may be connected in series or

parallel. If the coils are for 115 or 230 volts, they will supply rated kva at either

voltage.

The transformer should always be connected as shown on the nameplate.

Otherwise a short circuit which would damage the windings may result.

Transformer Connections. Single-phase transformers may be used for either

single-phase, two-phase or three-phase connections. One single-phase transformer

may he used to supply three-wire 115-230 volts or 230 460 volts

Since the secondary winding is electrically insulated from the primary, any

point of the secondary may be connected to ground. In single-phase, 115-230-volt

circuits it is common practice to ground the centre of the winding. If the system is a

three wire, 230-volt circuit with the centre of the coil grounded, there is a potential of

115 volts from the ground to either wire. The transformer case should be grounded. Notes: 1resistance - сопротивление

71

2capacitance - емкость

3alternator – генератор переменного тока

4equipment - оборудование

5horsepower rating – мощность в лошадиных силах

Институт инженерных систем, сервиса и энергетики

ВАРИАНТ №1

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES AND TRACTORS HISTORY AND

DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINES

During the early part of the twentieth century, some steam-operated1

automobiles were in use. Since the steam engine can be stopped and started or

reversed at will, no clutch or transmission was required. However, the troubles

encountered in the operation of the steam engine, along with the development of

internal combustion engines2 and storage batteries

3, resulted in the gradual

elimination4 of the steam-propelled automobile. The development of the automobile

in the 1890's did much to further the development of the internal combustion engine.

Gradual acceptance of the automobile into our form of living brought about a demand

for dependability, economy, smoothness and quietness of operation, and increased

power and speeds. Early internal combustion engines used in automobiles had few

cylinders, had low-compression pressures, and developed little power. The engines

were large and of considerable weight, and were quite noisy and rough in operation.

In order to improve the performance of the automobile, it was necessary to

increase the power developed by the engine. This was generally accomplished by

increasing the size or number of cylinders or the length of the stroke5. However, such

improvements usually increased the weight and cumbersomeness6 of the engine.

Regardless of the number or size of the cylinders, these were all low-compression

engines approximately, 60 psi (pounds pressure per square inch). Top engine speeds

seldom exceeded 2,000 rpm (revolutions per minute).

The acceptance by the public of the automobile as a means of transportation

produced a demand for the improvement and development of roads. As more people

began to use and operate automobiles, the demand increased for greater reliability,

higher speeds, and economy of operation.

Improvements in fuels permitted higher compression pressures, resulting in

increases in power and engine speeds. Higher engine speeds, along with the improved

fuels, required changes in the combustion chamber7 design, resulting in a more even

burning of the fuel mixture within the cylinder. As engine speeds increased, the

timing of the valves8 became more critical. High operating speeds required that the

valves be held open for longer periods of time in order to allow sufficient time for the

fuel charge to enter the cylinder and the burned gases to be expelled.

72

The demand for better materials resulted in the rapid development of the

various sciences. While science, has contributed much to the modern automobile

engine, the engine has likewise contributed much to science by creating the need for

better materials. The requirements for interchangeable parts to permit mass

production have revolutionized manufacturing processes. While it can be said that

modern manufacturing methods make possible the present-day automobile engine, it

is equally true that the automobile engine has made possible the present methods and

standards in manufacturing.

While the internal combustion engine has undergone numerous changes in

design and construction, its basic principle of operation has not changed. Many

engines operate on the four-stroke-cycle9 principle patented by Dr. Otto in 1876.

Others operate on the two-stroke-cycle principle. Aside from improvements

in materials and methods, the chief changes that have been made in these engines are:

(1) Increased compression ratios.

(2) Improved valve timing.

(3) Better balance of moving parts.

(4) Better mixing and distribution of fuel.

(5) More accurate timing of fuel charge ignition

These changes have resulted in compact, powerful, highly efficient engines,

of light weight that can operate at extremely high speeds. The weight per horsepower

developed has been reduced to but a fraction10

of the weight of early engines.

Nevertheless, in principle, the modern automobile engine is the same as originally

conceived.

WHO INVENTED THE CAR?

Two Germans, Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, both took credit for making

the first car. Eventually the car companies that they founded combined to become the

Daimler-Benz Company, which still produces Mercedes-Benz automobiles more than

100 years later.

Carl Benz was born in 1844, 10 years after Gottlieb Daimler. Both Germans

were mechanical engineers who worked to develop internal combustion engines that

ran on liquid gasoline. Then they installed the engines on bicycles, carriages and

other vehicles that were normally powered by people or animals. When these early

experiments worked well, the inventors continued to improve their designs until the

first cars were ready to race.

Carl Benz used a gasoline-powered engine with one cylinder to power a

three-wheeled car in 1885, but he did not get it patented until 1886. His car had a

tiller to steer the front wheel. Carl Benz began selling his cars in 1887. Gottlieb

Daimler patented his internal combustion engine in 1885. He also invented a

carburetor. Gottlieb Daimler sold one of his first cars to the Sultan of Morocco in

1889. In 1926, the two companies became the Daimler-Benz Company.

Other European and American inventors added innovations to make other

versions of early automobiles. Emile Levassor, a French man, was the first person to

think of putting the engine in the front of the car. This allowed a more powerful

73

engine than those used by either Benz or Daimler. Levassor's engine had two

cylinders. He showed off his automobile in a 700-mile race in France, which he won

in 49 hours.

Automobile races became popular ways for American car makers to test

market their designs. They also helped get the onlookers interested in perhaps

becoming car owners someday. One famous car race happened in Chicago on

Thanksgiving Day in 1895. Two car makers from Springfield, Massachusetts, Charles

and Frank Duryea, entered one of the two cars that finished the 49-mile race. The

other winner was one of Carl Benz's cars from Germany.

It did not take many years before cars became affordable to regular people. In

1900, 48,000 people attended the first National Automobile Show in New York's

Madison Square Garden. In 1908, Henry Ford started the Ford Motor Company,

which became famous for building the Model T, which sold for $850 at first. It got

cheaper, though - 8 years later, a Model T Ford only cost $360. New 2009 Fords

range in price from $17,000 to more than $34,000.

Notes: 1 steam-operate – с паросиловой установкой

2 internal combustion engine – двигатель внутреннего сгорания

3 storage battery – аккумуляторная батарея

4 elimination – устранение, отстранение

5 stroke – удар, ход поршня

6 cumbersomeness - громоздкость

7 combustion chamber – камера сгорания

8 valve – клапан

9 four-stroke-cycle – четырехтактный цикл

10 fraction – дробь, частица, доля

ВАРИАНТ №2

A COMPARISON OF SPARK-IGNITION1 AND

COMPRESSION-IGNITION2 ENGINES

CI and SI Engine Uses. The gasoline engine has been most useful in

automobiles, light trucks, a type tractor. The diesel or oil-burning engine has been

most popular in boats, in locomotives, and in powerhouses. As the speed of the diesel

engine has been increased, it has been used in more farm tractors, particularly in

those of the crawler type. Because of other, characteristics the diesel engine is

gaining favor for the row or wheel type of farm tractor.

What, essentially, are the differences between the CI and SI engines?

The SI Fuel System. One of the main differences is how the fuel is mixed. In

the SI engine we must provide a carburetor or mixer. This is a device for mixing air

with fuel. There are several hundred different carburetors in use. Some are quite

simple and others are extremely complicated. One characteristic of most carburetors

is that they must be in operation almost on a level or the liquid fuel will leak out. This

sometimes causes faulty operation when the tractor SI engine is tipped at a

considerable angle or when the farm truck goes around a corner.

74

The CI Fuel System. The CI engine does not have a carburetor. The fuel is

not mixed with the air outside of the cylinder space as in the SI engine. As a

substitute for the carburetor, a pump3 and an injector

4 are used. There are not as many

injectors in use as there are carburetors, but injectors and pumps are very precise

instruments. There is an injector or nozzle5 for every cylinder. Their purpose is to

prevent the air within the combustion chamber6 from leaking out but at the same time

inject a stream of fuel into the hot compressed gases at the correct time and interval.

It is, therefore, apparent that the air and fuel must mix within the combustion space.

The correct mixing of the fuel and air in the space above the piston is a difficult

design problem.

Injectors and Carburetors. In the SI engine, air and fuel are compressed

together. In the CI engine, the air alone is compressed in the cylinder space the fuel is

compressed as a liquid by a pump at the side of the engine. This pump must develop

a pressure greater than that of the air within the cylinder. The usual pressure is about

2700 psia (pounds per square inch, absolute). As the pressures in the cylinder before

combustion will seldom be higher than 800 psia the liquid fuel can be forced into the

cylinder at the proper time. Of course, this pump requires a force to operate it, and it

is negative work; that is, it does not add to our output of power. The ordinary

carburetor does not require any power to operate; there is some friction loss,

however.

Terminology. Usually the term SI means or implies that a carburetor is being

used. The CI engine never has a carburetor, - as the fuel is forced into the cylinder

space by an injector. The injection of the fuel is sometimes misnamed7 solid injection.

As the fuel is not in solid form, this is a misnomer8. A better name is liquid injection.

Throttling9. The carburetor of the SI engine must deliver the fuel to the

manifold10

and to the cylinder in rather definite ratios of fuel to air. If this is not done,

the engine will not operate correctly. The usual fuel-to-air ratio would be about 1 lb11

of fuel to 15 lb of air. Not only must the ratio be correct, but also the amount of

mixture fed to the cylinder must be controlled. The usual method of controlling the

amount of mixture, and therefore the power arid speed of the SI engine, is to install a

butterfly valve in the passageway leading from the carburetor to the manifold. By

turning this butterfly valve it is possible to regulate the amount of fuel and air from a

zero to a maximum. Moving the butterfly valve is called throttling. That is, throttling

an engine would imply regulating its speed. A closed throttle would allow the engine

to idle a full throttle would allow the engine to develop full power or speed. The

manifold throttle is a characteristic of the SI engine. It is not found on the CI engine.

It is an important difference between the two types of engines. The throttle has

considerable influence on the efficiency of the SI type of engine; for when the throttle

is almost fully open, the efficiency is the highest; when the throttle is at idling

position; the efficiency is the lowest.

Thus, the SI engine power is varied by manifold throttling. This means that

the amount of the fuel mixture is varied. In the diesel, only the fuel amount is varied;

the air volume remains relatively constant. Thus a diesel can operate on such a small

quantity of fuel that the air-to-fuel ratio may became 100:1, which is a very

economical ratio. This explains why the diesel will operate economically at light

75

loads. The large amount of surplus air also causes the diesel to operate at lower

temperatures. Thus, because of combustion characteristics, the diesel runs more

economically, and cooler at the slower speeds. And, because of the possible higher

compression ratio, the diesel is able to convert more of the heat energy of the fuel

into work energy at any speed.

Heavier Parts. The diesel engine has to be made heavier than the gasoline

engine in order to withstand12

the higher pressures. These pressures are against the

cylinder walls or liners, against the head and valves, and against the piston head.

These additional pressures are transferred through the piston head to the piston pin

through the connecting rod and to the crankshaft pin. All these parts must be made

heavier. The crankshaft13

is heavier, the rods are stronger, the bearings are thicker and

wider, and more bearings are used. Almost every diesel has a main bearing between

each crank throw for greater support. All this extra strength requirement means a

heavier engine and a more expensive engine.

Notes: 1 abbr. SI - искровое (электрическое) зажигание

2 abbr. CI - компрессионное воспламенение, воспламенение сжатием

3 pump – насос, накачивать

4 injector – инжектор, форсунка

5 nozzle – наконечник, сопло, форсунка

6 combustion chamber – камера сгорания

7 misname – неправильно называть

8 misnomer – неправильный термин, неправильное употребление термина

9 throttling - дросселирование

10 manifold – патрубок, труба, трубопровод

11 lb. – фунт (0,453 кг.)

12 to withstand –противостоять, сопротивляться, выдерживать

13crankshaft – коленчатый вал

ВАРИАНТ №3

COOLING SYSTEMS

The function of the cooling system is to maintain the temperature of the

engine at that temperature which the engineers have found advisable and for which

they designed the engine. Any variation to any extent above or below this optimum

temperature invites trouble and early engine deterioration1. There are two types of

liquid cooling systems based on the forces that circulate the coolant2. These two types

are the gravity3, natural, or thermosiphon system and the pump or forced system.

The forced type of circulation is the predominating method of circulating the

liquid coolant: A centrifugal4 type of pump is used, its pressure depending on its size

and the speed of operation. This type of pump is used because, if the regular channels

of circulation are cut off by thermostats, the pump merely circulates the water within

the pump housing with no damage to the part and no buildup of high pressures within

the system. A centrifugal pump draws liquid in at the center and throws it to an

outlet5 by the spinning effect of the rapidly rotating blades

6.

The pump is usually driven by the same shaft that supports the fan as the fan

rotates, so does the water pump. Ball bearings are being used in these pumps so that

76

they can be lubricated for life and, therefore, offer little maintenance problems.

Others have bushed bearings and utilize grease7

or oil. Spring-loaded8 fiber, rubber

9,

or leather seals10

keep the lubricant and coolant separated. Important parts of the

engine cooling system are the pump, the fan11

, radiator, shutters12

, thermostat, hose

belts, and gages or indicators.

Pumps of the centrifugal types are found in the forced circulation system.

They may pump anywhere from 15 to 50 gpm (gallons per minute). Systems using

high-capacity pumps will usually use less coolant, and they will, therefore, have a

quick warmup13

period as there is less coolant to heat.

The fans are necessary in order to move a large volume of air. This is true

where the engine is air-cooled or if it is liquid-and-air-cooled.

Gages14

or indicators indicate the approximate temperature of the coolant.

The most common radiator type has the coolant flowing from top to bottom

through round or flattened15

tubing. The flattened tubing has more flexibility in case

the coolant freezes and hence will not burst as easily.

The reader may come across the term heat exchanger. The tractor radiator is

one form of heat exchanger16

, merely serving as a device for the transfer or exchange

of heat from the liquid to the gaseous air.

The purpose of the cooling system is to control the temperature of the engine

within reasonable limits while operating, and to assist in the rapid warmup of the

engine so as to decrease wear and to arrive quickly at an efficient operating

temperature. To accomplish this purpose, tractor and automobile engines have been

equipped with shutters or thermostats, sometimes both. The cooling system using air

entirely as the outside coolant requires very little attention, perhaps just enough to see

if all the passages are free.

The engine using the liquid-air combination does require considerable

attention. It is just as important to keep the cooling system clean and free from

obstructions as it is the lubrication system. The three greatest "saboteurs" of the

cooling system are rust17

, scale18

, and electrolysis19

.

MACHINE DESIGN

Machine design is the art of developing new ideas for the construction of

machines and expressing those ideas in the form of plant and drawings. The idea may

be almost entirely new, as in the case of an invention or an improvement upon

existing machinery; or it may be only partially new, as when a machine or a machine

part is to differ in size, load, or materials from those already existing.

For a machine to be well-designed the parts must be strong enough for the

duty required of them and must be adequate for the functions they must perform, but

they must not involve unnecessary expenditure of material or prohibitive cost of

construction.

To design well any machine or part, the designer must have a working

knowledge of the elements of machine construction; must know how to analyze the

applied forces and their reactions and how to determine the resulting stresses; must

possess sufficient information about materials; and must understand the influence of

shape, method of assembling, and working conditions of parts upon the operation and

77

maintenance of the machine. Thus modern machine design involves the application

of the principles of three fundamental engineering subjects: mechanisms, mechanics,

and strength of materials, including elements of the theory of elasticity. In addition,

possession of experimental data on the performance of similar machines already

existing is of great value.

Notes: 1

deterioration – порча, повреждение; изнашивание, износ; разрушение 2 coolant – охлаждающая среда, охлаждающая жидкость

3 gravity CS – система охлаждения с циркуляцией самотеком, термосифонная система

охлаждения 4 centrifugal - центробежный

5 outlet – выход, выпуск, выпускное отверстие

6 blade – лопасть, лезвие, лемех

7 grease – густая, консистентная смазка

8 spring-loaded – пружинный, находящийся под действием пружины

9 rubber - резина

10 seal – сальник, (уплотняющая) прокладка

11 fan - вентилятор

12 shutter – задвижка, заслонка, затвор

13 warmup – прогрев(ание), нагрев(ание)

14 gage – датчик, измерительный прибор

15 flattened – овального сечения

16 heat exchanger - теплообменник

17 rust – ржавчина

18 scale - накипь

19 electrolysis - электролиз

ВАРИАНТ №4

THE FOUR-STROKE-CYCLE ENGINE

Prime Movers1. We have what are called prime movers doing a lot of useful

work for us. For instance, there is the windmill which takes advantage of the energy

of moving air to pump water. There is the hydraulic turbine which uses the velocity2

and consequent energy of moving water to create power. The water wheel uses the

energy of falling water; the steam engine, the energy of expanding steam. These are

examples of physical changes adding to man's source of power.

External Combustion Engine. Another important example of a prime mover

is the heat engine. Certain organic compounds which contain carbon are caused to

burn and give off heat. This heat furnishes power in one of two ways. In the external

type of heat engine, the fuel is burned in a chamber or firebox; the heat is applied to

some liquid such as mercury3 or water which, in turn, is piped to the engine as it

changes from a liquid to a gas. The heat has caused the molecules of the liquid to

separate so far from each other that they form a vapor which may be considered as a

gas. The enormous energy of the moving molecules of the gas creates a tremendous

pressure against a reciprocating4 piston or against the blades of a turbine. However, it

must be noted that the fuel is burned on the outside of the engine itself; it is,

therefore, of the external combustion type. The steam engine and steam turbine are

78

good examples. The steam engine has been inefficient in the conversion of heat into

the energy of movement. The average steam engine of the reciprocating type has only

been able to convert about 5 per cent of the energy of the fuel into, useful work. That

is one of the reasons why the diesel engine with a comparable efficiency of

approximately 30 per cent has been displacing the steam locomotive engine.

The Internal Combustion Engine. The most important type of prime mover

is the internal combustion engine. Most of the engines of this type use liquids as their

fuel, although some burn gas from manufactured or natural sources. The two most

common fuels used are gasoline and a less volatile5 fuel called diesel or fuel oil.

Engine Principles. In the internal combustion piston engine, the fuel is

forced into the space between the cylinder head and the piston which is usually called

the combustion chamber or space. The size of this space is variable, that is it depends

upon the position of the piston. If the piston is at the head end (HEDC6), the space is

small. If the fuel is in this space and is ignited, it will tend, to expand. As the head is

securely fastened to the block and as the cylinder walls are either in the block or are a

part of the block, the only object that can move is the piston. This it does, going as far

as it can toward the crankcase end (CEDC7).Thus the internally burning fuel causes

expansion, and movement in the internal combustion engine.

Engine Types. There are several types of such engines, depending upon

cycle, location of parts, and other items. A partial designation of engine types could

be as follows:

1. Type of fuel burned - gasoline, kerosene, fuel oils, and gases.

2. Method of cooling - liquid or gas (air).

3. Arrangement of cylinders.

4. Valve location.

5. Cycle - four-stroke and two-stroke.

6. Type of valves.

7. Ignition - spark or compression.

8. Moving parts - piston or blade (turbine).

9. Compression - low, medium, high.

One of the most important engine designation is by the cycle used. The usual

outboard boat engine8 is of the two-stroke cycle. The usual tractor engine and all

known automobile engines are of the four-stroke type.

The four-stroke-cycle engine is sometimes improperly called the four'-cycle

engine. This is not a correct technical designation. It is simply an abbreviation of the

longer descriptive term; it does not indicate that there are four piston strokes per

cycle.

Four-stroke-cycle Engine. In order to simplify the explanation of the

operation of the four-stroke engine, one of the gasoline-burning type will be used.

This is the usual type found on garden tractors, lawn mowers, and most wheeled farm

tractors.

Cycle Processes. By necessity we must start with one of the four events. The

most logical one for beginning is the intake of the fuel. As the piston moves down (in

the vertical engine), there is a tendency for a vacuum to form in the cylinder space.

This is caused by the expansion of the gas (air only, for our beginning stroke). For

79

instance, if one volume of air occupies six times as much space, say in an engine with

a compression ratio of 6:1, there should be about one-sixth the absolute atmospheric

pressure, according to Boyle's gas law. This means that the pressure on the outside is

much greater than on the inside. If now the intake valve is opened, there will be a

rush of air into the cylinder space. If by carburetion some fuel is mixed with air, we

have a combustible mixture in the engine. If the intake valve now closes, the mixture

is trapped. If this mixture is ignited at this point, no work wi11 be done as the piston

is down as far as it can go. Also the fuel would not have much force as the molecules

of fuel and oxygen (in the air) are quite widely separated. Therefore the piston is

moved to the top of the cylinder by moving the flywheel9 or hand crank

10. This will

compress the fuel-air mixture into approximately one-sixth of its former volume. The

mixture will now be under six times the pressure it was formerly, more if the

temperature of the mixture rose during compression. If both valves are left closed and

the mixture is ignited, the trapped and compressed gases will exert a tremendous

force while burning. This force will cause the piston to move to the crank end of the

cylinder, thus causing motion and doing work with heat energy.

To complete the cycle, the exhaust valve is opened when the power of the

rapid combustion is mostly spent, and, as the piston moves toward the head, the

exhaust gases are pushed from the combustion chamber. Energy stored in the

flywheel as momentum provides the power to exhaust the products of combustion, to

provide the engine with another charge of fuel and air, and to compress the mixture

ready for ignition and another power stroke.

Briefly the events are as follows: intake, one valve open; compression, both

valves closed; burning or combustion, both valves closed; exhaust, one valve open.

Thus one cycle of four events with four strokes of the piston has been completed

(ignition could be a fifth event).

Notes: 1 Prime Movers – машина – двигатель, первичный двигатель

2 velocity – векторная скорость

3 mercury - ртуть

4 reciprocating – двигать(ся), перемещать(ся) возвратно-поступательно

5 volatile – летучий, быстро испаряющийся

6 abbr. HEDC – head and dead centre – верхняя мертвая точка

7 abbr. CEDC – crankcase end dead centre – нижняя мертвая точка

8 outboard boat engine – подвесной (забортный) двигатель (моторной лодки)

9 flywheel – маховик, маховое колесо

10 hand crank – ручка, рукоятка; пусковая рукоятка

ВАРИАНТ №5

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

If you were asked, "What is the most important job in caring for a tractor?"

you would probably say lubrication1. If any one job can be considered more

80

important than another, you would be right. The different lubricants used in the

tractor perform these essential functions:

Conduct away excessive heat.

Reduce friction and wear between moving parts.

Seal compression between pistons and cylinder walls.

Cushion2 loads on bearings of the power-transmitting system.

Because tractor work is so severe - long hours, heavy loads, dusty fields,

rough ground, steep hills, and all kinds of weather – we have to be very careful about

lubrication. Fortunately, however, the actual job of properly lubricating a tractor has

been made quite easy. The petroleum industry has developed excellent oils and

greases. Manuals tell what kinds and grades to use, and where and how often to apply

them. The lubrication system holds and circulates an ample3 supply.

Your job in properly lubricating a tractor can be summarized as follows:

1. Selecting the kinds of lubricants recommended by the manu-

facturer.

2. Applying these in correct amounts at recommended intervals.

3. Maintaining proper quantities within the tractor.

4. Changing lubricants as required.

5. Keeping these lubricants clean and free from contamination4 and

dilution5.

Engine Lubrication System. You should understand the construction of the

engine lubrication system and know how it circulates oil to all parts of the engine. In

most tractors, oil is circulated and distributed, within the engine by a gear-type oil

pump6. This maintains sufficient pressure to supply oil in proper quantities to all the

working parts. This is a full-pressure-type lubrication system.

The oil intake of the pump and is of the floating type, composed of afloat with

a metal screen, which prevents the entrance of large foreign particles that would

damage the pump gears7. The intake is hinged in a way that permits the float to re-

main near the surface of the oil in the oil pan in order to draw in the cleanest oil. The

pump forces the oil, under pressure, to the principal distribution passages drilled into

the cylinder block. This pump also has a pressure regulating valve which maintains

the specified pressure to protect the lubricating system and the pump mechanism

when the lubricants are thickened by cold temperature.

The valve which regulates the pump pressure opens to permit oil to escape

into the oil pan through a bypass. An oil pressure gage, which can be seen by the

operator, is connected to the main oil passage. From the main oil passage the oil is

forced through smaller passages drilled in the block to main crankshaft bearings and

other parts of the engine. The excess oil is by-passed from the main oil passage

through a smaller passage, is forced through the filter, and is then returned through a

metering hole located in the central bolt of the filter, to the oil pan.

In the center bearing of the camshaft there is a small oil slot8. As the camshaft

revolves, contacting the main oil passage, the oil flows through passage or

intermittently lubricating the rocker arms and valves, and the exhaust valve stems and

guides; the overflow returns to the oil pan. The intake valve stem guides are

lubricated by oil vapors. The oil is forced under pressure from the three main

81

crankshaft bearings through passages drilled in the crankshaft to the four connecting

rod bearings. On the larger engines the connecting rods9 are drilled and the oil from

the bearing is forced through this drilled oil passage to lubricate the piston pin10

and

cylinder walls. On the smaller engines the oil lubricates the connecting rod bearings,

escapes at the ends, and splash lubricates the cylinder walls, piston pins, etc. The

front camshaft bearing contains oil holes and passages which index with other

passages at each revolution. As this occurs, the oil is forced intermittently through the

drilled oil passages to the timing gears and through the oil passage to the governor

assembly (on engines using a carburetor).

The purpose of the oil filter is to remove foreign matter from the oil and other

substances which might damage the engine.

MOTOR OIL

Motor oil, or engine oil, is an oil used for lubrication of various internal

combustion engines. While the main function is to lubricate moving parts, motor oil

also cleans, inhibits corrosion, improves sealing and cools the engine by carrying heat

away from moving parts.

Motor oils are derived from petroleum-based11

and non-petroleum

synthesized chemical compounds. Motor oils are today mainly blended by using base

oils composed of hydrocarbons12

, thus organic compounds consisting entirely of

carbon and hydrogen.

Motor oil is a lubricant13

used in internal combustion engines. These include

motor or road vehicles such as cars and motorcycles, heavier vehicles such as buses

and commercial vehicles, non-road vehicles such as go-karts14

, snowmobiles, boats

(fixed engine installations and outboards), lawn mowers, large agricultural and

construction equipment, locomotives and aircraft, and static engines such as electrical

generators. In engines, there are parts which move against each other causing friction

which wastes otherwise useful power by converting the energy to heat. Contact

between moving surfaces also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower

efficiency and degradation of the motor. This increases fuel consumption and

decreases power output and can, in extreme cases, lead to engine failure.

Lubricating oil creates a separating film15

between surfaces of adjacent

moving parts to minimize direct contact between them, decreasing heat caused by

friction and reducing wear, thus protecting the engine. In use, motor oil transfers heat

through convection as it flows through the engine by means of air flow over the

surface of the oil pan16

, an oil cooler and through the build up of oil gases evacuated

by the Crankcase Ventilation system.

In petrol (gasoline) engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to

temperatures of 320°F (160 °C). In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to

temperatures over 600°F (315 °C).

Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen,

inhibiting oxidation at elevated operating temperatures preventing rust or corrosion.

Corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have

82

detergents and dispersants added to help keep the engine clean and minimize oil

sludge build-up.

Notes: 1 lubrication – смазка

2 cushion – амортизатор, амортизировать, смягчать

3 ample – достаточный, обильный

4 contamination - загрязнение

5 dilution – разжижжение

6 gear-type oil pump – шестеренчатый масляный насос

7 gear – зубчатое колесо

8 slot – прорезь, щель

9 connecting rod - шатун

10 piston pin – поршневой палец

11 petroleum-based - на нефтяной основе, базирующийся на нефтяном сырье (о

производстве) 12

hydrocarbon - углеводород 13

lubricant - смазочный материал, смазка 14

go-kart - карт (микролитражный автомобиль для картинга) 15

film – пленка 16

oil pan – маслянный поддон, маслосборник, поддон картера

83

Второй год обучения

ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ МАТЕРИАЛ

1. Модальные глаголы can, may, must и их эквиваленты.

2. Временные формы группы Perfect.

3. Неопределенные местоимения some, any, no, every и их производные.

4. Употребление местоимений many, much, little, few.

5. Местоимения one (ones), that (those), как заменители существительного.

6. Использование существительного в функции определения. Перевод его на

русский язык.

7. Страдательный залог и особенности перевода пассивных конструкций

8. Глаголы to be (to), to have (to), выражающие долженствование.

9. Простые неличные формы глагола.

10. Герундий. Значение, употребление и перевод на русский язык.

84

КОНТРОЛЬНО-ТРЕНИРОВОЧНЫЕ УПРАЖНЕНИЯ

Второй семестр

1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая

внимание на модальный глагол must:

1) Her English is very poor, she must study very hard.

2) They must spend more time on their English.

3) You must help her in every way possible.

4) We must learn at least ten new words every day.

5) He must leave at once.

6) The students must do their homework regularly.

7) You must do this important work quickly.

2. Заполните пропуски модальными глаголами can или may. Переведите

предложения на русский язык:

1) ... I ask you to explain the rule once more?

2) ... you lend me your dictionary?

3) You ... take this book; I don’t need it.

4) It was a very popular song at the time, you ... hear it everywhere.

5) ... I ask you to do me a favour?

6) Atoms of different kinds ... join together in different ways.

7) They ... continue their experiment.

3. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая

внимание на глаголы to have (to) и to be (to):

1) It looks like raining. You have to take your raincoat.

2) Remember that we are to be at this place not later than eight.

3) He will have to stay there for a month.

4) We are to leave on Monday.

5) The children had to stay indoors because it was raining.

6) Nobody met me when I came, because I was to arrive by the ten o’clock train, but

I couldn’t get a ticket for it.

7) We had to touch upon this question at the scientific conference.

8) You will have to work hard to finish the work in time.

4. Заполните пропуски модальными глаголами или их эквивалентами:

1) She ... play chess well. 2) ... I take your pen? 3) ... I ask you a question? 4) You ...

not talk at the lesson. 5) He ... not speak, English last year. 6) My sister ... not play

the piano two years ago, but now she ... 7) You ... get this novel in our library. 8) I ...

go to the library today to prepare for my report at the conference. 9) ... you do me a

favour?

85

5. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

Образец: Не can play chess well.

Can he play chess well?

He can’t play chess well.

1) We must tell her this news. 2) He may smoke here. 3) She can speak English

perfectly. 4) The students must translate the text at home. 5) We can go to the theatre

tonight. 6) We shall be able to help them. 7) They had to wait for a long time. 8) His

friend couldn’t get this book. 9) You were allowed to take this book home. 10) May I

go home now? 11) They were allowed to come at four.

6. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Present Perfect:

1) I (speak) to him about it several times.

2) We (learn) many new words in this course.

3) He (make) that same mistake several times.

4) I (hear) that story before.

5) I am afraid that I (lose) my car keys.

6) She (see) this film three times.

7) I (tell) John what you said.

8) She (return) my book at last.

9) She says that she (lose) her new pocket-book.

7. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Past Perfect:

1) I was sure that I (see) the man before.

2) I asked him why he (leave) the party so early.

3) It was clear that he (give) us the wrong address.

4) The teacher corrected the exercises which I (prepare).

5) He knew that he (make) a serious mistake.

6) She said she (look) everywhere for the book.

7) I felt that I (meet) the man somewhere before.

8) He wanted to know what (happen) to his briefcase.

8. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме Future Perfect:

1) I am sure they (complete) the new road by June.

2) He says that before he leaves he (see) every show in town.

3) By the time you arrive, I (finish) reading your book.

4) I (be) in this country two years on next January.

5) A year from now he (take) his medical examinations and (begin) to practice.

6) If you don’t make a note of that appointment, you (forget) it by next week.

9. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на

употребление времен группы Perfect:

1) Не has told her all about his travel. 2) I have never been to St. Petersburg. 3) Have

you finished your homework? 4) They have been friends for years. 5) By the time he

leaves home, we shall have come to the station. 6) We are sure that he will have kept

86

his promise. 7) She told us that she had not finished her report yet. 8) He has been the

best student in the class. 9) She said she had had her lunch. 10) By the end of the

week we shall already have translated this book. 11) They have been absent from

class all week.

10. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

1) There are some extra chairs in the next room.

2) He made some mistakes in spelling.

3) They have some pretty dresses in that store.

4) The teacher taught us some important rules of grammar.

5) We learned some new words in class yesterday.

6) There are some flowers in the yellow vase.

7) The doctor gave her some pills to take.

8) I bought some stamps at the post-office.

9) He told us about some of his experiences.

11. Заполните пропуски местоимениями some или any. Переведите

предложения на русский язык:

1) You will need ... warm clothes there.

2) I don’t have ... money with me.

3) Please, give me ... more coffee. – I’m sorry, but there isn’t … more coffee. I’m

sorry, but I didn’t have ... time to prepare my lessons last night.

4) It was in Greece that ancient civilization was highly developed.

5) I didn’t have ... stamps, so I went to the post-office to buy ...

6) Please, put ... water in that vase, the flowers are dying.

7) There are ... famous museums in that city but we didn’t have time to visit ...

8) The doctor gave me ... medicine for my cough.

9) There aren’t ... students in the room at the moment.

12. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

Образец: Не told us something about his trip.

Did he tell us anything about his trip?

He didn’t tell us anything about his trip.

1) There is someone at the door. 2) You left something on the hall table. 3) He will

bring someone with him. 4) There is somebody in the next room. 5) He has

something important to say to you. 6) There is something wrong with this telephone.

7) She gave us something to eat. 8) He spoke to somebody about it.

13. Заполните пропуски местоимениями some, any, no, every и их производ-

ными. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1) Не found ... new words in this lesson. 2) I have ... living in that city. 3) She comes

here ... day. You can find her in ... time between nine and six. 4) If you have ...

against me, speak out. 5) Have ... more ice-сream. – Thanks, ... more for me. 6) ...

87

day he comes here and asks me the same questions. 7) ... was ready. 8) I told you ... I

had to tell. There is hardly ... to add.

14. Заполните пропуски местоимениями much, many, little, few. Переведите

предложения на русский язык:

1) Very ... people know about it. 2) He is a man of ... words. 3) ... was said but ...

done. 4) Say ... and do ... . 5) ... heard about the book but ... read it. 6) There isn’t ...

harm in it. 7) He has very ... knowledge of the matter. 8) ... is spoken about it, but ...

believe it. 9) We have ... friends in Leningrad. 10) There were very ... mistakes in his

spelling.

15. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на

местоимения one (ones), that (those):

1) This text is more difficult than that one. 2) One of the students is absent today. 3)

One must always try to speak English at our lessons. 4) There is only one way to do

it. 5) Those present at the meeting were the teachers from our school. 6) I like to read

English books as well as Russian ones. 7) The students of the first group study better

than those of the second one. 8) These pictures are better than those. 9) This film is

more interesting than that I saw last week. 10) I don’t like this book. Give me another

one.

16. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на

употребление инфинитива:

1) You must get up early to be in time for the lesson. 2) We sometimes stay at our

institute to discuss the news. 3) One must study hard to know English well. 4) To

improve pronunciation one must read aloud. 5) To learn how to use this method you

must solve many problems. 6) He worked hard to complete his experiment in time. 7)

It will take you much time to perform this work. 8) To translate this text without a

dictionary you must know all the new words.

17. Выберите из скобок требующуюся форму причастия.

1. a) The girl (writing, written) on the blackboard is our best pupil.

b) Everything (writing. written) here is quite right.

2. a) The house (surrounding, surrounded) by tall trees is very beautiful.

b) The wall (surrounding, surrounded) the house was very high.

3. Read the (translating, translated) sentences once more.

4. Name some places (visiting, visited) by you last year.

5. She was reading the book (buying, bought) the day before.

6. Here is the letter (receiving, received) by me yesterday.

18. Употребите глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме герундия. Переведите

предложения на русский язык:

1) I enjoy (study) with Miss Smith. 2) They have finished (paint) our apartment at

last. 3) Mr. Smith stopped (go) to his English class. 4) We are considering (buy) an

automobile. 5) Do you mind (wait) a few minutes in the hall? 6) My little brother

88

enjoys (listen) to the radio. 7) You shouldn’t risk (go) out if you have a cold. 8) We

shall appreciate (receive) an answer immediately. 9) She insisted on (help) me with

the report.

19. Закончите предложения и переведите их на русский язык:

1) She is not interested in ... 2) He is fond of ... . 3) We both enjoy ... . 4) He is tired

of ... 5) We all need more practice in ... 6) Do you mind ... ? 7) They are both very

fond of ... 8) He hasn’t had any experience in ... 9) She left suddenly without

20. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на

неличные формы глагола:

1) It’s no use (argue) when the matter is settled.

2) I don’t like to interrupt people when they are speaking.

3) It was very useful to hear the different opinions.

4) Shall we ever have a chance of seeing you here again?

5) He left suddenly without saying a word.

6) Do you think this book is worth reading?

7) She is not interested in learning English.

8) We went straight home instead of visiting his parents.

21. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на

употребление времени Present Indefinite после союзов when, while, if, before,

after:

1) If we get the tickets we shall go to the concert.

2) I shall let you know when she comes.

3) When a child leaves the junior school, he will go to a secondary school of one type

or another.

4) When this lesson is over, we shall have a break.

5) Before you translate the text, you will learn the new words.

6) When the weather is fine, we shall go for a walk.

7) He will translate this article, if you give him a dictionary.

8) I shall tell you about it after I learn some new facts.

22. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая

внимание на окончания -s, ’s, -s’:

1) In England there is an infants’ school and a junior school. 2) It was not our idea, it

was theirs. 3) My friend’s sons read English well. 4) She studies English and French

at the courses of foreign languages. 5) The students of our group like to read English

books. 6) Our scientists’ discoveries in the exploration of outer space are known all

over the world. 7) This engineer’s report contains very interesting data.

23. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая

внимание на место наречий в предложении:

1) We usually go for a walk in the park on Sunday. 2) He has always prepared his

lessons. 3) He is planning to visit us at our home tonight. 4) Nobody ever has a bad

89

word to say about Nick. 5) He promised to give me an answer in the morning. 6) My

friend often goes to Leningrad on business trips. 7) She is always late for the lessons.

8) He is often too busy to eat lunch. 9) I never go for a walk on Sunday.

24. Переведите предложения на русский язык, употребляя наречия, данные

в скобках:

1) He prepares his lessons. (carefully) 2) She plays the piano. (well) 3) I have spoken

to him about that. (often) 4) Does he fail to prepare his homework? (sometimes) 5)

He is going to leave for Leningrad. (tomorrow) 6) She stayed with me. (seldom) 7) I

saw Mr. Smith in the cafeteria. (yesterday) 8) Have you visited that city? (ever) 9)

Have you finished writing your exercises? (already)

25. Замените в следующих предложениях действительный залог

страдательным. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

Образец: They developed a new method of teaching.

A new method of teaching was developed by them. – Новый метод обучения

был разработан ими.

1) The audience enjoyed the concert very much.

2) The little boy ate the cake.

3) The teacher corrects our exercises at home.

4) They started a dancing class last week.

5) Everybody will see this film soon.

6) The teacher returned our written work to us.

7) Mr. Smith will leave the tickets at the box-office.

8) The students translate texts during the lessons.

9) Mary took that book from the desk.

26. Замените в следующих предложениях страдательный залог действи-

тельным. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

Образец: This letter was written by John.

John wrote this letter. - Джон написал это письмо.

1) The entire city was destroyed by the fire.

2) The lecture was attended by many people.

3) The book will be published in spring.

4) The class is taught by Mr. Smith.

5) It was designed by a French engineer.

6) This book is always read by the students of the first course.

7) The letter was left on the table.

8) The house was struck by lightning.

9) The cries of the child were heard by everyone.

27. Напишите следующие предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной

формах:

Образец: Не was sent to New York.

Was he sent to New York?

90

He was not sent to New York.

1) The first prize was won by John.

2) Our exercises are corrected each night by the teacher.

3) The mail is delivered at ten o’clock.

4) The bridge will be finished this year.

5) The contract will be signed tomorrow.

6) His report was listened to with great interest.

7) The film is much spoken about.

8) All the letters are looked through by the secretary.

9) All these books were published by this publishing house.

28. Переведите следующие пары предложений и определите, какой частью

речи являются выделенные слова:

1) A deaf child studies literature with his parents. Serious reasons changed his results

in these studies.

2) Water can freeze and become solid. Iron is a solid.

3) These works of art belong to the famous painter. She works at school.

4) Heat brings about many changes in materials. Any material changes when it is

heated. 5) They wanted to find the most gifted children. He was gifted by nature with great

talent to write poetry.

29. Переведите следующие словосочетания на русский язык:

music school, full-part students, five-year plan, high speed car, University Art

Department, district music school, labor time, television programme, fresh-water

pond, research laboratory equipment.

91

КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №2

1. Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте по-английски на вопросы,

следующие за текстом.

2. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых

употреблены модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты.

3. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых

употреблены неопределенные местоимения some, any, no, every и их

производные.

4. Выпишите из текста 5 глаголов и образуйте от них причастия настоящего

и прошедшего времени; переведите их на русский язык.

5. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых

употреблено причастие настоящего времени.

6. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых

употреблено причастие прошедшего времени.

7. Поставьте глагол-сказуемое одного предложения из текста во все

временные формы группы Perfect, произведя все необходимые

смысловые изменения.

Образец: He has just translated the text.

He had translated the text before the bell rang.

He will have translated the text by tomorrow.

8. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, сказуемые

которых употреблены в страдательном залоге.

9. Переведите письменно выделенный текст контрольной работы №2 на

русский язык. При переводе пользуйтесь англо-русским словарем.

92

ВАРИАНТ №1

AGRICULTURE IN RUSSIA

Russia comprises roughly three-quarters of the territory of the former Soviet

Union but has relatively little area suited for agriculture because of its arid climate

and inconsistent rainfall. Northern areas concentrate mainly on livestock, and the

southern parts and western Siberia produce grain. Restructuring of former state farms

has been an extremely slow process. The new land code passed by the Duma in 2002

should speed restructuring and attract new domestic investment to Russian

agriculture. Private farms and garden plots of individuals account for over one-half of

all agricultural production. The Agriculture in Russia is struggling to rebuild as it

transforms itself from a command economy to a more market-oriented system.

Following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, large collective and

state farms – the backbone of Soviet agriculture – had to contend with the

sudden loss of state-guaranteed marketing and supply channels and with a

changing legal environment that created pressure for reorganization and

restructuring. In less than ten years, livestock inventories declined by one-half,

pulling down demand for feed grains, and the area planted to grains dropped by

25%. The use of mineral fertilizer and other purchased inputs plummeted,

driving yields down. Most farms could no longer afford to purchase new

machinery and other capital investments. After nearly ten years of decline,

Russian agriculture has begun to show signs of modest improvement. The

transition to a more market-oriented system has introduced an element of fiscal

responsibility, which has resulted in increased efficiency as farmers try to

maintain productivity while adjusting to resource constraints. The farming

structure has changed and the relatively small family farms that have emerged

and grown stronger in the new market environment are now producing in

aggregate value more than the total output of large corporate farms that

succeeded the traditional collectives.

The share of Russia's agriculture in GDP has remained below 6% since 2000,

much lower than the average for the other countries of the Commonwealth of

Independent States (17% on average for the 12 CIS countries). The share of

agricultural employment is relatively high at 16% of the total number of employed,

but this is also substantially lower than in other CIS countries (around 40% on

average). Russia is thus much less agrarian by both measures than other former

Soviet republics. The disproportion between the share of agriculture in GDP and its

share in employment suggests that the productivity of labor in Russia's agriculture is

below the average in the economy.

Notes:

a severe transition decline - серьезное снижение перехода

a command economy - административно-командная экономика

a market-oriented system - ориентированная на рынок система

a breakup - распад

plummeted - резко упавший

the backbone – основа

93

collective and state farms – колхозы и совхозы

aggregate value - совокупная ценность

the Commonwealth of Independent States - Содружество Независимых Государств

the gross domestic product (GDP) - валовой внутренний продукт

the gross domestic income (GDI) - валовой внутренний доход

Questions:

1. Why is the territory of Russia not suitable for agriculture?

2. When did the Duma pass the new code?

3. What was the backbone of Soviet agriculture?

4. Why did the area planted to grains drop by 25%?

5. What has the transition to a more market-oriented system introduced?

ВАРИАНТ №2

AGRICULTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN

For the period of latest decades Great Britain's agriculture saw a

significant increase in scientific and technical level and profitability of agro-

industrial complex. Countries support kites at the cost of local resources (the

growth since postwar time rose from 1/3 to 4/5): a full self-sufficiency is reached

by such products as milk, a high self-sufficiency have eggs, poultry, wheat, oats,

barley, and potato: imported are fruits, butter, sugar, and cheeses. Due to

conditions occurred in the EU imported goods cost more as compared to

opportunities of foodstuffs import from the former colonies: this creates

continuous controversies between Great Britain and other members of the UK.

The British agriculture is nowadays one of the most efficient and mechanized in

the world. The share of employment in the field amounts 2% of the total

employment in the country. The total area of farmlands is 58.3 mln ha (76% of

the total area of the country). Animal husbandry prevails in the structure of

agricultural production. Developed are dairy and beef cattle breeding, pig

husbandry, beef sheep and poultry husbandry for meat.

Great Britain is one of the largest suppliers of sheep wool. Traditionally,

animal husbandry is concentrated in river basins. Nearly 60% of tillage in crop

husbandry is occupied by permanent grasses, more than 28% - by cereal crops

(including wheat 1 5%, barley - 11 %), 12% -by industrial crops (rapeseed. sugar

beet, flax) and feeding crops (including potato), and also by-vegetable gardens and

small-fruit crops, ['lie main crop-producing areas are fast England and the Southeast.

There are many fruit gardens in Great Britain. Agriculture uses generous

government support and receives donations from the UK budget.

Production volumes exceed the volumes of consumption by such products as

wheat, barley, oats, and pork; production volumes are lower than the volume of

consumption by such products as potato, beef, mutton, wool, sugar and eggs.

Therefore, Great Britain has to import many of the necessary products. The country

imports 4/5 of butter, 2/3 of sugar, a half of wheal and bacon, ¼ of beef and veal

consumed in the country.

The country occupies sixth place among UK members in terms of agricultural

production volume. The area of farmlands in use makes nearly 77% of the countries

area.

94

Notes:

self – sufficiency – самодостаточность;

controversies – споры, дискуссии, полемики;

to prevail – преобладать;

donation – дар, пожертвование.

Questions:

1. When did Great Britain’s agriculture see a significant increase?

2. What is British agriculture nowadays?

3. Does Agriculture use government support and receive donations?

4. What products does the country import?

5. What place does the country occupy?

ВАРИАНТ №3

HIGHER EDUCATION IN RUSSIA

Higher education plays an important part in the life of any country as it

provides the country with highly-qualified specialists for future development and

progress. It trains people to become teachers, engineers, doctors and other

professional workers.

At present a new system of education is introduced in this country — a

distance education system. This computer system of learning helps working

professionals to continue their education while remaining at their jobs. This system

enables people to get knowledge and a good foundation in the sciences basic to his or

her field of study. Distance learning has developed over years from satellite video

courses to modern videoconferencing through personal computers.

The academic year usually lasts 9 months and is divided into two terms

(semesters). The first- and second-year students obtain thorough instructions in

the fundamental sciences of mathematics, physics, chemistry and drawing as

well as computer engineering and a number of others. The curricula are

enriched and broadened by instructions in such subjects as foreign languages,

history and economics.

At the third year students get more advanced knowledge and begin to

concentrate on their special interests, so to say, their «major» subject and take

many courses in this subject. Specialized study and courses will help students to

become specialists and prepare them for their future work.

After four years students will get a bachelor's degree. Then the students

may go on with their studies and in a year or two of further study and research

get a master's degree. After graduating from the university they may go on with

their study and research and may get a still higher degree. About 75 percent of

students receive state grants and 15 percent are sponsored by enterprises. Universities

have their own students’ hostels and some of them have large and excellent sport

centers.

Education is a process through which culture is preserved, knowledge and

skills are developed, values are formed, and information is exchanged.

Education is the way to success. Notes:

over years — за многие годы

95

curricula are enriched and broadened — программы (курсы обучения) обогащаются и

расширяются

Questions:

1. When does the academic year begin in Russia?

2. What subjects do students study in the first year?

3. What degree do students get after four years of study?

4. What degree can a student get after two years of further study and research?

5. What new education system is introduced in Russia?

ВАРИАНТ №4

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE USA

Finishing school is the beginning of an independent life for millions of school

graduates. Many roads are open before them. But it is not an easy thing to choose a

profession out of more than the 2000 existing in the world.

Out of the more than three million students who graduate from high school

each year, about one million go on for ―higher education‖. Simply by being admitted

into one of the most respected universities in the United States, a high school

graduate achieves a degree of success. A college at a leading university might receive

applications from two percent of these high school graduates, and then accept only

one out of every ten who apply. Successful applicants at such colleges are usually

chosen on the basis of : a) high school records; b) recommendations from high school

teachers; c) the impression they make during interviews at the university; d) their

scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT).

There is no national system of higher education in the United States.

Higher education is given in colleges and universities. There are over 2100

various higher educational institutions, including colleges, technological

institutes and universities. The average college course of study is 4 years. The

academic year is usually 9 months or 2 terms (semesters) of four and a half

months each. Classes usually begin in September and end in June. The first-year

students are called freshmen.

Students choose a major subject and take many courses in this subject.

After four years, they get a traditional Bachelor's degree. Then the students may

go on to graduate school and with a year or two of further study get a Master's

degree.

After another year or two of study and research, they may get a still

higher degree as Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.). The student's progress is

evaluated by means of tests, term works and final examinations in each course.

The student's work is given a mark, usually on a five point scale. Letters indicate

the level of achievement. «A» is the highest mark. «F» denotes a failure.

Most American colleges and universities charge for tuition. The methods of

instruction in the universities are lectures, discussions, laboratory and course works

and seminars.

Most cities have colleges or universities that hold classes at night as well as in

daytime. In this way people may work for a degree or just take a course in the subject

that interests them.

96

Notes: graduate from – заканчивать учебное заведение

major subject – профилирующий предмет, дисциплина

graduate school – старшие курсы

five point scale – 5-ти бальная система

Questions: 1. Where Americans can get their high education?

2. When do usually classes begin?

3. How many years do students need to get Ph.D. degree?

4. What do you think: is it easy to choose a profession?

ВАРИАНТ №5

AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Agriculture is a major industry in the United States and the country is net

exporter of food. As for the last census of agriculture in 2009, there were 2.2 million

farms, covering area of 922 million acres, an average of 418 acres per farm.

European agriculture practices greatly affected the New England landscape.

Colonists brought livestock over from Europe which caused many changes to the

land. Along with livestock changing the plant species in New England from the

original native species to European species they also contributed to the deterioration

of the forests and fields.

Soil exhaustion was a huge problem in New England agriculture. Plowing

with oxen did allow the colonist to farm more land but it increased erosion and

decreased soil fertility. In the U.S., farms spread from the colonies westward

along with the settlers. In cooler regions, wheat was often the crop of choice

when lands were newly settled. Also very common in the Midwest was farming.

After the "wheat frontier", more diversified farms including dairy cattle

generally took its place. Warmer regions saw plantings of cotton and herds of

beef cattle. In the south, raising tobacco and cotton was common. In the

northeast, slaves were used in agriculture until the early 19th century. In the

Midwest, slavery was prohibited by 1787.

The introduction and broad adoption of scientific agriculture since the

mid nineteenth century has made a large improvement in the USA's economic

growth. Soybeans were not widely cultivated in the United States until the 1950s,

when soybeans began to replace oats and wheat.

Significant areas of farmland were abandoned during the Great Depression and

incorporated into nascent national forests. Notes:

census -перепись

New England- Новая Англия (название исторически сложившегося р-на в северо-восточной

части США)

Midwest- Центрально-западная часть США

dairy cattle- молочное животноводство

beef cattle- мясное животноводство

nascent- возникающий, появляющийся

97

Questions:

1. Is agriculture main industry in the United States of America?

2. How many farms were there in 2009 according to the last census of agriculture?

3. Did European agriculture practices greatly affect the New England landscape?

4 What was a huge problem in New England agriculture?

5. What was the crop of choice in cooler regions?

6. What kind of plantings did warmer regions see?

7. What has made a large improvement in the USA’s economic growth?

Тексты для дополнительного чтения по направлениям.

Зооинженерный факультет

ВАРИАНТ №1

BEEKEEPING

Beekeeping, also called apiculture, means management of colonies of bees for

the production of honey and other hive products for the pollination of crops. Bees are

sure to be among the most studied and best known insects. The honeybee is

considered to be a common name for any of several species of highly social bees

known for their honey-hoarding behaviour1 and their use as a domesticated species.

One should refer the honeybee to the order Hymenoptera and one of the Apis species.

Honeybees are native to Asia and the Middle East and were introduced to North

America by early European colonists. By the mid-1800s, honeybees had become

widespread in the world. At present, one may find honeybees on every continent

except Antarctica, since they can be easily reared and adapted to many climates.

It has been found that honeybees are social insects noted for providing their

nests2 with large amounts of honey. One can describe colony of honeybees as a

highly complex cluster of individuals functioning actually as a single organism. The

colony usually consists of the queen, the worker bees and male bees, or drones. The

former is normally the only one in each colony. Unlike the worker bee, the queen bee

is fertilized female capable of laying a thousand or more eggs per day. Like any

worker bee the queen bee has a sting but it is a venomous sting. The number of the

worker bees known as sexually undeveloped females may from a few to 60,000 bees.

It is quite likely that there may be few drones the colony, but sometimes there may

live as many as 1,000 drones.

Colonies are kept in hives where honeybees build the nest. Groups of hives are

called apiaries, and a beekeeper may also be called an apiarist or apiculturist.

There exist a few recognized species of honeybees, including the European

honeybee, the Indian honeybee, the dwarf honeybee3, the mountain giant honeybee

etc. However, only the European, the Indian, and to some extent, the dwarf honey

bees are the species that have been domesticated. The former is said to be the most

widespread domesticated bee and the one species kept in North America. There have

been found any races of the European honeybee, but the ones most popular in

98

modern beekeeping are the Italian, Carniola, and Caucasian. Most honeybees used in

hives today seem to be mixtures of these and sometimes other races. Thus, modern

beekeeping mainly refers to the husbandry of the European honeybee, though one

can also refer beekeeping to the management of other domesticated species.

A beekeeper is an ancient and widespread profession and beekeeping

originally appeared in the Middle East. The early Egyptians kept bees and traded for

honey and beeswax along the East African coast several thousand years ago. Until

1851, beekeepers harvested honey and beeswax by killing the colonies inhabiting the

hives. In that year the American apiarist Lorenzo Lorraine Lang troth discovered the

principle of ―bee space" according to which bees leave spaces of about 0.6 cm

between wax combs. In artificial hives, if this space is left between adjacent comb

frames4 and between the end frames and the walls of the hive, each comb will remain

unattached to neighbouring5 combs. Langstroth's discovery made it possible to

remove individual frames from a beehive and to harvest honey and wax without

destroying the colony. Due to this discovery, one can control bee diseases and

maintain a larger number of colonies.

Honeybees are the primary source of honey and beeswax. The latter is

described as fine wax with unusual qualities. Honeybees also produce propolis, a

substance possessing antibacterial properties, and royal jelly6 and pollen for human

consumption. Honeybee venom7 is extracted for the production of antivenom therapy

and is being investigated as a treatment for several serious diseases of the muscles,

connective tissue8, and immune system, including multiple sclerosis

9 and arthritis

10.

In addition, bees have proved to be of great practical value for crop farming as in the

act of collecting nectar they pollinate the flowers of many valuable crops and wild

plants they visit.

The pollination of plants is sure to be the most important contribution of bees

to the economy and the environment. Many species of wild pollinators have

disappeared from the land as their habitats were destroyed by humans. It is the

honeybee that has taken over11

as pollinator of many of the wild plants that remain.

In this regard, the ecological value of honeybees is tremendous12

.

Beekeepers worldwide are known to earn their living from selling the honey

and beeswax their hives produce, but in some countries, beekeepers are paid for their

pollination services. However, honeybee colonies used in commercial pollination and

those kept in cities may suffer from pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers, and other

agricultural chemicals widely used in modern crop farming. As a result, bees are

frequently poisoned by accident13

and this is a major concern14

of modern

beekeepers.

Apiaries require an abundant supply of nectar and pollen. One should keep

apiaries in an area where nectar-producing plants such as clover or eucalyptus are in

abundance. As a rule, the apiaries of major honey producers are established in areas

where intensive agriculture occurs, because it is not practical to grow plants for

honey production alone. For a commercially successful operation, the area should

support 30 to 50 colonies in an apiary.

Some beekeepers have migratory apiaries and transport their bees to Stable

forage. Apiaries may consist of from 1 to 200 hives, depending on the means of the

99

beekeeper and the flower resources available. Commercial beekeepers who make

their entire living from bees often keep hundreds or thousands of hives.

Most beekeepers use standard equipment, that is, boxes (called supers15

)

holding ten separate comb frames. It is interesting that the modern hive and the one

described by Langstroth in 1851 are alike in dimensions16

.

Beekeeping is a successfully developing branch of agriculture in many

countries, for example China, the United States, Argentina, Turkey, Ukraine,

Mexico, and Russia are believed to be the world leading honey-producing countries.

The leading honey exporters are China, Argentina, Mexico, while the leading

importers are Germany, the United States, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

Notes: 1 honey-hoarding behavior – способность к накоплению меда

2 nest – зд. рой (пчел)

3 dwarf honeybee – пчела карликовая

4 adjacent comb frames – зд. рамки смежных сот

5 neighbouring – соседний

6 royal jelly – маточное молочко пчел

7 venom – яд (противоядие)

8 connective tissue – соединительная ткань

9 multiple sclerosis – рассеянный склероз

10 arthritis – артрит

11 to take over – зд. взять на себя обязанности

12 tremendous – огромный, громадный

13 by accident – случайно

14 concern – забота, беспокойство

15 super – магазин для меда, медовая надставка

16 dimension – размер

ВАРИАНТ №2

AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture, also called Fish Farming, Fish Culture, or Mariculture, means the

propagation and husbandry of aquatic organisms for commercial, recreational, and

scientific purposes. The main aim of aquaculture is to ensure the production of

aquacultural crops for human consumption and for use by the pharmaceutical and

chemical industries. However, aquaculture is known to produce aquatic bait1 animals,

ornamental or aquarium fishes, aquatic animals used to increase natural populations

for capture and sport fisheries.

Aquaculture is an agricultural activity, despite the many differences between

aquaculture and terrestrial2 agriculture. Aquaculture mainly produces protein crops,

while starchy staple crops3

are the primary products of terrestrial agriculture. In

addition, terrestrial animal waste is usually collected by farmers and used as fertilizer,

whereas in aquaculture such waste accumulates in the culture environment.

Consequently, aquaculturists are expected to manage their production units carefully

in order to avoid any water deterioration4 or pollution, especially in areas where fish

100

usually spawn. Moreover, aquaculturists should not make the culture organisms

suffer from any stresses as a result of the intensive production.

Scientists know fish to be cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates, some species of

which are especially valued as food due to high content of protein, phosphorus,

iodine and vitamins A and D. In addition, a wide variety of other aquatic organisms

are produced through aquaculture, including crustaceans (mainly shrimps, crayfish,

and prawns), mollusks, algae5 (a seaweed), and some aquatic plants. In contrast to

capture fisheries, aquaculture requires deliberate human intervention in the

organisms' productivity to result in yields that exceed those from the natural

environment alone. Stocking water with juvenile organisms (also called seed),

fertilizing the water, feeding the organisms, and maintaining water quality are

considered to be common examples of such intervention. The concept of pond

fertilization6 was developed in Europe about 1500. In this process, manure is added to

the water to encourage the growth of small organisms such as aquatic invertebrates

and plankton, which in turn are eaten by the fish.

Aquaculture was developed more than 2,000 years ago in such countries as

China, Rome, and Egypt. Formerly, aquacultural practices involved capturing wild

immature specimens7 and then raising them under optimal conditions in which they

were well fed and protected from predators8 and competitors for light and space. For

instance, carp fingerlings (or juvenile fish) were captured from rivers, and kept in

ponds or other bodies of water for further growth. It was not until 1733, however, that

a German farmer successfully raised fish from eggs that he had artificially obtained

and fertilized. Male and female trout were collected when ready for spawning. Eggs

and sperm were pressed from their bodies and mixed together under favourable

conditions. After the eggs hatched, the fish fry were taken to tanks or ponds for

further cultivation. Methods have also been developed for artificial breeding of

saltwater fish, and now it is possible not only to rear sea animals but also to have the

complete life cycle under hatchery control.

Nowadays various methods enable aquaculturists to rear aquatic organisms

artificially in fresh, brackish or salt water. In addition, aquacultural production can

occur not only in natural waters but in artificial aquatic impoundments, for instance

fish may be confined in earthen ponds, concrete pools9, barricaded coastal waters

10,

or cages placed into open water. In these enclosures, the fish can be supplied with

adequate food and protected from many natural predators. Earthen ponds have been

found to be suitable for fish and crustacean aquaculture. These ponds are usually

equipped with water inlets and outlets that provide independent control of water

addition and discharge. Ponds are stocked with a specific quantity of juvenile aquatic

animals. Management practices range from pond fertilization, which increases the

number of natural food organisms, to the supply of a complete, formulated feed that

provides all nutrients necessary for growth. Animals that have reached market size

are harvested from the ponds. Channel catfish grown in the United States, and marine

shrimp grown in China, Central America, and South America, are often cultured in

earthen ponds of about 5 to 10 hectares.

Fish can also be raised in cages or raceways. The latter are long, narrow

earthen or concrete ponds that receive a continuous flow of water from a nearby

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artesian well, spring, or stream11

. Fish breeders believe raising fish in cages to be a

good method in case of using the water of lakes, bays12

, or the open ocean. Besides,

aquaculturists have shown raceways and cages to be more efficient than earthen

ponds, for many more fingerlings can be stocked in them, however, nutritionally

complete formulated feed must be provided to fish grown in these systems. Rainbow

trout are grown in raceways in many places, including Chile, Europe, and the United

States. Salmon are grown in cages, and Norway ranks the first in the world

production of farmed salmon.

Recently in aquaculture there have appeared a method known as ocean

ranching which means the rearing of fish and shellfish under artificially controlled

conditions in order to restock lakes, seas and oceans and it is usually carried out by

government agencies in the US and some other countries. According to this method

young fish are bred in the controlled environment until they become mature enough

to be released into the open sea. Using this approach, oysters (as a source of both

food and pearls), scallops13

, and mussels14

are raised throughout the world. Moreover,

ocean ranching is of great value forcing carp, trout, catfish, and tilapia15

. Experiments

with ocean ranching the late 20th century led to the economically successful

aquaculture of lobsters.

One of the main aims of aquaculture is to breed edible fish in special ponds

for sale to meet the increasing demand of population for fish. However, the growth

of world aquaculture has been stimulated by a number of other factors, including

overfishing, destruction of habitats for some unique fish species, water pollution,

and dietary changes.

Notes: 1 bait ‒ приманка, наживка

2 terrestrial ‒ происходящий на земле, на суше

3 starchy staple crops ‒ зд. основные культуры, содержащие крахмал

4 deterioration ‒ зд. ухудшение состояния или качества

5 alga (pl algae) ‒ водоросль

6 pond fertilization ‒ зд. внесение органических веществ в пруд в качестве питательной

среды 7 specimen ‒ экземпляр

8 predator ‒ хищник

9 concrete pools ‒ забетонированные небольшие пруды

10 barricaded coastal waters ‒ зд. огороженные участки прибрежных вод

11 artesian well, spring, stream ‒ артезианский колодец, источник или родник/ручей

12 bay ‒ залив

13 scallop ‒ зоол. гребешок, двустворчатый моллюск

14 mussel ‒ мидия

15 tilapia ‒ тилапия (африканская пресноводная рыба семейства цихлид, используемая

в пищу и широко выращиваемая сейчас во всем мире)

ВАРИАНТ №3

BASIC TYPES OF FEEDS

Animal feeds are classified into two main groups: concentrates and roughages.

The former are high in energy value and are subdivided into following four groups:

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(a) cereal grains and their by-products (barley, corn (or maize), oats, rye, wheat), (b)

high-protein oil meals or cakes (soybean, cottonseed), (c) by-products from

processing of sugar beets, and (d) by-products from other industries. Roughages

include such feeds (a) pasture grasses, (b) hays, (c) silage, (d) root crops, and (e)

straw.

Concentrate feeds. a) Cereal grains and their by-products. In the cultural

practices of North America and northern Europe, barley, corn, oats, rye, and

sorghum are grown mainly as animal feed, however small quantities are processed for

human consumption as well. These grains are fed, whole or ground, either singly or

mixed with high-protein meals or other by-products, minerals, and vitamins, to form

a complete feed for pigs and poultry or an adequate dietary supplement for ruminants

and horses. By-products from commercial processing of cereal grains, for instance

wheat bran, corn gluten meal1, rice bran or hulls

2, are used as animal feeds in large

quantities.

b) High-protein meals. Vegetable seeds such as soybeans, flax-seeds3,

cottonseeds, sunflower seeds4 are produced mainly as a source of oil for human food

and industrial uses. After these seeds are processed to remove the oil, the residues5,

which may contain from 5 per cent to less than 1 per cent of fat and 20 to 50 per cent

of protein, are used as animal feeds. The latter are valuable supplements to roughages

or cereal grains and other low-protein feeds because they provide the protein needed

for efficient growth of production.

c) By-products of sugar beets. From the sugar-beet industry come beet tops,

which are used on the farm either fresh or ensiled6, and dried beet pulp and beet

molasses7, which are produced in the sugar factory. These are all palatable, high-

quality sources of carbohydrates. In some European countries, fodder beets and some

other roots are grown as animal feed.

d) Other by-product feeds. By-products of brewing industry (yeast)8, dairy

industry (dried skim milk or whey or buttermilk)9

and fish industry (fish meal)

contain 50 per cent or more of high-quality protein and such mineral elements as

calcium and phosphorus so they are well-known as useful animal feeds.

Roughages. a) Pasture. Various pasture grasses (timothy, Sudan grass) and

legumes (clovers, soybeans, sorghum), both native and cultivated, are the most

important single source of feed for cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. During the

growing season they supply most of the feed for these animals at a cost lower than

other feeds that must be harvested, processed, and transported. Hundreds of different

grasses, legumes, bushes, and trees are acceptable as feeds for grazing animals. The

nutritive value of the cultivated varieties has been studied, but information is

incomplete for many naturally growing plants.

b) Hay. It is produced by drying different mature10

grasses (such as timothy

and Sudan grass) or legumes (alfalfa, clover) when they contain the maximum

quantity of digestible protein and carbohydrates but before the seeds develop. The

moisture content must be reduced to 22 per cent or less to prevent moulding11

,

heating, and spoilage during storage. Legume hays are high in protein, while the

grasses are lower in protein but vary greatly with the stage of maturity and level of

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nitrogen fertilization which have been applied to the crop. Hay is usually fed to

animals when sufficient fresh pasture grass is unavailable.

c) Silage. Silage is usually made from immature plants of corn, sorghums,

grasses, legumes in a storage container to exclude the air and allow fermentation to

develop acetic and other acids, which preserve the moist feed. Storage may be in

upright tower silos or in trenches in the ground. Best quality silage results when the

forage is ensiled with a moisture content of 50 to 65 per cent. Ensiled forage can be

stored for a longer period of time with lower loss of nutrients than dry hay. The

nutritive value of silage depends upon the type of forage ensiled and how properly it

has been made.

d) Root crops. Nowadays such root crops as mangels, rutabagas, cassava12

and

sometimes potatoes are used less extensively as animal feed than in the past, for

economic reasons. Roots are lower in dry-matter content than are most of the other

feeds listed. They are relatively low in protein also and provide mostly energy.

e) Straw and hulls. Quantities of straws that remain after wheat, oats, barley,

and rice crops are harvested and used as feed for cattle and other ruminants. The

straws are low in protein and very high in fibre. Moreover, digestibility13

of straws is

low. Straw is useful in maintaining mature animals during periods of shortage of

other feeds, but it is too low in quality in order to be satisfactory for long periods

without adding supplements. Corn stalks, cottonseed hulls, and rice hulls can also be

used as sources of fibre in ruminant rations. Rice hulls are lower in value, while the

others are similar to straw.

Notes: 1 corn gluten meal – кукурузная глютеновая мука

2 hull – пленка (зерна), лузга

3 flaxseed – льняное семя

4 sunflower seed – семя подсолнечника

5 residue – остаток

6 ensiled – засилованный

7 beet molasses – свеклосахарная меласса

8 brewing industry (yeast) – пивоваренная промышленность (дрожжи)

9 dried skim milk/whey/buttermilk – обезжиренное сухое молоко/сухая сыворотка/сухая

пахта 10

mature – зрелый, созревший 11

to mould – плесневеть 12

mangels/rutabagas/cassava – кормовая свѐкла/ брюква/ маниока 13

digestibility – усвояемость

ВАРИАНТ №4

ANIMAL ETHOLOGY

Ethology is the scientific study of the behaviour of animals in their natural

habitat. It is mainly a 20th-century phenomenon and is a branch of zoology as only

animals have nervous systems and they have abilities for perception, coordination,

orientation, learning, and memory.

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Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour through the

centuries, among the early ethologists were Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin.

However, the modern ethology as a discrete discipline was established by biologists

Konrad Lorenz (Austria) and Nikolaas Tinbergen (the Netherlands) in the 1920s. In

1973 they and zoologist Karl von Frisch (Austria) were jointly awarded the Nobel

Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work in developing ethology. Their

emphasis was on field observations of animals under natural conditions.

Tinbergen concentrated on the importance of both instinctive and learned

behaviour to animal survival. He is especially well known for his long-term

observations of sea gulls1, which led to important generalisations on courtship

2 and

mating behaviour. Among his more important works are Social Behaviour in Animals

(1953), and Animal Behaviour (1965), The Study of Instinct (1951).

About 1910 Frisch proved that fish could distinguish colour and brightness

differences and he later discovered that auditory acuity3 and sound-distinguishing

ability in fish is superior to that in humans. However, Frisch is best known for his

studies of bees. His research was devoted to communication among bees, so-called

"dance language", and added greatly to the knowledge of the chemical and visual

sensors of insects. In 1919 he demonstrated that they can be trained to distinguish

between various tastes and odours. Also, he found that bees communicate the

distance and direction of a food supply to other members of the colony by rhythmic

movements or dances. In 1949 Frisch established that bees, through their perception

of polarized light, use the sun as a compass. Study of the honey bee's navigational

system has revealed much about the mechanisms used by higher animals.

The most important discovery of Lorenz concerned the early learning of young

nidifugous birds4, a process which he described in 1935 and called imprinting

5.

Lorenz observed that at a certain critical stage soon after hatching6, the young

chickens, ducklings and goslings learn to follow real or foster mothers. Lorenz

discovered that this following response could be transferred to an arbitrary stimulus7

if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus was presented for the few days

after hatching. The concept of imprinting has been widely adopted in developmental

psychology.

The study of animal behaviour now includes many different topics, ranging

from animal behaviour during the reproductive period to communication between

animals. Many different hypotheses have been proposed in order to explain the

variety of behavioural patterns which are found in animals. Modern ethology

concentrates on the systematic observation, recording, and analysis of how animals

function, with special attention to physiological, ecological, and evolutionary aspects.

Nowadays, the ethologist is more interested in the behavioural process than in a

particular animal group and often studies one type of behaviour, for instance,

aggression, in a number of animal species.

It has been found that an organism's actions may be classified as either

instinctive or learned behaviour. The former include the actions that are not

influenced by the animal's previous experience, such as common reflexes. The latter

comprise the actions that are depended on earlier experiences, for example, problem

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solving. Ethologists put emphasis on the complex interaction of environment and

genetically determined responses, especially during early development.

Thus, evolution based on the general mechanisms, which are described by

ethology, has generated a nearly endless list of behavioural wonders by which

animals have almost perfectly adapted to their world.

Notes: 1

sea gull – чайка 2 courtship – ухаживание

3 auditory acuity – острота слуха

4 nidifugous bird – выводковая птица

5 imprinting – запечатление, импринтинг (термин в этологии)

6 to hatch (out) – вылупляться (из яйца)

7 arbitrary stimulus – зд. произвольный раздражитель

ВАРИАНТ №5

ANIMAL FEEDS

Animal feeds include any feedstuff1 which is grown or developed for livestock

and poultry. The main aim of a farmer is to provide animals with as highly nutritional

diets as possible in order to maintain them healthy and ensure the quality of such final

animal products as meat, milk, or eggs. Even today the problem of feeds is still a

subject of study for agricultural scientists.

Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are known as the basic

nutrients that animals require for growth, reproduction, and good health, but the

amount of these substances varies greatly with the type of feed. The first effort to

evaluate feeds for animals on a comparative basis was made by Albrecht Thaer

(1752-1828), in Germany, who developed "hay values2" as measures of nutritive

value of feeds. Tables of the value of feeds and of the requirements of animals were

first drawn up3 in Germany; later they were used in other countries as well.

Present-day knowledge represents an expansion and further improvement of

these early efforts. The usual chemical analyses of feeds provide information on the

total amount of dry matter, protein, fat, fibre, and ash4 contained in the feed. Energy

value, mineral elements, and vitamins are also determined; these values are included

in complete tables of feed composition. The better methods for chemical analyses of

feeds are developed, the more reliable data are obtained for calculating feeding

rations for animals.

Animal feeds are classified according to: 1) the origin, that is, plant or animal

origin of feeds; 2) the chemical composition, such as high-protein, high-fibre, high-

moisture etc; 3) the nutritional value, as concentrates and bulky feeds.

Generally, animal feeds may be classified into two large groups: concentrates

and roughages. The former are higher in energy value than the latter and are

subdivided into the following types: 1) cereal grains such as wheat, corn (maize),

oats, rye, barley and their by-products which remain after grain has been processed

for human use, 2) high-protein oil meals or cakes from soybeans, sorghum, 3) by-

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products from processing of sugar beets, 4) animal and fish by-products. Roughages

include such feeds as: 1) green roughages (clover, timothy, other pasture grasses and

legumes), 2) dry roughages or fodder (hays, straws); 3) silage, 4) root crops. Green

forage grasses, silage and roots comprise a group of succulent feeds which are high in

moisture.

Concentrates are valuable in feeding all classes of animals as they have a high

food value relative to volume, that is, they are rich in both protein and carbohydrates

as well, they contain a number of microelements, minerals and vitamins. Roughages

are bulky feeds with high-fibre content which is poorly digestible. Thus, they are fed

in large quantities to cattle and sheep but they are not suitable for feeding pigs.

Succulents are known as palatable feeds but contain a lot of water and have a laxative

effect5. The younger the grass is, the higher it is in vitamins and minerals, so farmers

start grazing cattle and sheep as early in spring as possible. The quality of silage and

its nutritive value is greatly affected by a number of factors such as the type of a

forage crop, the plant age and storage conditions. Roots are low in protein but high in

carbohydrates and moisture, so they are often used as supplements to hay and straw

in order to provide complete rations for cattle and sheep.

Feeds vary not only in the amount of nutrients but in costs6 from season to

season. Thus, it is important for a farmer to select feed ingredients for complete

rations as economically as possible. Nowadays large-scale7 commercial livestock

companies as well as small-scale producers widely use special computer programmes

for selecting feed mixtures that will satisfy the nutrient requirements of a specific

type of animal at a particular stage of development. The more palatable and nutritious

rations are provided for animals on the basis of the lower-cost feeds, the higher

profits8 a farmer can get.

Notes: 1 feedstuff –корм; кормовой продукт (syn: feed, fodder)

2 hay value – кормовая ценность сена

3 to draw up (a table) – составлять (таблицу)

4 ash – зола

5 laxative effect – слабительное действие

6 costs (мн.) – издержки, затраты (на производство)

7 small-scale (large-scale) – небольшой (крупный)

8 profit – прибыль

Факультет агротехнологий и декоративного растениеводства

ВАРИАНТ №1

LIFE CYCLE OF CHINCH BUG AND CONTROL

Life Cycle: Chinch bugs1 spend the winter as adults

2 in partially protected

areas (under shrubs or around foundations of houses). As the weather warms in the

spring, adults move into open areas, where females begin laying eggs. Fifteen to 20

eggs per day are deposited for two to three weeks. The eggs hatch in one to two

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weeks, and the nymphs3 begin to suck the juices from host plants. It takes 30-90 days

to reach adulthood. There are two generations per year, with a partial third generation

in unusually warm summers. There is considerable overlap of generations, and all

stages can be found during the summer.

Control: In many instances, chemical control of chinch bugs is not necessary.

Studies in Michigan have demonstrated that lawns which receive adequate amounts

of water throughout the summer (preferably weekly deep waterings) are able to

tolerate relatively high populations of chinch bugs without sustaining damage. In

addition, many lawns have natural populations of predators. Notes: 1chinch bug- клоп-черепашка

2adult-взрослая особь

3nymphs-личинки

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Management in the vegetable garden involves correcting the conditions that are

favorable for the scab organism1. Some of the important points to be considered are

given below:

1. Rotations2 with other than root crops should be employed as the size of the

garden permits. This way the buildup of aggressive scab strains3 can be avoided

2. Purchase certified potato seed pieces. Do not save tubers from the garden for

use as seed. Seed treatment will help to prevent the introduction of the organism into

relatively scab free soils but is not a replacement for using clean seed. There are no

home garden pesticide products labeled for seed piece treatment against scab in New

York.

3. Plant resistant varieties4. If scab has been a problem before, test one of the

following varieties under local conditions to determine whether it is suitable.

4. In a garden where irrigation is available, scab can be reduced by keeping the

soil reasonably wet for several weeks while the young tubers are beginning to form.

5. Great care should be taken to avoid the application of fertilizer or other

materials that tend to make the soil highly alkaline.

6. One of the best methods for combating scab is the use of acid producing

fertilizers, especially those that contain liberal amounts of sulfate of ammonia.

7. Test the pH of the soil and apply elemental sulfur to lower the soil pH to 5.2. Notes: 1scab organism- организмы, вызывающие заболевание паршой

2rotations-севообороты

3aggressive scab strains-агрессивные штаммы парши

4resistant varieties-устойчивые сорта

BARLEY

Barley is best adapted to well-drained, fertile, loam soils1. It generally produces

low yields2 on sandy soils. Moderately fertile soils favor a rapid growth, but barley

grown on soils high in nitrogen often produces low grain yields3.

It is grown in rotation with other crops, particularly after cultivated row crops

such as corn, soybeans, beans, potatoes or sugar beets. Sometimes barley follows

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other small grains. Fertilizers sometimes are applied to barley that follows another

cereal crop. Notes: 1loam soils-суглинки

2low yields-низкий урожай

3grain yields-урожай зерновых

PLANTS

Plants consist essentially of three main parts. Below ground is the rooting

system1, which serves as an anchorage to attach the plant firmly to the soil, and which

is able to absorb water, and water solutions of plant nutrients from the soil.

Above ground are the stems and leaves2, which are the green part of the plant.

The stems are, in most cases, rigid and capable of keeping the plant erect, and the

leaves are arranged on the stems in a manner that exposes them to sunlight, from

which they absorb energy for the manufacture of materials for plant growth.

The third essential structure in a plant is the flower3, which contains the parts

associated with reproduction and which is responsible for seed formation.

The rooting system remains in darkness below the surface of the soil. In many

rooting systems,

There is a central root, sometimes known as the tap root, from which a number

of side roots develop as branches, and the side roots end in a large number of fine

rootlets with fine root hairs,

Which absorb water and water solutions of plant nutrients from the soil. Through a

series of hollow vessels the substances absorbed by the root hairs reach the base of

the stem. Another series of vessels in the stem is available for the passage of these

materials to the leaves and flowers Notes: 1rooting system- корневая система

2stems and leaves-стебли и листья

3flower-цветок

ВАРИАНТ №2

DISEASE CYCLE

The Penicillium expansum type of blue mold1 has been the form most

frequently reported, but a number of other less common species, which are also

usually less aggressive, have been encountered. The positive identification of the

different species2 that cause blue mold is only possible by means of laboratory

cultures and microscopic examination, and even then positive determination is

difficult because of the very slight differences encountered among species. All of the

blue molds are primarily wound parasites, most frequently gaining entrance through

fresh mechanical injuries3 such as stem punctures, bruises

4 and insect injuries, finger-

nail scratches by pickers, necrotic tissues5 of diverse origin or through normal stems

or open calyx canals6. Sometimes infections may occur through lenticels, especially

when they are damaged by cracking after a sudden abundant supply of water

following a period of dryness, or after bruising late in the storage season when fruit

have been weakened by ripening and aging.

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Notes: 1blue mold- голубая плесень

2different species-различные сорта

3mechanical injuries-механические повреждения

4bruises- повреждение (растений , фруктов)

5necrotic tissues-некротические (отмирающие) ткани

6calyx canals-каналы чашечки

VARIETIES. SEED SELECTION

The names of the original varieties1 from which strains have been selected are

not known, but all South Australian celery2

is generally called South Australian Long

White. Individual growers select their own strains. These mature over a period of

time and comprise approximately 50 per cent early, 40 per cent mid-season and 10

per cent late strains.

As the crop is being cut, a number of well-shaped, true-to-type and vigorous

plants are selected and left standing for seed bearers. When cutting has finished, these

selected plants are lifted and planted together. Care is taken to plant the different

strains some distance from each other to prevent crosspollination. As the seed heads

grow, the plants have to be supported. They are regularly sprayed to reduce septoria

leaf spot infection.

When the seed has matured, about January or February, it is threshed, cleaned,

spread out to dry and then stored in air tight containers until required. Seed matures

too late for use in the following year's crop, and two year's supply is usually kept on

hand. Septoria leaf spot is one of the principal diseases affecting celery. It is

commonly carried on the seed, and an early infection often starts from sowing

infected seed. Notes: 1varieties-сорта

2celery- сельдерей

AGRICULTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN

Great Britain is a developed industrial and agricultural country. The greater

part of lands in the country belongs to big landowners who, as a rule, lease their land

to farmers. On big farms fertilizers and up-to-date agricultural machinery are used.

The prevailing type of agriculture in England is suburban farming. Sheep-

farming, cattle-farming and dairy-farming are important branches of the British

economy. Chicken farms produce a great number of chickens and eggs for the

population.

Britain’s arable farming specializes in fodder crops, market-gardening and

horticulture. Almost half of the tilled area is under forage crops (barley and oats).

Cucumbers, tomatoes, potatoes, and other vegetables are grown mainly in the suburbs

of big towns. The south of Great Britain is often called the ’’Garden of England‖.

This is because there are many gardens and orchards.

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SEEDS AND SEEDING

The time of seeding has an important influence on both the rate of seeding and

the amount of fertilizer to use.

As a rule, small grains are seeded at a heavier rate on poor soils than on the

more productive soils. In the case of intertilled crops1, such as corn, potatoes, and

tobacco, the plants may be left thicker on rich soils than on poor soils. These crops

must be planted at the rates that will utilize the plant nutrients of the soil most

economically. Different methods of seeding are practiced in soils of different

moisture conditions at planting time. In those sections of the country where rainfall is

likely to be abundant at planting time, corn and other cultivated crops are planted just

deep enough to ensure germination. In sections where soil moisture is likely to be low

at planting time and during the early stages of growth, listing is often practiced,

especially with corn. (’’Listing’’ consists in opening a furrow several inches deep by

means of an implement with a double moldboard and depositing the seed about 2

inches below the bottom of the furrow). Where drainage is poor, crops are often

planted on ridges or beds2.

Notes: 1Intertilled crops-пропашные культуры

2ridges or beds-гребешки борозды или грядки

ВАРИАНТ №3

SYMPTOMS IN THE SEEDBED

Tobacco seedlings with erect leaves in small patches in the seedbed are usually

the sign of early blue mold infection. Seedlings with leaves between 2 and 4 cm in

diameter show clear round yellow spots on the upper surface with corresponding gray

or bluish mold1 in the lower surface. At this stage some of the leaves are usually

cupped. Young seedlings, up to 4-weeks old, are very susceptible to blue mold and

are easily killed by the fungus2. Leaves of older seedlings are puckered and deformed

and dark, dead areas may develop. Diseased seedlings are stunted, and in severe cases

the stem and root become infected and turn brown in color.

The presence of the downy mold on the under surface of the leaf is the most

reliable symptom of blue mold. This downy mold carries thousands of tiny

reproductive units called "conidia"3. If sufficient conidia form at different spots in the

seedbed an outbreak is likely to occur and all seedlings in the greenhouse become

infected overnight. Notes: 1bluish mold-голубоватая плесень

2fungus-гриб

3conidia-конидии

CUCUMBER GROWING

Cucumbers can be grown on almost any good soil. The crop, however, is

produced largely on the sandy loams. In order to avoid diseases, it is essential that

cucumbers be grown in long-period rotations and on new land. Good drainage,

together with moisture - holding capacity is essential in soils on which cucumbers are

to be grown.

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Even where considerable manure is available, one or more of the soil-

improvement crops should be included in the rotation, and these should be turned

under to enrich the soil and add humus. Where a winter cover crop is grown on the

land it will be necessary to turn it under at least 2 or 3 weeks in advance of planting.

Commercial fertilizers containing 4 to 5 percent of nitrogen, 8 to 10 percent of

phosphoric acid, and 4 to 5 percent of potash are applied broadcast at the rate of 1 ton

to the acre by most cucumber growers.

Soils for cucumbers are easy to prepare. The more successful growers disk and

harrow the land several times after plowing in order that all the manure and fertilizers

may be thoroughly mixed with the soil. The methods of soil preparation depend upon

locality. Where a soil-improvement crop is grown during the late summer, it is

plowed under before it is killed by frost.

AGRONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS

From the agronomical standpoint, crop plants are classified according to the

way or ways in which they are used. On this principle, the following classification is

often used.

Cereals or Grain Crops1. It is known that a cereal may be defined as any

grass grown for its edible grain. ‖Grain‖ is a collective term for the fruit of cereals.

Wheat, rye, barley, corn, oats and rice are considered to be the great cereals of the

world. One should know that wheat, barley, and oats occupy by far the greatest part

of the cultivated area occupied by cereals.

Legumes2 for Seed. The term ‖legumes’’ may be defined as a plant of the

natural family Leguminoseae. It is field beans, field peas, peanuts, cowpeas and

soybeans that are the principle legumes raised for their seeds.

Forage Crops3. The term ’’forage’’ may be defined as vegetable matter

utilized as feed for animals in the form of harvested hay, soilage, silage, or a pasture.

Forage crops include all grasses cut for hay, legumes cut for forage, sorghum, and

corn fodder.

Root Crops4. A root crop is one grown for its edible roots. In this group are

found such plants as turnips, rutabagas, and various form of the beet. The sweet

potato is a true root crop, whereas the potatoes is not. Many root crops such as

turnips, rutabagas, mangels5 and carrots are grown far less in the United States than

Canada and Europe. Notes: 1cereals or grain –зерновые культуры

2legumes-бобовые

3forage crops-фуражные культуры

4root crops- корнеплоды

5turnips, rutabagas, mangels- турнепс, брюква, кормовая свекла

ВАРИАНТ №4

DISEASE CYCLE

Scab begins when tubers start forming. Initially the spots may be so small that

they are not noticed. As the tuber continues to grow, the areas of these reddish brown

spots also enlarge. An older tuber has too thick a protective layer on its surface to be

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invaded readily. In any thimbleful1 of soil there may occur thousands, or even

millions, of individuals belonging to the genus Streptomyces. These are

actinomycetes2 which have characteristics placing them between bacteria and fungi.

Not all of the Streptomyces organisms recovered from the soil can cause scab on

potatoes, but many of them can. Collectively these usually are grouped under

the name Streptomyces scabies. Streptomyces scabies can live on decomposing

material in the soil and does not require a potato or root crop to remain alive.

However, it does become more aggressive on any given crop, such as potatoes, if the

same crop is grown year after year without rotation. The organism infects the tuber

by means of a tiny thread that pushes directly through the tender skin of the forming

potato. It slowly continues to grow until the crop is harvested. The infected areas on

the potato respond at once by laying down a corky layer. As each layer is invaded by

the scab organism, new cork formation takes place until a mature scab spot is

produced. Scab does not develop further after the potatoes are dug, but the organism

remains alive all winter in storage. Notes:

1 Thimbleful-небольшое количество, щепотка

2 Actinomycetes- акциномицеты

TOMATOES

The tomato is one of the most widely planted of all home garden vegetable

crops. The seed should be sown in the hot-bed during February and the plants later

transplanted to the field when all danger of frost has passed. A few plants of at least

two varieties should be grown, one of the early sorts, such as Barliana, and the other

of the later type. Where only a few plants are to be set out and space is scarce, it is

best to stake and prune1 them to a single stem.

If not staked, the plants should be mulched with straw so as to keep the fruit off the

soil and conserve moisture.

Young tomato plants should be kept free of weeds and grass by hosing and shallow

cultivation. Deep cultivation is discouraged at all times because of the resulting root

pruning and breaking of the plants. Where available without much expense, irrigation

will serve to increase the yields and occasionally prolong the picking season until

frost. Notes: 1stake and prune-подпирать колышком и удалять боковые веточки

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is an important branch of economy of any state. It deals with plant

growing and animal breeding.

Modern agriculture in all leading countries of the world is highly equipped with

machinery. Such processes as plowing, sowing and harvesting are carried out by

machines. Electricity is widely used in agriculture, especially in animal husbandry.

We cannot imagine modern agriculture without applying commercial fertilizers,

without using herbicides against pests, without means of control diseases of plants

and animals. Thus, mechanization, electrification and chemization are the most

important factors of rapid development of highly productive agriculture.

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Land areas used in agriculture are called agricultural lands. Not all agricultural

lands are absolutely fit ones. People turn unsuitable lands into suitable by rooting up

trees and bushes, by draining swamps and irrigating deserts. Land reclamation or land

improvement is called melioration. Drainage and irrigation are the main components

of melioration.

THE NEED FOR SEED TESTING

Knowledge of the quality of the seed to be planted is of the highest importance to

the farmer.

It is the purpose of the seed test to disclose any undesirable conditions of crop

seeds that might result in failure of crops, an excessive cost of the actually good seed,

or the introduction and spread of troublesome and noxious weeds. The usual

laboratory test of a seed sample consists of a purity test and a germination test. In the

purity test the seed is examined to determine the actual proportion of the crop seed in

the sample: the quantity and kinds of other crop seeds that may be present; the

quantity and kinds of weed seed; and the quantity and character of the inert matter

present. The germination test shows the proportion of the pure crop seeds that may be

expected to produce plants.

ВАРИАНТ №5

POTATO SCAB1

Symptoms: A common tuber disease2 that occurs wherever potatoes are grown,

potato scab appears as superficial, dark brown, pithy patches that may be raised and

"warty." These lesions may affect just a small portion of the tuber surface, or may

completely cover it. Sometimes the ridged portions are in broken concentric rings.

Potato scab is caused by the bacteria-like organism Streptomyces scabies that

overwinters in fallen leaves and in the soil. The organism can survive indefinitely in

slightly alkaline soil but is relatively scarce in highly acid soils. It is transmitted to

plants by infected seed tubers, wind and water. The organism is also spread in fresh

manure, since it can survive passage through the digestive tract of animals.

S. scabies enters through pores (lenticels) in stems, through wounds, and

directly through the skin of young tubers. In addition to potato, other crops infected

include beets, radish, turnip, carrot, rutabaga, and parsnips. This should be kept in

mind when considering a crop rotation schedule.

Note: S. scabies can survive in the soil for many years in the absence of potato. Notes: 1potato scab-парша на картофеле

2tuber disease-заболевание клубней

LETTUCE1

Lettuce is the most popular of the salad crops. It is grown on many kinds of

soils from clay loams to sandy loams. Lettuce reaches its highest development on

sandy loams and silt loams well supplied with organic matter and on a good well-

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drained muck or peat soil. Where earliness is important sandy loam is preferred

because it warms up earlier than other soils.

Lettuce does not grow well on mineral soils that are strongly acid, but it is not

desirable to completely neutralize the acidity by liming.

The soil for lettuce should be well drained but retentive of moisture. Thorough

preparation to obtain a good seedbed is important.

The lettuce plant has a small root system, therefore the surface soil should be

well supplied with nutrients. The soil should have a good supply of organic matter

also. When lettuce is grown on mineral soils, manure or soil-improving crops should

be used to maintain the soil in good physical conditions.

Shallow cultivation2 to control weeds is very important for lettuce as the plants

cannot compete successfully with weeds. The root system is small and many of the

roots are near the surface, therefore cultivation should be shallow. Notes: 1

lettuce-cалат- латук 2

shallow cultivation-неглубокое возделывание

WHEAT1

Wheat is one of the leading crops of the eastern United States. This region is

made up of eastern Texas, eastern Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, southeastern Nebraska,

Iowa, southern Wisconsin, and all States to the east, and produces about one-fifth of

the country’s wheat.

More than 75 distinct varieties of wheat are grown on a commercial scale in

this region. Soft red winter varieties predominate, but white winter wheat is grown

extensively in New York and Michigan, and hard red winter varieties are grown in

Iowa, northern Illinois, northwestern Indiana, and southern Wisconsin, primarily

because of their greater winter hardiness.

This wheat is grown largely as a supplement to other crops. It fits well into

rotations and serves as an important cover crop to prevent soil erosion and leaching in

the late fall, winter, and early spring, when the land would otherwise be bare. It is

often grown because it can immediately be converted into cash. Notes:

1 wheat-пшеница

WEEDS1

A weed may be defined as ’’a plant out of place’’ or ’’a plant growing where it

is not desired’’. It follows that a plant may be a weed in some places and not in

others. For example, Bermuda grass, which is considered one of the most noxious

weeds in places, where it is not desired in certain parts of the South is the most

valuable pasture grass. Some plants are considered weeds wherever they grow, as

they do not seem to serve a useful purpose anywhere. Some of our most useful plants,

however, have been considered worthless weeds in the past. As late as 1893, laws

were passed in Wisconsin (US) to prevent the spread of sweat clover, which was

classed as a weed pest.

A weed has other characteristics that classify it than the place where it is

growing. In the first place, a weed has no economical use. This does not imply that an

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economic use may not some day be discovered, but until it is the plant should

continue to be called a weed.

The cost of weeds to the farmers is enormous as weeds (1) reduce crop yields,

(2) increase the expense (cost) of cultivation and harvest, (3) reduce the market value

of crops, (4) harbor fungi and insect pests that attack adjacent crops, (5) poison or

injure man, livestock, or livestock products. Notes: 1weeds-сорняки

Строительный факультет

ВАРИАНТ №1

TEXT 1

The science of building is Architecture. Any engineer cannot take a form of the

building without consideration of structural principles, materials, social and economic

requirements. So a building cannot be considered as a work of architecture. From the

very beginning architecture of many skills, systems and theories have been used for

the construction of the buildings that men have housed in all their essential activities.

The coexistence of change and survival1 is evident in all phases of the human story.

This change and repetition is clearly illustrated in any architectural style. The

historical background of architecture is the value of our cultural heritage. The

heritage2 of the past cannot be ignored. Such recognition of continuity does not imply

repetition or imitation. It must be expressed in contemporary terminology.

Writing on architecture is almost as old as writing itself. There are a lot of

books on the theory of architecture, on the art of a building and on the aesthetic

appearance3 of buildings. The oldest book is a work of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio,

written in the first century B.C. Nearly two thousand years ago the Roman architect

Vitruvius set the principles upon which buildings should be designed and aims to

guide the architect. He was the first who listed three basic factors in architecture —

"convenience, strength and beauty". The sequence of these three basic aims —

"convenience, strength and beauty" — has its own significance. These three factors

are always present and are always interrelated in the best structures. It is impossible

for a true architect to think of one of them without considering the other two as well.

Thus architectural design entails a consideration of the constant interaction of these

factors. At last we can say that every element in a building has a triple implication. At

the same time its contemporary expression4 must be creative and consequently new.

Architecture is an art. The triple nature of architectural design is one of the

reasons why architecture is a difficult art. The architect does not first plan a building

from the point of view of convenience, then designs around his plan a strong

construction to shelter it, and finally adjusts and decorates the whole to make it

pretty. It takes him a special type of imagination as well as long years of training and

experience to produce a designer capable of making the requisite in the light of these

three factors — "use, construction, aesthetic effect" — simultaneously. First of all,

the designer must have sufficient knowledge of engineering, building materials to

enable him to create economically. I see any building is built because of some

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definite human need. The use problem — "convenience" — is therefore primary5. In

addition, the designer must possess the creative imagination which will enable him to

integrate the plan and the construction into one harmonious whole. The architect's

feeling of satisfaction in achieving such as integration is one of his greatest rewards. Notes:

1. Survival – выживание

2. cultural heritage – культурное наследие

3. aesthetic appearance – эстетический внешний вид

4. contemporary expression – современное высказывание

5. primary - первичный

TEXT 2

We can not ignore the heritage1 of the past. There are different styles and kinds of

architecture in the past around the world. It is not a secret, that various cultures have

left their imprint on history through their great monuments and buildings, great

castles and cathedrals. The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are

great structures such as Egyptian pyramids, the Parthenon in Athens, the Roman

Pantheon, and Hagia Sophia in the "New Rome", Constantinople, great castles and

cathedrals of the Middle Ages, the palaces of the Renaissance2 and the civil

engineering infrastructure of the industrial revolution. Great architects and engineers

followed an integrated process of conception, design and construction. This

integrated construction process persisted through the end of the nineteenth century,

when the Roebling family (John, Washington, and Emily) designed and built the

Brooklyn Bridge.

It is necessary to select materials, a type, a size and a configuration to carry

loads in a safe and serviceable fashion. The architects and engineers mobilize the

resources needed to realize the final structure. This classical approach is used to

build. In general, structural design implies engineering of stationary objects such as

buildings and bridges, objects that may be mobile but have a rigid shape such as ship

hulls and aircraft frames. But it is an area of mechanical design, to which devices are

generally assigned. These are devices with parts planned to move with relation to

each other.

Notes:

1. heritage – наследие

2. the Renaissance – эпоха Возрождения (период в культурном и идейном развитии стран

Западной и Центральной Европы 14-16вв.)

TEXT 3

First of all, the value of true architecture lies in the direct effect of the structure

itself. It depends on many reasons. One of them is a drawing1. Drawings are works of

architecture. An architect uses drawings to achieve his objective. In fact, drawings

can represent buildings only on paper. It is called "paper architecture". We mean the

result of architect's thinking of drawings. But, there is a danger of "paper

architecture". The architect mustn't forget that many elements which look well on a

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drawing may be either completely ineffective or definitely harmful2 in the actual

building.

For example, it is electric architecture. Electric buildings are full of decorative

elements which look well on the drawing. Perhaps even seem necessary on the

drawing. But in the actual buildings they are completely meaningless3. An architect is

able to see variations of a plan, of color and a shade. Each of these variations is due

to the effects of light on the building materials employed. The architect must always

study each detail from the viewpoints of both use and appearance4 as well as from

that of construction. He must not see it as an isolated detail but as an individual note

in a great composition. A work of an architect exists only when it stands a complete,

concrete object for all to see or to use.

The architect must project an integration of the whole in order to create a work

of architecture. He must remember about the architect's alphabet. Knowledge of this

alphabet is as essential to him as knowledge of words to the writer or of notes to the

musician. The letters of the architect's alphabet are such elements as walls and

openings, supports and ceilings, enclosed areas or rooms. We enter the building and

our attention meets the same complexity of elements. They are doors to allow ingress

and egress5; windows to admit light and air; walls for shelter or support; roofs to keep

out the rain, snow, cold, and sometimes sun. A partition separates space from space.

There may be stairs, escalators, or elevators to allow progress from level to level and

halls or corridors to permit easy circulators from part to part Finally there may be all

sorts of interior spaces for definite human activities — rooms both public and private

— to take care of the varying functions of human living. No building can exist

without some of them.

Any true architectural design is no mere fantasy, no unreal dream. It

contemplates an actual building. There must be adequate structure for a building to

exist. Then we observe the physical structure of a building outside. Next, "strength"

becomes the second necessity for the construction. A true construction must stand up

solidly.

Finally, mankind has always realized that buildings to be complete must have

not only "convenience" and "strength", but also "beauty". Some people think that

architecture is not a fine art at all. For such people the world of fine arts is something

entirely set apart from ordinary living and that its single purpose should be satisfying

of physical necessities. At the same time architecture is a matter of pictures or

sculpture, poems or music. The architect has the task of being an artist as well as an

inventive engineer. The expression of the purpose of buildings would seem to call for

additional thought on this point. The emotions are evoked by beauty. It may be

theaters, churches, dwellings and buildings, which always differ from one another.

Yet a separate consideration of an individual building is a very real artificial sense. Notes:

1. drawing - рисование

2. definitely harmful – определенно вредный

3. meaningless – не имеющий смысла

4. both use and appearance – как использования, так и внешнего вида

5. ingress and egress – вход и выход

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ВАРИАНТ №2

TEXT 1

We have mentioned that architecture is a science of building. On one hand,

coming of a building science also marked a major change in the role of an architect.

The response of the architect was to develop a new role of licensed professional on

the model of licensed professions such as law1 and medicine. It meant a bewildering

range of new building types. On the other hand, with coming of a building science,

there was a farther division of labor in the design process. Some new disciplines

appeared to teach engineers and architects. One of them was structural engineering2

as a separate discipline specializing in the application.

We know that for building an architect and an engineer are needed. One of the

first buildings for which an architect and an engineer were separate persons was the

Granary (1811) in Paris. The building design professions were founded, including the

Institute of Civil Engineers (1818) and the Royal Institute of British Architects

(1834), both in London, and the American Institute of Architects (1857). Official

government licensing of architects and engineers was not realized until beginning

with the Illinois Architects Act of 1897. With the rise of professionalism was the

development of government regulation, which took the form of detailed municipal

and nation a building codes3 specifying both prescriptive and performance

requirements for buildings. Notes:

1. law – правоведение

2. structural engineering – структурное строительство

3. municipal and nation a building codes – муниципальный, национальный, строительный

свод законов

TEXT 2

Engineering1 is a complex discipline, including a lot of fields

2. One of them is

an architectural engineering. It is a discipline that deals with the technological aspects

of buildings. They are the properties and behavior of building materials and their

components, foundation design, structural analysis and design, construction

management, and building operation. Besides, architectural engineering deals with

environmental system analysis3 and design. Every engineer knows an environmental

system, which may account for 45—70% of a building's cost, includes heating,

ventilating and air conditioning, illumination, building power system, plumbing4 and

piping, storm drainage, building communications, acoustic, vertical and horizontal

transportation, fire protection, alternate energy sources, heat recovery, and energy

conservation. In addition, it is necessary to help protect everybody from unnecessary

risk. That's why architectural engineers must know and be familiar with the various

building codes, plumbing, electrical and mechanical codes, and the Life Safety Code.

The latter code is designed to require planning and construction techniques in

buildings which will minimize possible hazards to the occupants. Notes:

1. engineering1 - строительство

2. fields2 - области

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3. environmental system analysis3 – анализ экосистемы

4. plumbing4 – вертикальная установка

TEXT 3

One of the ancient1 human activities is building construction. It began with a

purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of

climate. Human shelters2 were constructed to adapt human beings to a wide variety of

climates and become a global species. But temporary structures were used only a few

days or months. Over time were they evolved into such a highly refined form as the

igloo. After adventing agriculture, people began to stay in one place for long periods.

That's why more durable3 structures began to appear. The first human shelters were

very simple. The first shelters were dwellings. But later they were used for other

functions, such as food storage and ceremony. Some structures began to have

symbolic as well as functional value, marking the beginning of the distinction

between architecture and building.

Building construction has its own history, which is marked by a number of trends. Let's

describe some of them. One of these trends is increasing durability of the materials. The first

building materials were perishable. We mention leaves, branches and animal hides. Later

people began to use more durable natural materials such as clay, stone, timber. Finally,

synthetic materials such as bricks, concrete, metals, plastics were used in building. Another

trend is quest for buildings of greater height and span. It was possible by the development of

stronger building materials and by knowledge of how materials behave and how to exploit

them to greater advantage. The third trend involves the degree of control exercised over the

interior environment of buildings: increasingly precise regulation of air temperature, light and

sound levels, humidity, air speed. All factors that affect human comfort become possible. A

modern trend is change in energy of the construction progress, starting with human muscle

power and developing toward the powerful machinery.

The present state of building construction is complex. There is a wide range of

products and systems which are aimed primarily at groups of building types. We

know about a great role of the design process for buildings. It draws upon research

establishments that study material properties and performance, code officials. Last

ones adopt and enforce safety standards and design professionals who determine

user's needs and design a building to meet those needs. It proves that the design

process for buildings is highly organized. The construction progress is also highly

organized. It includes the manufacturers of building products and systems. On the

building site craftsmen assemble themselves. A work of the craftsmen is employed

and coordinated by contractors. There are also consultants who specialize in such

aspects as construction management, quality control and insurance. We must mention

about complexity and measure of mastery of natural forces, which can produce a

widely varied built environment to serve the needs of society. In conclusion, modern

building construction is a significant part of an industrial culture. Notes:

1. ancient – первобытный, древний

2. shelters – укрытия, кров

3. durable - прочный

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ВАРИАНТ№ 3

TEXT 1 We have mentioned about some problems connected with building. One of

them is a foundation. Architects and engineers are aware of the problems involved in

laying building's foundations. They do not always realize to what extent the earth can

be pressed down by the weight of a building. Too little allowance has sometimes

been made for the possibility of a heavy structure's sinking unevenly. There are a lot

of examples of foundations' problems. One of them is the Leaning Tower of Pisa1.

Why did the Leaning Tower of Pisa lean? The answer is that its foundations were not

soundly laid. Though the Leaning Tower is 14 feet out of the perpendicular, it has

never toppled. But there is a way out. As the building began to lean over, the builders

altered the design of the tipper stories to balance it. At the same time as one side of it

sank into the ground, the earth beneath was compressed until it became dense enough

to prevent further movement.

That's why a foundation engineer has a lot of work. But in a tall modern

structure the load may be very heavy indeed. In this way the foundation engineer has

an extremely important job to do. To begin with, he must have thorough

understanding of soil mechanics, which entails a scientific study of the ground to see

what load it can be without dangerous movement. We know that trial pits, holes can

be. So the engineer must collect undisturbed samples of earth from various depths.

By examining this, the engineer can forecast the probable shifts in the earth during

and after building, according to the sort of the foundation he designs. Thus he comes

to the most important decision of all in the building's construction. He decides

whether the earth is a type that can best support each column on a separate solid

block, or whether he must aim at lightness.

It is important for the foundation engineer to know about different types of the

ground. If it is a firm ground at great depth, the foundation engineer may use piles.

These are solid shafts made either by driving reinforced, concrete deep into the

ground, or by boring holes in the earth and pouring in the concrete. Each pile

supports its load in one, or two ways. It may serve as a column with its foot driven

into solid еаrth. At the same time it may stand firm because friction along its sides

"grips" the column and prevents it from sinking.

But it may be a question of building's floating. In this way the foundations take

the form of a vast, hollow concrete box. This box is divided into chambers. These

ones will be house heating and ventilating plants as well as provide garage and

storage space for the building.

The situations may be different. There are no problems at all or few of them. It

can be if the earth is stable. Buildings stand on hard rock like granite or ironstone.

For them neither piles nor need flotation be used. It is the best time for those

foundation engineers whose buildings stand on the foundations possessing few

problems. Notes:

1. Leaning Tower of Pisa – наклонившаяся Пиззанская башня

121

TEXT 2

A very important part of any structure is a wall. Walls may be constructed in

different forms. The walls include windows and doors, heads1 and sills

2, stanchion

casings3 and inner lining panels

4. The doors and windows provide for controlled

passage of environmental factors and people through the, wall line. The aluminium

heads, sills and windows are fixed from inside the building. After this, the 900 mm

and 1.800 mm wide exterior doors are installed. These doors are aluminum framed

and pre-glazed or hardwood framed and glazing5 is done on site. All walls are also

designed to provide resistance to passage of fire for some defined period of time,

such as a one-hour wall. The function of resisting fire fulfills stanchions. The

stanchions are enclosed in casings.

That's why any engineer most knows all methods of constructing walls for

buildings. Of cause walls are made of various materials to serve several functions.

Тhе walls are divided into interior and exterior walls. The exterior walls protect the

building interior from external environmental effects such as heat and cold, sunlight,

ultraviolet radiation, rain, sound, while containing desirable interior environmental

conditions. The exterior walls are made up of brick cladding, wall planks. The wall

planks are designed to be weatherproof and to support the outer cladding. The wall

planks and floor units are fixed only while the steel frame is being erected. The

concrete floor units are capable of carrying a load of up to 5 kn/sq m. Finally, the

internal sills and lining panels are installed. The lining panels are capable of being

removed to give access to the services. The lining panels and the internal sills are

cavity for heating and electrical services.

Finally, the internal sills and lining panels are installed. The lining panels are capable of

being removed to give access to the services. The lining panels and the internal sills are cavity

for heating and electrical services. Notes:

1. Heads – верхний брус оконной или дверной коробки

2. Sills - подоконники

3. stanchion casings – подпорка, опалубок

4. inner lining panels – внутренние, выравнивающие панели

5. glazing – вставка стекол

ВАРИАНТ № 4

TEXT 1

We have mentioned about some methods of constructing walls for buildings.

All walls are made of different materials. For example, walls are made of brick1. The

brick walls are laid up with a space between separate vertical parallel walls and

connected with occasional cross bricks or metal ties. This method provides «cavity

walls».

In areas of possible earthquake damage2 the «cavity» in brick work and the

open cells in concrete units is reinforced with standard reinforcing rods and fully

grouted with a soupy mixture of concrete. Normal spacing for vertical reinforcement3

is #4 at 24" with #4 at 48" horizontal fully, encased in grout up to 10" high.

Reinforcement requirements should be shown on the drawings for other situations.

122

But it is a special part of building called masonry. Masonry is installed with

cement mortar at bed and end joints, usually 3/8" or 1/2" thick. The masonry includes

a stone or brick work and concrete units. The concrete units are laid in a similar

manner, but obviously there is no open space between inner and outer shells. Each

unit has an open core. The concrete units are used primarily as foundation, exterior or

fire-separation walls. The brick and concrete units are manufactured in standard sizes.

Though, a stone may be any size, thickness4, quality or color.

Notes:

1. brick - кирпич

2. earthquake damage – повреждение от землетрясения

3. reinforcement - укрепление

4. thickness - плотность

TEXT 2

Besides masonry1, a brick work, any engineer must know about heating and

ventilation. They are two branches of engineering which are very closely connected.

Both they are treated as a dual subject. Heating is to prevent too rapid loss of heat

from the body. The rate of heat lost from the body is controlled. Some old concepts

of heating have been gradually changed since engineers obtained more precise

knowledge2 about how the body loses heat. Insufficient attention was paid formerly

to loss by radiation, which is the transmission of energy in the form of waves from a

body to surrounding bodies at a temperature. The human being also loses heat by

conduction (through his clothes) and convection, the latter by air currents not only

past his skin or outside clothing surface but also by evaporation of moisture3 from his

skin (respiration).

The determination of the capacity or size of the various components of the

heating system is based on the fundamental concept that heat supplied to a space

equals heat lost from the space. The most widely used system of heating is the central

heating4.

There are two most common systems of heating: hot water and steam. There

the fuel is burned in one place, from which steam, hot water or warm air is distributed

to adjacent and remote spaces to be heated. Both systems are widely used nowadays.

A hot-water system consists of the boilers and a system of pipes connected to

radiators suitably located in the rooms. The steel or copper pipes give hot water to

radiators or convectors which give up their heat to the rooms. Then cooled water is

returned to the boiler for reheating. As for steam systems, steam is usually generated.

The steam is led to the radiators through or, by means of steel or copper pipes. The

steam gives up its heat to the radiators and the radiators to the room. After this

cooling of the steam condenses to water. The condensate is returned to the boiler by

gravity or by a pump. The air valve on each radiator is necessary for air to escape.

Otherwise it would prevent steam from entering the radiator.

Recent efforts have resulted to completely conceal heating equipment in an

arrangement. Hot water, steam, air, or electricity are circulated through distribution

units embedded in the building construction. Panel heating is a method of introducing

heat to rooms in which emitting surfaces are usually completely concealed in the

123

floor, walls or ceiling. The heat is disseminated from such panels partly by radiation

and partly by convection. Ceiling panels release the largest proportion of heat by

radiation and floor panels release the smallest one. The proportion of heat

disseminated by radiation and convection is also dependent to some extent upon

panel-surface temperatures. Other factors must be considered by an engineer. They

are a type of occupancy, furniture or equipment location, large glass areas, heat-

storing capacity of building construction, room height, and possible change of wall

partitions, climate, exposure5, cost. Sometimes fuel is used for heating. They include

coal, oil, manufactured and natural gas, wood. Nowadays gas fuel is being used on an

increasing level.

But to do comfortable atmosphere is to use heating and ventilation together,

Heating and ventilation are concerned with providing a required atmospheric

environment within a space to produce a desired temperature for maintaining

comfort, health or efficiency of the beings. Nowadays air-conditioning is closely

related to both heating and ventilation. Notes:

1. masonry – каменная кладка

2. more precise knowledge – более точные знания

3. evaporation of moisture – испарение влаги

4. central heating – центральное отопление

5. exposure - мостоположение

ВАРИАНТ №5

TEXT 1

One of the building materials used in a construction is a brick. The production

of a brick was industrialized in the 19th century. Earlier it was a process of hand-

molding. Later it was superseded1 by «pressed» bricks. It was a mass production by a

mechanical extrusion process. In this way clay was squeezed by "pressed" through a

rectangular die as a continuous column and sliced to size by a wire cutter2.

Periodically fired kilns3 were used. Bricks were moved slowly on a conveyor belt.

New methods considerably reduced the cost of a brick. That's why it became one of

the constituent building materials of the age.

Rapid development of timber technology was in the 19th century in North

America. It was explained large softwood fir's forests and pine trees. There they were

used as industrial methods. Steam- and water-powered sawmills began producing

standard-dimension timbers4 in the 1820s. The production of cheap machine made

nails in the 1830s. It provided other necessary ingredient — a balloon frame5. That

made possible a major innovation in building construction. The first example was a

warehouse erected in Chicago in 1832 by George W. Snow. There was a great

demand for small buildings of all types settled on North American continent. Light

timber frame provided a quick, flexible, inexpensive solution6 to this problem. Heavy

timbers and complex joinery were abandoned in the balloon frame system. The

building walls were framed with 5 x 10-centimetre (2 x4-inch) vertical members.

They were placed at 40 centimeters (16 inches) from the centre. This supplied a roof

and floor joists, usually 5x25 centimeters (2x10 inches) and placed 40 centimeters

(16 inches) apart and were capable of spanning up to six meters (20 feet).

124

Notes:

1. was superseded – было вытеснено

2. wire cutter - кусачки

3. fired kilns – печи для обжига

4. timbers - древесина

5. balloon frame – надувная несущая конструкция

6. inexpensive solution – недорогое решение

TEXT 2 Among the oldest and newest of structural materials are composite materials

1.

It was discovered many years ago that two or more materials could be used together

as one. Later it was proved that such a combination often behaved better than each

material alone. Following this principle, clay and straw were combined to make

bricks. For centuries composite materials remained virtually untapped. Only then

monolithic materials, such as iron, copper were served for needs of an advancing

technology. Recently it was a development of technology with coming of reinforced

concrete, linoleum, plasterboard and plywood panels2. During the 1930`s and 1940`s

light-weight honeycomb structures, machine parts made from compressed metal

powders and plastic reinforced with glass fibers became commercial realities. These

developments marked the beginning of the modern era of composite engineering

materials. It was mentioned growing and using composite materials. The

consumption3 of the fiber reinforced plastics

4, for example, has been increasing at the

phenomenal rate of 25 per cent annually. Nevertheless, the emergence of a strict

discipline and technology of composite materials is barely 20 years old.

There are two major reasons for the current interest in composite materials.

The first is the demand for materials that will outperform the traditional monolithic

materials. The second and more important in the long run, is that composites offer

engineers the opportunity to design totally new materials, with the precise

combination of properties needed for a specific task. Although new composites are

usually more costly than conventional materials, they can be used more sparingly,

because of their superior qualities. Notes:

1. composite materials – композитные материалы

2. plywood panels – клееные панели

3. consumption – использование (потребление)

4. fiber reinforced plastics – волокнистый пластик для армирования

TEXT 3

All cultures have their own traditions and customs. That's why it is important

to know about them. Of cause, architecture has its own history. There are a lot of

different kinds of architectural styles, describing some features1 of every country. For

example red brick buildings of old Petersburg factories, grey Ferro-concrete cases of

industrial giants tell us about Soviet epoch. But, today they look old-fashioned.

Besides external unattractiveness2, the constructions of the last centuries have lacks

3.

They are internal narrowness4, conditions of communications in these buildings. In

particular, because of these lacks it is impossible to organize modern competitive

125

manufacture. The majority of the companies do not prefer building of new

constructions, using the тоя perspective materials and technologies, including an easy

metallic construction (LMC).

Let's tell some words about a basic fast construction for building» It is a metal

skeleton. There metal vertical racks5 and horizontal crossbar

6 with the help bolt

connections gather in cross-section frames. The cross-section frames are a system of

extensions communications, giving to design settlement durability fastens. There it is

established roofing, wall runs, frames under windows, doors. Any engineer may say

that a bearing skeleton is ready. Further it is possible to use any facing. It can be

Ferro-concrete, bricklaying, special panels such as "sandwich" any combinations of

the specified designs. It is necessary to tell some words about panels such as

"sandwich". Every panel consists of two sheets of the zinced iron between which a

special heater is placed. The design has no internal skeleton. Its durability is reached

due to the certain orientation of fibers.

It is very important for a future skilled engineer7 to remember about a

distinctive feature such as "fast". It is a high degree of a factory's readiness to

complete the building. In practice it is carried out as follows. All details, delivered to

a building site, are made at a factory with their obligatory8, test characteristics of

strong. On a building site all elements of a design are gathered with the help bolt

connections. With the purpose, excepting possible problems during installation, all

details are adjusted to each other on the factory-manufacturer control assembly of

each design.

The scope9 of fast metallic construction is very wide. For example, metallic

construction is not used at construction of buildings in which nuclear reactors will

place, or bank storehouses. There walls' and roofing designs should possess raised

isolation properties10

. It is not accepted to use them. Practically, fast metallic

constructions are used at the construction of any industrial targets, warehouses, sports

complexes. Recently fast construction designs are used in the market. This process

does .metallic construction attractive in the field of trading constructions.

Every construction has its own advantages and disadvantages. Advantages of a

fast metallic construction are obvious. A cost of a building from a metallic

construction is 30-40 % less, than on construction of a similar building, using

traditional materials. Naturally, the given statement is correct only under condition of

the certain identity of quality of external and internal furnishing11

. For example, the

building constructed from the cheapest brick without additional external furnishing,

will be cheaper than a construction from a fast metallic construction with a facade

trimmed with dark glass12

. The essential economy, while using a metallic

construction, is reached to decrease in expenses of a zero cycle approximately on

50%. Today a fast metallic construction is a leader among all building designs, first

of all, because of its low price. On the other hand, it has the shortest terms of

erection. The economy of time can become very significant and essentially important

for any customer13

. Besides the price and terms of assembly, fast metallic

constructions have more important advantage. The matter is that a metallic

construction is not only quickly gathered, but also can be disassembled14

fast and

without special financial expenses.

126

Notes:

1. features – особенности, характерные черты

2. unattractiveness - непривлекательность

3. lacks - недостатки

4. They are internal narrowness – внутри у них ограниченное пространство

5. vertical racks – вертикальные стойки

6. horizontal crossbar – горизонтальная перекладина

7. skilled engineer – опытный инженер

8. obligatory - обязательный

9. scope - масштаб

10. isolation properties – изоляционный свойства

11. internal furnishing - меблировка

12. trimmed with dark glass – отделанный темным стеклом

13. customer – заказчик (клиент)

14. can be disassembled – можно разобрать

Энергетический факультет

ВАРИАНТ № 1

THERMOSTAT SELECTION

Thermostat Selection. In addition to consideration of types, initial cost, type

of enclosure, and usage, several other factors are important when ordering a

thermostat. The desired temperature range and the allowable variations in temperature

must be specified. The range of a thermostat must include the temperature for which it is to

be used and the temperature variation should be consistent with the application. Usually the

thermostat allowing variations of 5° is satisfactory. A 5° variation (differential) means that the

thermostat would operate 2.5 above the temperature setting and would operate again 21/2°

below the setting. (Set at 85° F, contacts open at 87.5° and close at 82.5°.) Closer control is

available if desired.

A second important factor is the switch contacts. The ampere rating of the contacts,

the type of contact material (silver is best), whether single- or double-pole, and single-or

double-throw, must all be specified when placing an order. The decision relative to these

items is made after considering certain operating characteristics of the controlled appliance,

such as surge current, normal current, input voltage (230 volts double-pole contacts), and the

need for operating auxiliary equipment with the same thermostat.

Time Switch. A time switch1 is an electric clock that automatically operates switch

contacts at definite time intervals. The general-purpose time switch is designed automatically

to close the switch contacts two times and open them two times during any 24-hr period. By

adjusting the trip levers the timer can be set to provide only one on and one off operation

during the 24-hr period. Various appliances can be controlled by the contacts of the switch.

The clock motor is connected to the source of power independent of the switch contacts so

that the clock runs continuously, but the appliance is on only when the switch contacts are

closed.

127

On the farm, time switches are used more for poultry-house lighting than for any

other application. In addition, they are frequently used for controlling home-yard lighting,

automatic feeders, greenhouse lighting, cooling systems, hay curing, grain drying, and heating

systems.

Two models of time switches along with typical wiring diagrams are shown in Fig.

15. For simplicity single wires are used in the wiring diagrams. One of the diagrams illustrates

the use of a d i m c i r c u i t which provides a 15- or 20-min period of dim lights before all

lights are extinguished. The actual dimming is not incorporated in the switch but must be

provided by connecting an external resistance into the dimming circuit or by placing a low

value of lamp wattage on this circuit. Double-pole switch2 contacts are available for the 230-

volt-circuit application such as a three-wire poultry-house wiring system and for single

appliances requiring large wattages.

The automatic operation is performed by metal trip levers or riders3

which are

fastened4 to the rotating dial

5 and trip the switch mechanism as they pass by. The riders can be

removed or adjusted in position in order to regulate the timing intervals. Clocks performing

two on — off opera-lions in 24 hr require four riders. If more on — off operations are desired,

additional riders are necessary. However, there is a practical limit to the number of switching

operations possible with a single timer. The actual switching is a mechanical feature and the

dial must rotate some distance (and therefore some time elapses) before one rider can trip the

switch contacts and move past, thereby allowing the next rider to function.

In selecting a time switch, consideration should be given to the voltage rating of the

clock motor, the rating of the contacts, and the number of operations and the interval

between operations, as well as to the type of enclosure. The energy for operating the

timer is negligible, and the clock is self-starting and should last indefinitely.

Float Switch. A float switch is an automatic control that operates according to

some predetermined liquid level. The float is usually a hollow copper ball or cylinder

and is connected to the float switch by a rod or chain. The principle of operation is

based on the up and down motion о the float as the liquid level rises and falls.

The float switch is used mostly for controlling water levels in a non-pressure

tank or trough, but is also readily adapted for use with fuel-oil containers. The switch

contact are sometimes connected directly into the circuit of the con, trolled appliance,

such as a small motor, or they may be connected to control the relay coil of a

magnetic starter which operates larger motors or appliances. In other instances the

contacts are used for controlling the operation of a solenoid valve which in turn

controls the flow of water or similar liquid through a pipe. It is also possible to

employ a float switch to control the operation of a sump pump. For this latter

application the operating-lever position or the relative position of the float and the

counterweight must be sue' as to cause closed-switch contacts in the up position of

the float and open-switch contacts in the down position.

The counterweight is heavy enough to operate the switch contacts when the

float is supported by the proper level о liquid. When the liquid level decreases, the

float is not adequately supported and its unsupported weight is sufficient to overcome

the counterweight and to operate the switch contacts. The larger the diameter of the

float, the more sensitive it is to changes in the level of the liquid. The switch contacts

128

are so mounted mechanically, as to provide the snap-action feature necessary for long

life.

When placing an order for a float switch, the usual items of information to be

listed are the current rating of the switch contacts, type of enclosure, rod or chain

length, and number of poles required in the switch.

Notes: 1time switch – временный включатель, таймер, часы

2double-pole switch – двухполюсный выключатель

3rider – подвижный контакт

4to fasten – пристегивать, застегивать

5rotating dial – вращающийся диск, циферблат

ВАРИАНТ № 2

PRESSURE SWITCH1

A pressure switch is an automatic control having switch contacts which are

operated according to variations in liquid or gas pressure. The gas, vapour, or liquid

passes through the control, and the pressure of the eras or liquid expands a metal

bellows against the force of a spring. The motion of the expanding and contracting

bellows operates a snap-action switch mechanism. '' On the farm the pressure switch

serves as the control for pressure-type water systems and air compressors. It starts

and stops the electric motor which drives the water pump or the compressor. The

switch contacts of the control are generally used directly in the motor circuit, but they

could be .used to control the input to the coil of a magnetic starter. The latter case is

the usual connection for motors larger than2 hp.

When considering the application2 of a pressure switch, particular attention

must be given to the differential (difference in pressure between cut-in and cut-out)

and to the pressure range (upper and lower limits of desired pressure settings). The

user can adjust these values, within specified limits, by increasing and decreasing the

tension of springs. For instance, the pressure range of the average water-pump

Pressure control is from 20 to 80 psi, while the pressure differential is from 10 to 40

lb. If the range setting is adjusted tо 35 lb and the differential is set for 10 lb, the

switch would cut on and start the motor at 25 lb and would open, thereby stopping the

motor when the pressure reached 45 lb. The 'manufacturer varies the range limits and

the differential by combining different springs with different sizes of bellows. Other

items of importance in making a final selection of this type of control are voltage,

motor horsepower, pipe sizes, safety release valve, and type of enclosure.

Limit Switch. A limit switch is an electric switch which «s operated

mechanically by the movement of some other piece of material or machine. The

switch mechanism is frequently tripped by a knot in a rope, a metal stop fastened to ft

chain, a cam, or some similar specially rigged arrangement. One switch contacts are

usually returned to their normal position by the action of a spring. There is also a

maintained contact type which must be manually reset. The contacts may be of either

slow-action or snap-action type. The latter type trips instantly, once the mechanical

tripping device has traveled the required distance to trip the limit switch. The switch

having snap-action contacts is suggested for general-purpose use around the farm.

129

Limit switches are useful in farm applications where it is desired to limit the

travel of a rope, chain, or carriage.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING USE OF CONTROLS

Many of the controls described in this chapter are shown in the schematic

diagrams of Fig. 16. The symbols employed in drawing the schematics are fairly well

standardized, and particular attention should be given to this phase of the figure. Note

especially the difference between the symbols for manually operated controls and

automatically controlled contacts. The relay-coil symbol is modified slightly in order

to differentiate between it and the overload3 heater symbol. Various modifications

and additions are possible, and after some study it will be clear how another control

can be substituted or added to the various schematics. It is not common practice to

include many words on a schematic drawing; but for clarity and familiarization,

explanatory notes and names have been included along with the symbols. Following

standard procedure, the switch contacts in the figure are shown in their normal

position. Thus the contacts of a relay are drawn as if the coil was deenergized, and

pushbuttons are shown in a released position.

ELECTRIC MOTORS PROTECTION Thermal Overload Relay. A thermal overload relay consists of two parts: (1)

a small switch that is normally held either open or closed against the force of a spring

by means of a catch and (2) a thermal device for tripping the catch. This thermal

device is usually a bimetallic strip which is heated by current passing directly through

the strip or by a heater coil surrounding the strip. The bimetallic strip consists of two

thin layers of different metals welded together. The metals are chosen to have quite

different temperature coefficients of expansion4, and, since the strip is firmly fixed at

one end, the other end deflects as the temperature rises. The heater coil is in series

with the circuit that is to be protected and is therefore designed to have a low

resistance. It is provided with a shunt if the current is large.

Such a device will not operate on momentary overloads, such as occur during

the starting of a motor, but will operate if the overload persists long enough to heat up

the bimetallic strip to the tripping point.

The magnetically operated contactor switch of Fig. 17 can be made to give

automatic overload protection if one inserts the contacts of a thermal overload relay

in the circuit of the operating coil and connects its heater coil in series with the main

circuit. Notes:

1pressure switch – переключатель напряжения

2application - применение

3overload - перегрузка

4coefficient of expansion – коэффициент расширения

ВАРИАНТ №3

FUSES1

A fuse is a piece of metal inserted in a circuit that is intended to melt and open

the circuit before excessive currents have had time to damage the remainder of the

circuit by overheating.

130

The melting2 or blowing of a fuse is accompanied by аn arc

3 and by spattering

of 'the fused metal, so that it is generally advisable to mount the fuse in the center of

a tube. Sometimes the tube is then filled with oil or a fireproof powder to quench the

arc. A fuse has heat storage capacity and, as far as protection from excessive current

is concerned, combines the functions of the thermal overload relay and the magnetic

contactor switch. Fuses are available for currents up to 600 amp at voltages up to 600

volts and for currents up to 300 amp at voltages up to 34,500 volts and also for

smaller currents at voltages up to 132,000. The higher voltages are alternating current

only.

Protection from Overloads and Short Circuits4. Electric circuits and

machines must be protected from overloads and short circuits, and this is

accomplished by automatically disconnecting the circuit or machine from the line

when such conditions occur.

An overload in general can injure5 a cable or machine only by overheating it to

a temperature that will damage the insulation, and, since all materials have heat

storage capacity, it follows that moderate momentary overloads do no damage.

Therefore the protective equipment should not operate on such overloads. On the

other hand, short circuits or other faults begin doing damage immediately and very

rapidly. Therefore they should be disconnected as quickly as possible. The circuit

breaker with instantaneous overload trip provides the most rapid and dependable

protection against short circuits and is used extensively for the protection of the

smaller and less important installations.

The best protection against overloads is given by thermal overload relays

controlling automatic switches, such as circuit breakers or magnetic contactor

switches. If magnetic switches are required in any case for the normal operation of

the motor, this method of protection is not expensive.

In the case of small low-voltage motors fuses are often the only protection

provided. They respond too quickly to momentary overloads, and this often means

that they must have current ratings too high to provide adequate protection against

moderate continuous overloads.

Circuit breakers are often provided with an inverse-time-limit attachment. This

is simply an adjustable dashpot that delays the movement of the tripping mechanism.

The length of the delay is approximately inversely proportional to the current through

the trip coil, so that the breaker responds slowly to moderate overloads but opens

131

quickly on heavy short circuits. The delay feature makes it possible to obtain

selectivity in the operation of circuit breakers that are in series on the same system.

By adjusting the time delays, the breaker that is nearest to the fault is made to open

first. This removes the fault, and therefore the other breakers do not open at all. In

this way the interruption is localized.

No-Voltage Release. Suppose that a motor is running at normal speed and that

the power supply is interrupted owing to some trouble in the powerhouse or in the

line; the motor will stop. If the power supply is now reestablished, with the starting

arm still in the running position, there will be no starting resistance in series with the

armature to limit the current. To take care of such a contingency, the starter is usually

provided with a no-voltage release, as shown at M, Fig. 18. The starting arm is moved

from the starting to the running position against the tension of the spring S and is held

in the running position by the electromagnet M. the power supply is now interrupted,

the motor will slow down and stop. The exciting current does not drop to zero as soon

as the power supply is interrupted, because the voltage Eg generated by the motor is

across the field circuit. That is, the motor has automatically become a self-excited

generator with no prime mover to drive it. As it slows down, its voltage decreases and

consequently its field current also decreases, which causes a further decrease in

voltage. At about half speed the magnet M becomes too weak to hold the arm against

the pull of the spring, and the arm is pulled back to the starting position. The

resistance R may be omitted if the line voltage is low enough to make it feasible to

design the coil of M for full-line voltage.

Fig. 18. Starter with a no-voltage release for a shunt or compound motor.

Another method of exciting the magnet M is to connect it in series with the

field coils of the motor. When connected in this way, it not only acts as a no-voltage

release but also protects the motor against the hazard of a break in the field circuit.

If the field circuit is accidentally broken, the field current is interrupted, and

the flux and back voltage drop approximately to zero, thus allowing a very large

current to flow through the armature winding. The magnet M, however, releases the

starting arm, which flies back to the starting position and interrupts this current

before any damage is done.

132

The no-voltage release of Fig.18 is the standard protection. It does not protect

against a break in the field circuit, but all motors are protected by either circuit

breakers or fuses, and the very large armature current resulting from a break in the

field circuit causes the breaker of fuses to operate very quickly and disconnect the

motor from the line. The chief objection to the no-field release is that most shunt

motors are operated with field control or speed, and it is difficult to provide a magnet

that will function properly over the whole range of field current. The no-field release

is used chiefly in special applications where the chances of the field circuit being

broken are unusually high, as for example in experimental laboratories.

Notes:

1fuses - предохранители

2to melt – плавить (ся)

3arc - дуга

4short circuit – короткое замыкание

5to injure – повреждать

ВАРИАНТ №4

CONDUCTORS1

For all practical purposes the copper cable and the star-section steel rod are the

best forms of conductors, although there is no serious objection to the use of a tubular

conductor. Cable has the advantage of being flexible and therefore easily installed.

Since it may be purchased in lengths as great as 1,000 feet, it need have few joints. If

too loosely woven, it may not have the required stiffness.

Steel rods make a mechanically strong, durable job. The 10-foot lengths must

be screwed together and special tools are required for making bends. Recently

aluminium conductor has come into use, but care must be taken to avoid electrolytic

corrosion where the aluminium comes in contact with iron, copper, or zinc. Such

contacts should be avoided u possible. According to the code the use of copper,

copper-covered steel, or copper-alloy fittings is not permissible when an aluminium

conductor is used. Aluminium should not be used for ground connections, since it

corrodes in the ground. Copper should be used in such exposures. The light weight

and flexibility of aluminium, however, are advantageous юг conductors above

ground.

According to the Code, copper cable2 or other copper conductor must have a

weight of not less than 3 ounces per foot galvanized steel about 5 ounces, and

aluminium about 1.6 ounces. Excellent lightning conductors are made with

galvanized steel or iron or steel with an integral copper coating.

Painting conductors above ground does not detract from the value of the

conductor, and their life may be increased by painting as soon as serious corrosion is

in evidence Aluminium conductors and fittings used in seacoast areas, subject to the

corrosive action of salt air, should be protected by painting or other means

immediately upon installation. Conductors forming the earth connections should not

be painted, since the electrical resistance of the ground is thereby much increased,

whereas the resistance should be as low as practicable.

133

AIR TERMINALS

Air terminals usually consist of three parts: (1) the point, (2) the elevation rod

or vertical conductor, to the upper end of which the point is attached, and (3) the

tripod support. Sometimes only a point (not less than 10 inches high), footed direct to

the roof conductor so as to be inconspicuous, is used. The points are the objects in the

protective conducting system that receive the lightning discharge, thus preventing

damage to the building itself.

When the elevation is short erect position of the air terminal is maintained by

firm attachment to the horizontal conductor on the roof, but, for heights of 18 inches

to 5 feel galvanized-iron tripod supports are often used. The supports are frequently

attached to the roof by galvanized nails. Screws are better, and where ready access3

may be had to the underside of the roof a firm attachment can be obtained by the use

of bolts. Air terminals erected as described and illustrated are seldom damaged by

wind or by snow and ice storms.

The copper tube or so-called shell point is extensively used with the copper-

tube elevation rod. When the point is solid for 3 inches or more from the end and the

walls of the tube are not less than No. 20 (0.032 inch) gauge in thickness, they are

sufficiently heavy to withstand the fusing effect of severe strokes. An alternative is

the copper bay point, a solid, substantial fitting that is generally preferable. The

bayonet point is also used with star-section steel elevation rods. Multiple points may

be used without objection when the individual points are sufficiently heavy, but one

large-size heavy point is enough for one air terminal and is less expensive. Where

conditions causing corrosion are severe for example, at the top of chimneys, points

and their associated conductors and fasteners if within 25 feet of the source of

corrosive gases or fumes are lead covered.

The elevation rod may be attached satisfactorily4 to the main conductor in

several ways. The lower ends of tube elevation rods are so shaped that they can

encircle a copper cable and be squeezed firmly into contact with it without the use of

solder. A T-connector, designed to be inserted into the tube and made with finger grip

that firmly engages the cable, may also be used. Star-section rods are provided with

screw fittings5 for contact with the flanges of the conductor.

Where end-to-end joints of the conductors are necessary, suitable solderless

connectors may be used. When copper cable is used joints may be made with fittings

of rugged construction that will permanently engage and connect the parts. Joints are

almost entirely avoided in copper-cable installations, since the cable often can be run

over a building from one corner to another diagonally opposite without a break. All

joints must be mechanically strong and of low resistance without dependence upon

the use of solder. Solder may be added to protect the joint from corrosion.

Fasteners6 for securing the conductors to the walls and roof of a building

should be spaced generally not more than 4 feet on the construction of the building.

The principal aim is to obtain a neat and durable job with the conductor firmly held in

place. Holes through the roof made by the fastener screws or nails must be made

watertight.

134

Notes: 1conductor – проводник

2copper cable – медный кабель

3access – доступ

4satisfactory – удовлетворительно

5fittings – осветительная арматура

6fasteners – крепеж

ВАРИАНТ №5

GALVANIZED-STEEL CONDUCTORS

If galvanized-steel, star-section rod with copper-bronze couplings is used, the

rod shall be three-fourths inch in diameter. The conductor shall be run as directly as

possible on the building with no sharp bends or loops, and in such manner the rod

shall be used, and end-to-end joints shall be carefully screwed together. Where

branches are attached to the main conductor, Y-connectors shall be used so that bends

of at least 2-foot radius may be formed with the laterals.

Copper-bronze or galvanized, malleable-iron screw fasteners or other fasteners

of approved design shall be used. The fasteners shall be spaced not more than 4 feet

apart, and screwed directly into wooden walls and roofs. Lead expansion shields

shall be used for masonry and concrete walls.

Holes through the roof made by the fasteners shall be rendered watertight by

means of elastic roof cement.

Star-section elevation rods shall be used with an inverted Y- or other approved

connection to the main conductor. The diameter of the elevation rod shall be the same

as the conductor.

Solid, copper, bayonet air terminal points screwed to the upper end of the

elevation rod shall be used.

Air terminals shall be placed above ridges, gables, chimneys, and flat roofs,

and shall be not less than 10 inches above the tops of chimneys, peaks, and pointed

parts of the building.

Galvanized-iron tripod supports for the air terminals shall be furnished and

installed and fastened to the roof with galvanized-iron screws, bolts, or expansion

screws, as the case requires. When bolts are used, a lock nut shall be provided or the

end of the bolt upset to prevent loss of nut.

FROST PROOFING WATER SYSTEMS IN POULTRY HOUSES Poultry need a constant supply of drinking water for maximum egg production

and proper growth.

Maintaining a constant water supply during cold weather is often difficult.

Drinking vessels freeze; pipes may burst.

You can prevent the water in watering equipment from freezing by using

electric warmers1. You can protect the pipes in a water supply system with electric

heating cable. The cable may also be used to prevent the water in trough-type

waterers from freezing.

Two general types of electric water-warming units for poultry watering

equipment are available immersion and external. An immersion warmer heats the

135

water directly; the heating element is placed in the water. An external warmer heats

the container that holds the water.

Drinking fountains with built-in heating units are also available.

SELECTION

Water warmers have the wattage stamped on them. This rating indicates the

heating capacity. To obtain a warmer of the correct heating capacity, consider the size

of the watering equipment, and plan to maintain the water temperature at not less than

40° F.

Tests have shown that immersion warmers are more efficient than external

warmers. The heating capacity of an immersion warmer need not be as high as that of

an external warmer to heat a given quantity of water.

For example, to prevent the water in a 14-quart bucket from freezing at 0° F,

you need an immersion warmer rated at 50 watts or more. (An external heater of 75

watts or more would be needed.) To prevent the water in an 8-gallon fountain from

freezing at 0° F, you need an external warmer of 150-watt capacity.

Insulating the drinking vessel reduces the heating requirement 20 to 40 per

cent.

OPERATION Following are some general instructions for operating electric water warmers.

Install the convenient outlets for the warmers on a circuit separate from the

lamps in the poultry house. During cold weather you may need to use the warmers in

the daytime while the lamps are turned off. In mild weather the warmers will not be

needed.

Water warmers are designed to operate on a specific voltage. Connect them to

a power supply of the specified voltage. If the voltage is lower than that specified, the

warmer will put out less heat than the rated heating capacity. If the voltage is more

than that specified, the warmer will use more wattage.

Since the wattage rating is comparatively low it takes considerable time to heat

the water. Therefore, operate the warmers continuously during cold weather. It is

especially important to do this if the poultry house lights are turned on in the

morning. A thermostat can be installed to turn on or shut off the power as the water

becomes cold or warm. This reduces the cost of operation.

Electric Heating Cable Electric heating cable protects pipes

2 in a water supply system against freezing

even in the coldest weather. Its use save labor and may save expense. Pipes do not

have to be drained when the temperature drops3 to freezing. Water does not have to be

carried from other sources because of frozen pipes. There is no expense of replacing

frozen pipes. Most impotent, poultry have a constant supply of drinking.

Several types of electric heating cable are available. Heating capacity of the

cables ranges from 2.5 to 10 watts per foot. The type most frequently used has a

heating capacity of 5 watts per foot. Notes:

1electric warmer - электрообогрватель

136

2pipe - трубопровод

3temperature drop – падение напряжения

Институт инженерных систем, сервиса и энергетики

ВАРИАНТ №1

IGNITION SYSTEMS

There are two general types of ignition: the compression1, and the spark

2

methods.

Compression ignition. The compression type utilizes the heat of compressed

air to ignite the fuel as it is introduced to the combustion or precombustion chamber3.

The temperature of this air may be as high as 1000 F and sometimes may be higher.

If fuel was mixed with the air before compression, preignition would occur; that is,

the mixture would ignite before the piston was in the most favorable position to

receive the thrust of the expanding gases. This would not be desirable. Ignition is

timed in the compression-ignition engine by timing the injection of the fuel. In an

engine operating at a constant speed, the need for variance of the timing would not be

present. The truck diesel engine, which must operate under a large range of speed

conditions, must have a governor system which can control the injection4 starting

point and the injection period. In a cold engine, some trouble is usually experienced

in bringing the compression temperature up to the ignition temperature of the fuel. To

assist the process, glow plugs are sometimes used. These are operated electrically and

are turned off when fuel ignition begins.

Most diesel (compression-ignition) engines utilize heavy-duty electrical

starters, powered by 12 volts or more from storage batteries, or gasoline engines to

turn the CI engine over fast enough to bring the temperature up to the ignition point.

When the CI engine has reached temperatures that ignite the fuel, no further trouble is

experienced with ignition. There are no wires5, coils, and plugs to cause trouble.

Some diesel engines under light load or at idle may cool sufficiently to produce poor

ignition of the fuel. This condition is overcome as more fuel is burned under

operating conditions.

The other ignition system, the spark type, is the one which is more

complicated, and therefore it is the frequent cause of poor engine performance.

Spark Ignition. The purpose of the spark-ignition system is to deliver a

perfectly timed surge of electricity across a spark-plug gap in each cylinder at the

exact moment when explode the cylinder's charge of compressed gasoline and air

with maximum power efficiency. The distinguishing feature of the SI (spark-ignition)

engine is that there is a spark plug in the head. The plug projects into the combustion

chamber. In most modern SI engines the gap of the plug remains fixed while the

engine operates.

Considering the source of electric current, there are two of spark ignition.

They are the battery-ignition and the magneto-ignition types. With the battery,

current is produced by chemical reactions within the battery; with the magneto,

currents are induced or created by rapidly moving coils or magnets.

137

Battery-ignition Types. There are two types of battery ignition according to

the type of battery. At one time, dry-cell6 batteries, such as are used in flashlights

7

today, were used to furnish the electric power. Four of these batteries fastened

together in series would produce a force of 6 volts or more, until they began to

deteriorate8. Once deterioration set in, the batteries had to be discarded. Storage

batteries have almost entirely replaced the dry-cell batteries for ignition purposes.

The storage battery can readily be charged while the engine is operating by means of

an accessory called the generator.

Trends9. Magnetos are used on small one-cylinder engines powering

motorboats and lawn mowers and on airplane engines and farm tractors. The above

vehicles have little need for lights and therefore do not need a battery, and so

magnetos have been retained. But as farm tractors have been designed to use battery

conveniences, such as lights and starters, there has been a trend to use the same

battery for ignition purposes. Also, there has been some trend away from magneto

ignition because of the initial high cost and because of the difficulty in finding

mechanics capable of servicing magnetos. As most automobile mechanics are

familiar with battery-ignition systems found on trucks and cars, better service can be

obtained with the battery system. The magneto and battery systems are almost

identical in theory and operation. The main difference lies in the production of the

current. The battery produces current and voltage by chemical action. The magneto

produces current and voltage in one of two ways: either a coil rotates within a

magnet, or a magnet rotates near a coil.

SPARK PLUG10

A spark plug (also, very rarely nowadays, in British English: a sparking plug)

is an electrical device that fits into the cylinder head of some internal combustion

engines and ignites compressed fuels such as aerosol gasoline, ethanol, and liquefied

petroleum gas by means of an electric spark.

Spark plugs have an insulated11

central electrode which is connected by a

heavily insulated wire to an ignition coil or magneto12 circuit on the outside, forming,

with a grounded terminal on the base of the plug, a spark gap inside the cylinder.

Early patents for spark plugs included those by Nikola Tesla. Some historians

have reported that Edmond Berger invented an early spark plug on February 2, 1839.

Karl Benz is also credited with the invention. But only the invention of the first

commercially viable high-voltage spark plug as part of a magneto-based ignition

system by Robert Bosch's engineer Gottlob Honold in 1902 made possible the

development of the internal combustion engine.

Reciprocating internal combustion engines can be divided into spark-ignition

engines, which require spark plugs to initiate combustion, and compression-ignition

engines (diesel engines), which compress the air and then inject diesel fuel into the

heated compressed air mixture where it autoignites. Compression-ignition engines

may use glow plugs to improve cold start characteristics.

Spark plugs may also be used in other applications such as furnaces where a

combustible mixture should be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as

flame igniters.

138

Notes: 1 compression – воспламенение от сжатия

2 spark – воспламенение от искры или принудительного зажигания

3 precombustion chamber – пусковая камера

4 injection – впрыск, впрыскивание

5 wire – проволока, провод

6 dry-cell – сухой элемент

7 flashlight – ручной электрический фонарик

8 deteriorate – ухудшаться; портиться; изнашиваться

9 trend – общее направление, тенденция

10 spark plug – запальная свеча, свеча зажигания

11 insulated - изолированный

12 magneto – магнето, индуктор

Вариант №2

NOMENCLATURE OF ENGINE PARTS

While different types and makes of engines vary as to size, horsepower

developed, and design, they are all alike in that they have certain parts that perform

similar functions. The various parts of the engine and their functions are as follows:

Cylinder Block1. The cylinder block, together with the crankcase, forms the

main body of the engine. On automotive engines the two are usually cast together

forming a single casting. Some engines have separate cylinder block and crankcase

castings bolted together to give a rigid form of construction. Individually mounted

cylinders are employed on some types of engines. The cylinder block provides the

smooth cylindrical bores which guide the pistons. The number of cylinders in an

engine varies according to the engine size and design. The crankcase supports the

crankshaft and camshaft by means of bearings, as well as numerous other engine

parts. An oil pan bolted to the bottom of the crankcase provides a tight enclosure for,

the crankshaft and a reservoir for a supply of lubricating oil.

Cylinder Head2. The cylinder head is usually a one-piece gray iron or

aluminium casting that is bolted to the top of the cylinder block. The cylinders,

together with the cylinder head, form the combustion chambers3 in which the burning

and expansion of gases takes place. A gasket between the cylinder block and cylinder

head maintains a pressure-tight joint.

Pistons4. Pistons receive the energy or force resulting from the combustion of

fuel within the cylinders. As the pistons move downward, they transmit this energy

through a connecting rod to the crankshaft.

Piston Rings5. Piston rings are used to maintain a pressure-tight seal between

the moving piston and the cylinder wall. Piston rings also provide a means of

conducting heat away from the head of the piston, and they are designed to prevent

oil from entering the combustion chamber. They generally are made of cast gray iron,

although steel is sometimes used. Most piston rings are classified as either

―compression‖ or ―oil-control‖ rings. The number and type of piston rings used is

determined by the requirements of a particular engine.

139

Piston Pins6. A piston pin, sometimes called the wrist pin, connects the piston

to the upper end of a connecting rod. The piston pin is fitted into accurately bored

holes located in the piston bosses. The upper end of the connecting rod rides on the

central portion of the pin between the two piston bosses. The piston pin rides on

bearing surfaces located either in the piston bosses, the connecting rod, or both.

Several types of retaining devices are employed to prevent endwise movement of the

piston pin.

Connecting Rod7. A connecting rod, attached to the piston by means of the

piston pin, converts the reciprocating (up and down) motion of the piston to a rotary

motion of the crankshaft. Connecting rods are usually drop-forged8 from alloy steels

and are made with an I-beam9 cross section. The upper or small end of the connecting

rod usually contains a bushing or clamp or the piston pin. The lower end of the

connecting rod is split to permit assembly to the crankshaft and contains a journal

bearing.

Crankshaft10

. The crankshaft transforms the power it receives from the

pistons and connecting rods into a rotary motion, returning the piston to the top of the

cylinder. The crankshaft is provided with journals which rotate in bearings located in

the engine crankcase. The crankshaft has one or more crank arms along its length, the

number depending upon the design of the engine and the number of cylinders. The

journals, between the crank arms provide bearing surfaces for the large, split end of

the connecting rod. Crankshafts are either forged or cast from alloy steels and often

have counterbalances located opposite the crank arms to assist in reducing main-

bearing loads and to improve engine smoothness. A flywheel bolted to a flange on the

crankshaft serves to smooth out the flow of power from the engine.

Engine bearings11

. The rotating parts of an engine generally are supported in

plain bearings, the journals turning within a bearing of antifriction metal. The

antifriction metal employed in engine bearings is an alloy such as babbitt12

, copper-

lead, cadmium-silver, and others. Bearing metals are selected for their low coefficient

of friction and their ability to withstand heavy bearing loads, high surface speeds, and

high temperatures without seizure and excessive wear of the crankshaft. Engine

bearings are either replaceable or cast directly in the crankcase or connecting rods.

Replaceable bearings usually are composed of thin steel shells lined with a thin layer

of bearing metal. To provide ease in assembly and replacement, the main and

connecting rod bearings are usually the ―split‖ or two-piece type. On some types of

engines, ball or roller bearings are employed for main and connecting rod bearings.

Valves13

. In most engines, intake and exhaust valves of the poppet type are

employed to open and close openings or ports through which the gases enter and

leave the cylinders. Each cylinder in the four-stroke-cycle engine has at least one

intake and one exhaust valve. The valves are located either in the cylinder block or in

the cylinder head and are supported in valve guides. A camshaft opens each valve at

the proper time and a valve spring closes the valve.

In two-stroke-cycle gasoline engines, the fuel mixture is admitted and the

exhaust gases expelled through ports in each side of -the cylinder, the ports being

opened and closed by the action of the piston. Two-stroke-cycle diesel engines

140

generally have one port opening in the cylinder and one cam-actuated poppet valve

through which the air is admitted into the cylinder and the exhaust gases expelled.

Camshaft14

. A camshaft opens the valves against the tension of the valve

springs at the proper time and holds them open for the required interval. A separate

cam is provided on the camshaft for the operation of each valve. Some opposed

engines have each intake cam operate two intake valves. The camshaft is driven from

the crankshaft through timing gears, or a timing chain and sprockets.

In four stroke-cycle engines, the camshaft revolves at one-half crankshaft

speed, and each valve opens and closes once every two, revolutions of the crankshaft.

In a two-stroke-cycle diesel engine, the camshaft revolves at crankshaft speed, and

each valve opens and closes with each revolution of the crankshaft,

Valve Lifters15

. Valve lifters or tappets are employed between the camshaft

and the valve stem to open the valves. Valve stems expand when they become heated;

and in most, engines a definite clearance must be provided between the valve stem

and the valve lifter. In some engines, valve lifters are provided with adjusting screws

to regulate the clearance. Some engines are equipped with self-adjusting hydraulic,

valve lifters which operate with no clearance between the valve stem and valve lifter.

Manifolds16

. Manifolds are employed to conduct the gases into and out of the

cylinders. An intake manifold is connected between the carburetor and the intake

valve ports leading into the cylinders. The exhaust manifold connects the exhaust

ports to the exhaust system. The intake and exhaust manifolds may be separate

castings bolted together, or both may be cast together. Exhaust gas usually is utilized

to heat the intake manifold, thus assisting in vaporizing the incoming fuel charge.

In diesel engines, the intake manifold conducts air to the cylinders, the fuel oil

being sprayed directly into the cylinder at the proper time by a fuel injector. Two-

stroke-cycle gasoline engines have no intake manifold. The crankcase is utilized as a

receiver for the fuel mixture.

Notes: 1 cylinder block – бок цилиндров

2 cylinder head – крышка цилиндра

3 combustion chamber – камера сгорания

4 piston – поршень

5 piston ring – поршневое кольцо

6 piston pin – поршневой палец

7 connecting rod – шатун, соединительная тяга

8 drop-forge – штамповать

9 I-beam – двутавровое железо, профиль, балка

10 crankshaft – коленчатый вал

11 bearing – подшипник

12 babbitt – баббит (сплав на основе олова или свинца) 13

valve – клапан 14

camshaft – кулачковый (распределительный) вал 15

valve lifter – толкатель клапана 16

manifold – патрубок, труба, трубопровод

141

ВАРИАНТ №3

TRANSPORT FOR TOMORROW

One thing is certain about the public transport of the future: it must be more

efficient than it is today. The time is coming when it will be quicker to fly across the

Atlantic to New York than to travel from home to office. The two main problems are:

what vehicle shall we use and how can we plan our use of it?

There are already some modern vehicles which are not yet in common use,

but which may become a usual means of transport in the future. One of these is the

small electric car: we go out into the street, find an empty car, get into it, drive to our

destination, get out and leave the car for the next person who comes along. In fact,

there may be no need to drive these cars. With an automatic guidance system for cars

being developed, it will be possible for us to select our destination just as today we

select a telephone number, and our car will move automatically to the address we

want.

For long journeys in private cars one can also use an automatic guidance

system. Arriving at the motorway, a driver will select the lane1 he wishes to use,

switch over to automatic driving, and then relax — dream, read a newspaper, have a

meal, flirt with his passenger — while the car does the work for him. Unbelievable?

It is already possible. Just as in many ships and aircraft today we are piloted

automatically for the greater part of the journey, so in the future we can also have this

luxury in our own cars.

A decade ago, the only thing electronic on most automobiles was the radio.

But at present sophisticated electronics is playing a big part in current automotive

research. For example, in every gasoline-powered2car that General Motors

Corporation makes there is a small computer continuously monitoring the exhaust.

The device, about the size of a pack of cigarettes, adjusts the vehicle carburetor fuel

intake3 to get the best fuel economy. Ford cars are equipped with an electronic

instrument panel that, among other things4, will calculate how far one can drive on

the fuel left in the tank. It will also estimate the time of arrival at destination and tell

the driver what speed he has averaged5 since turning on the ignition.

According to specialists these features made possible by microelectronics are

only the beginning. Radar may control the brakes to avoid collisions, and a display

screen may show the car's position on the road. Recently a radar to be mounted on

lorries and cars has been designed in the USA. The radar aerial looks like a third

headlight placed directly above the bumper. Having summed up the information

about the speed and distance of various objects ahead, the computer detects all

possible dangers and their nature. A third component in the system is a monitor on

the instrument panel. The radar only observes objects ahead of the vehicle. It is

automatically turned on when the speed exceeds ten miles an hour. The green light on

the panel indicates that the system is on. The yellow light warns of stationary objects

ahead, or something moving slower than the car. The red light and buzzer warn that

the speed should go down. Another red light and sound signal make the driver apply

the brakes.

142

A Japanese company is designing a car of a new generation. When completed,

the new model will have a lot of unusual characteristics. The car's four-wheel control

system will ensure movement diagonally and even sideways, like a crab, at right

angles to the longitudinal axis. This is especially important when leaving the car in

parking places. To help the driver get information while concentrating on the road,

the most important data will be projected on the wind screen. A tourist travelling in

such a car will not lose his way even in Sahara with its impassable roads: a

navigation Earth satellite will indicate the route.

A new ceramic engine has been developed in Japan. Many important parts as

pistons, pressure rings6, valves and some others have been made of various ceramic

materials, piston rings7 made of silicon materials being in many respects better than

those of steel. They withstand temperatures up to 1,000 °C. Therefore, the engine

does not need a cooling system.

THE RUNNING GEAR

The running gear8 of the car includes the wheel-suspension system, the

stabilizers, and the wheels and tyres. The frame of the car may be considered the

integrating member of the running gear. It is attached to the rear axle and to the front

wheels by springs. These springs, along with the axles, the control and support arms,

and the shock absorbers, constitute the wheel-suspension system. In modern cars the

front wheels are independently suspended from the frame in a manner that permits

either wheel to change its plane without appreciably affecting the other. This type of

front-wheel suspension is known popularly as independent suspension9. The

stabilizers consist of spring-steel bars, connected between the shock-absorber arms by

levers, to decrease body roll and improve steerability.

THE CONTROL SYSTEM

Steering10

is controlled by a hand wheel, mounted on an inclined column and

attached to a steering tube inside the column. The other end of the tube is connected

to the steering gear, which is designed to provide maximum ease of operation. Power

steering, adapted for passenger cars in the early 1950s, is generally a hydraulic

mechanism used as a booster to reduce the effort of steering.

A car has two sets of brakes: the hand or emergency brake and the foot brake.

The emergency brake generally operates on the rear wheels only. The foot brake in

modern cars is always of the four-wheel type, operating on all wheels. Hydraulic

brakes on cars and hydraulic vacuum, air, or power brakes on lorries apply the brak-

ing force to the wheels with much less force on the brake pedal than is required with

ordinary mechanical brakes. The wheel brakes are generally of the internally expand-

ing type, in which a convex strip of material is forced against a concave steel brake

drum.

Notes: 1

lane – ряд 2 gasoline-powered – с бензиновым двигателем

3 fuel intake – впрыск топлива

143

4 among other things – кроме всего прочего

5 what speed he has averaged – какова была его средняя скорость

6 pressure ring – уплотнительное кольцо

7 piston ring – поршневое кольцо

8 running gear – передаточный механизм (двигателя)

9 independent suspension – независимая подвеска

10 steering – рулевое управление

ВАРИАНТ №4

CONSTRUCTION OF AN AUTOMOBILE

The primary components of a car are the power plant, the power

transmission, the running gear, and the control system. These constitute the chassis,

on which the body is mounted.

The power plant includes the engine and its fuel, the carburettor, ignition,

lubrication, and cooling systems, and the starter motor.

The Engine1. The greatest number of cars use piston engines. The four-cycle

piston engine requires four strokes of the piston per cycle. The first downstroke

draws in the petrol mixture. The first upstroke compresses it. The second downstroke

- the power stroke - following the combustion of the fuel, supplies the power, and the

second upstroke evacuates the burned gases. Intake and exhaust valves in the cylinder

control the intake of fuel and the release of burned gases. At the end of the power

stroke the pressure of the burned gases in the cylinder is 2.8 to 3.5 kg/sq cm. These

gases escape with the sudden opening of the exhaust valve. They rush to a silencer

(muffler), an enlarged section of piping containing expanding ducts and perforated

plates through which the gases expand and are released into the atmosphere.

Greater smoothness of operation of the four-cycle engine were provided by

the development of the four-cylinder engine, which supplies power from one or

another of the cylinders on each stroke of the cycle. A further increase in power and

smoothness is obtained in engines of 6,8,12, and 16 cylinders, which are arranged in

either a straight line or two banks assembled in the form of a V.

Carburation2. Air is mixed with the vapour of the petrol in the carburettor.

To prevent the air and the carburettor from becoming too cold for successful

evaporation of the fuel, the air for the carburettor is usually taken from a point close

to a heated part of the engine. Modern carburettors are fitted with a so-called float-

feed chamber and a mixing or spraying chamber. The first is a small chamber in

which a small supply of petrol is maintained at a constant level. The petrol is pumped

from the main tank to this chamber, the float rising as the petrol flows in until the

desired level is reached, when the inlet closes. The carburettor is equipped with such

devices as accelerating pumps and economizer valves, which automatically control

the mixture ratio for efficient operation under varying conditions. Level-road driving

at constant speed requires a lower ratio of petrol to air than that needed for climbing

hills, for acceleration, or for starting the engine in cold weather. When a mixture ex-

tremely rich in petrol is necessary, a valve known as the choke cuts down the air

intake, permitting large quantities of unvaporized fuel to enter the cylinder.

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Ignition3. The mixture of air and petrol vapour delivered to the cylinder from

the carburettor is compressed by the first upstroke of the piston. This heats the gas,

and the higher temperature and pressure facilitate ignition and quick combustion. The

next operation is that of igniting the charge by a spark plug. One electrode is

insulated by porcelain or mica; the other is grounded through the metal of the plug,

and both form part of the secondary circuit of an induction system.

The principal type of ignition now commonly used is the battery-and-coil

system. The current from the battery flows through the coil and magnetizes the iron

core. When this circuit is interrupted at the distributor points by the interrupter cam, a

current is produced in the primary coil with the assistance of the condenser. This in-

duces a high-voltage current in the secondary winding. This secondary high voltage is

needed to cause the spark to jump the gap in the spark plug. The spark is directed to

the proper cylinder by the distributor, which connects the secondary coil to the spark

plugs in the several cylinders in their proper firing sequence. The interrupter cam and

distributor are driven from the same shaft, the number of breaking points on the

interrupter cam being the same as the number of cylinders.

The electrical equipment controls the starting of the engine, its

ignition system, and the lighting of the car. It consists of the battery, a

generator for charging it when the engine is running, a starter and the

necessary wiring. Electricity also operates various automatic devices and

accessories, including windscreen wipers, directional signals, heating and

air conditioning, cigarette lighters, powered windows and audio equipment.

Lubrication4. In the force-feed system, a pump forces the oil to the main

crankshaft bearings and then through drilled holes in the crankpins. In the full-force

system, oil is also forced to the connecting rod and then out to the walls of the

cylinder at the piston pin.

Cooling5. At the moment of explosion, the temperature within the cylinder is

much higher than the melting point of cast iron. Since the explosions take place as

often as 2,000 times per minute in each cylinder, the cylinder would soon become so

hot that the piston, through expansion, would «freeze» in the cylinder. The cylinders

are therefore provided with jackets, through which water is rapidly circulated by a

small pump driven by a gear on the crankshaft or camshaft. During cold weather, the

water is generally mixed with a suitable antifreeze, such as alcohol, wood alcohol, or

ethylene glycol.

To keep the water from boiling away, a radiator forms part of the engine-

cooling system. Radiators vary in shape and style. They all have the same function,

however, of allowing the water to pass through tubing with a large area, the outer

surface of which can be cooled by the atmosphere. In air cooling of engine cylinders,

various means are used to give the heat an outlet and carry it off by a forced draught

of air.

The Power Transmission6. The engine power is delivered first to the

flywheel and then to the clutch. From the clutch, which is the means of coupling the

engine with the power-transmission units, the power flows through the transmission

and is delivered into the rear-axle drive gears, or differential, by means of the drive

145

shaft and universal joints. The differential delivers the power to each of the rear

wheels through the rear-axle drive shafts.

Notes: 1 the Engine – двигатель, мотор

2carburetion - карбюрация, насыщение парами бензина, смесеобразование

3 ignition – зажигание, воспламенение

4 lubrication – смазка, смазывание, подача смазки

5 cooling - охлаждение

6 the Power Transmission - передача

ВАРИАНТ №5

AUTOMATION IN INDUSTRY.

FIXED AND PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION

Automated production lines. An automated production line consists of a

series of workstations connected by a transfer system to move parts between the

stations. This is an example of fixed automation, since these lines are set up for long

production runs, making large number of product units and running for several years

between changeovers. Each station is designed to perform a specific processing op-

eration, so that the part or product is constructed stepwise as it progresses along the

line. A raw work part enters at one end of the line, proceeds through each workstation

and appears at the other end as a completed product. In the normal operation of the

line, there is a work part being processed at each station, so that many parts are being

processed simultaneously and a finished part is produced with each cycle of the line.

The various operations, part transfers, and other activities taking place on an

automated transfer line must all be sequenced and coordinated properly for the line to

operate efficiently.

Modern automated lines are controlled by programmable logic controllers,

which are special computers that can perform timing and sequencing1 functions

required to operate such equipment. Automated production lines are utilized in many

industries, mostly automobile, where they are used for processes such as machining

and pressworking2.

Machining is a manufacturing process in which metal is removed by a cutting

or shaping tool, so that the remaining work part is the desired shape. Machinery and

motor components are usually made by this process. In many cases, multiple

operations are required to completely shape the part. If the part is mass-produced, an

automated transfer line is often the most economical method of production. Many

separate operations are divided among the workstations.

Pressworking operations involve the cutting and forming of parts from sheet

metal. Examples of such parts include automobile body panels, outer shells of

laundry machines and metal furniture More than one processing step is often required

to complete a complicated part. Several presses are connected together in sequence

by handling mechanisms that transfer the partially completed parts from one press to

the next, thus creating an automated pressworking line.

146

Numerical control3. Numerical control is a form of programmable auto-

mation in which a machine is controlled by numbers (and other symbols) that have

been coded on punched paper tape or an alternative storage medium. The initial

application of numerical control was in the machine tool industry, to control the

position of a cutting tool relative to the work part being machined. The NC part

program represents the set of machining instructions for the particular part. The

coded numbers in the program specify x-y-z coordinates in a Cartesian4 axis system,

defining the various positions of the cutting tool in relation to the work part. By

sequencing these positions in the program, the machine tool is directed to accomplish

the machining of the part. A position feedback control system is used in most NC

machines to verify that the coded instructions have been correctly performed. Today

a small computer is used as the controller in an NC machine tool. Since this form of

numerical control is implemented by computer, it is called computer numerical

control, or CNC. Another variation in the implementation of numerical control

involves sending part programs over telecommunications lines from a central

computer to individual machine tools in the factory. This form of numerical control is

called direct numerical control, or DNC.

Many applications of numerical control have been developed since its initial

use to control machine tools. Other machines using numerical control include compo-

nent-insertion machines used in electronics assembly, drafting machines that prepare

engineering drawings, coordinate measuring machines that perform accurate

inspections of parts. In these applications coded numerical data are employed to

control the position of a tool or workhead relative to some object. Such machines are

used to position electronic components (e.g., semiconductor chip modules) onto a

printed circuit board (PCB). It is basically an x-y positioning table that moves the

printed circuit board relative to the part-insertion head, which then places the

individual component into position on the board. A typical printed circuit board has

dozens of individual components that must be placed on its surface; in many cases,

the lead wires of the components must be inserted into small holes in the board,

requiring great precision by the insertion machine. The program that controls the

machine indicates which components are to be placed on the board and their

locations. This information is contained in the product-design database and is

typically communicated directly from the computer to the insertion machine.

Automated assembly5. Assembly operations have traditionally been per-

formed manually, either at single assembly workstations or on assembly lines with

multiple stations. Owing to the high labour content and high cost of manual labour,

greater attention has been given in recent years to the use of automation for assembly

work. Assembly operations can be automated using production line principles if the

quantities are large, the product is small, and the design is simple (e.g., mechanical

pencils, pens, and cigarette lighters). For products that do not satisfy these conditions,

manual assembly is generally required.

Automated assembly machines have been developed that operate in a manner

similar to machining transfer lines, with the difference being that assembly

operations, instead of machining, are performed at the workstations. A typical

assembly machine consists of several stations, each equipped with a supply of

147

components and a mechanism for delivering the components into position for as-

sembly. A workhead at each station performs the actual attachment of the component.

Typical workheads include automatic screwdrivers, welding heads and other joining

devices. A new component is added to the partially completed product at each

workstation, thus building up the product gradually as it proceeds through the line.

Assembly machines of this type are considered to be examples of fixed automation,

because they are generally configured for a particular product made in high volume.

Programmable assembly machines are represented by the component-insertion

machines employed in the electronics industry.

Notes:

1 sequencing – упорядоченный, последовательный

2 pressworking – прессование

3 Numerical control – цифровой контроль (abbr. NC)

4 Cartesian декартов; декартовский, Cartesian coordinate system – прямоугольная

система координат 5 Automated assembly – автоматическая сборка

148

Список использованной литературы:

(на русском языке)

А. Е. Агабекян. Английский для технических вузов. Ростов-на-Дону, 2008.

Ю. В. Бжиская. Английский для строительных специальностей. Ростов-на-

Дону, 2007.

Л.А. Воронцова, А.П. Грызулина. Сборник контрольных работ и

контрольно-тренировочных упражнений по английскому языку: Пособие для

студентов-заочников 1-11 курсов неяз. фак. пед. ин-тов, М., Просвещение, 1984

Е. Н. Комарова. Английский для специальностей «зоотехния» и

«ветеринария». М., 2008.

И. П. Куклина. Пособие по английскому языку для средних специальных

технических заведений. СПб, Каро, 2000.

И. З. Новоселова, Н. С. Резник, Ю. М. Жилинский. Применение

электричесива в сельском хозяйстве. М., Высшая школа, 1963.

И. В. Орловская, Л. С. Самсонова Учебник английского языка для

технических университетов. М, 2009.

В. М. Павлоцкий. American Studies. Знакомимся с Америкой. СПб, Оракул,

1997.

О. А. Письменная. Английский для международного туризма, М, Айрис

Пресс, 2006.

Т. Ю. Полякова. Английский для инженеров. М. 1998.

А. С. Чеслова, Г. М. Татарчук. Пособие по подготовке к выпускным и

вступительным экзаменам по английскому языку. М., Ростов-на-Дону, 2004

В. А. Шляхова, Т. Д. Любимцева. Английский для технических

специальностей. М., Высшая школа, 2000.

(на английском языке)

Archie A. Stone, Harold E. Gulvin. Machines for power farming. New – York.

1957.

Saarniit M. English reading for students of farm mechanization. Tartu. 1961.

Culpin C. Farm machinery. London. 1969.

Научные журналы:

Better crops with Plant Food

Bioscience

Biotechnology and Biochemistry

Journal of Agricultural Science

Japanese Journal of Crop Science

Ecological Research

Справочные издания:

Encyclopedia Britannica 2009

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org

149

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