社會知覺與認知社會知覺與認知

Social Social PerceptionPerception

And CognitionAnd Cognition

假裝是精神病患的實驗假裝是精神病患的實驗（（ Rosenhan, 1973Rosenhan, 1973 ））

假裝成精神分裂症（假裝成精神分裂症（ schizophreniaschizophrenia ）患者）患者向醫生報告個人背景、生活經驗、和心理狀況，向醫生報告個人背景、生活經驗、和心理狀況，

只報告了假名和假裝有幻聽的問題只報告了假名和假裝有幻聽的問題在就診時表現正常，即並無幻聽在就診時表現正常，即並無幻聽醫師診斷這些假病人是精神分裂症患者醫師診斷這些假病人是精神分裂症患者這是醫師的社會知覺這是醫師的社會知覺

社會知覺的定義社會知覺的定義經由感覺收集到的資料去建構了解社會世經由感覺收集到的資料去建構了解社會世

界界Refers to constructing an understanding Refers to constructing an understanding

of the social world from the data we get tof the social world from the data we get through our senseshrough our senses

人們對其他人的特質和性格形成印象的過人們對其他人的特質和性格形成印象的過程程Refers to the processes by which we form Refers to the processes by which we form

impressions of other people’s traits and impressions of other people’s traits and personalitiespersonalities

形成印象形成印象推敲原因，歸因（推敲原因，歸因（ attributionattribution ））預期也影響印象形成預期也影響印象形成以正確的社會知覺進行社會互動以正確的社會知覺進行社會互動社會知覺和歸因可能是錯的社會知覺和歸因可能是錯的

黑人黑人 DialloDiallo 的故事（紐約夜快的故事（紐約夜快車）車）

基模（基模（ SchemasSchemas ））歸類（歸類（ categorizationcategorization ））

To perceive stimuli as members of groups To perceive stimuli as members of groups or classes rather than as isolated,unique eor classes rather than as isolated,unique entitiesntities

Compare to the prototype of the categoryCompare to the prototype of the category基模（基模（ schemaschema ））

A well-organized structure of cognitions abA well-organized structure of cognitions about some social entity such as a person, grout some social entity such as a person, group, role, or eventoup, role, or event

Schema usually include information about Schema usually include information about an entity’s attributes and about its relatian entity’s attributes and about its relations with other entitiesons with other entities

總統總統 陳水扁、李登輝、蔣經國…陳水扁、李登輝、蔣經國…教授教授你自己你自己Schema enable us to organize and reSchema enable us to organize and re

member facts, to make inferences thamember facts, to make inferences that go beyond the facts immediately avat go beyond the facts immediately available, and to assess new informationilable, and to assess new information

Types of schemasTypes of schemas

基模的種類基模的種類個人的基模個人的基模

對特定的個人對特定的個人對人的類型對人的類型

自我基模：組織個人特質的結構自我基模：組織個人特質的結構團體基模：將人視為團體或某一類人的一個成團體基模：將人視為團體或某一類人的一個成

員，也就是所謂的刻板印象（員，也就是所謂的刻板印象（ stereotypestereotype ））角色基模角色基模事件基模：有關重要的社會事件的基模，腳本事件基模：有關重要的社會事件的基模，腳本

基模運作過程基模運作過程（（ Schematic ProcessingSchematic Processing ））

助成正確判斷，但也會釀成誤判（助成正確判斷，但也會釀成誤判（ DiallDialloo ））

不能沒有基模不能沒有基模影響人們記憶的能力（影響人們記憶的能力（ capacitycapacity ），使得我），使得我

們對某些事實比較突顯而容易記得們對某些事實比較突顯而容易記得幫助我們快速處理資訊幫助我們快速處理資訊導引我們對人和事物的推論和判斷導引我們對人和事物的推論和判斷提供我們對情境中模糊狀態的解釋，而減低模提供我們對情境中模糊狀態的解釋，而減低模

糊糊

基模幫助我們組織記憶中的資訊，因基模幫助我們組織記憶中的資訊，因此會影響我們的記憶此會影響我們的記憶

職業角色：圖書館員與女侍，受試者職業角色：圖書館員與女侍，受試者記得與角色基模相符的特徵記得與角色基模相符的特徵

資料與基模的關係資料與基模的關係與基模相符與基模相符與基模矛盾與基模矛盾與基模無關與基模無關

Memory is largely reconstructiveMemory is largely reconstructiveWe do not usually remember all the We do not usually remember all the

precise detailsprecise detailsWe typically remember some of We typically remember some of

what happened—enough to identify what happened—enough to identify the appropriate schema—and rely the appropriate schema—and rely on that schema to fill in other on that schema to fill in other detailsdetails

Schemas organize information in Schemas organize information in memory and, therefore, affect what memory and, therefore, affect what we remember and what we forget.we remember and what we forget.

When trying to recall something, When trying to recall something, people often remember better people often remember better those facts that are consistent those facts that are consistent with their schemas.with their schemas.Librarian vs. waitressLibrarian vs. waitress

Schematic inferenceSchematic inference

Schemas affect the inferences we make Schemas affect the inferences we make about persons and other social entities.about persons and other social entities.

That is, they supply missing facts when That is, they supply missing facts when gaps exist in our knowledge. If we knogaps exist in our knowledge. If we know certain facts about a person but are iw certain facts about a person but are ignorant about others, we fill in the gapgnorant about others, we fill in the gaps by inserting suppositions consistent s by inserting suppositions consistent with our schema for that person.with our schema for that person.

If the schema is incomplete or does not If the schema is incomplete or does not correctly mirror reality, some mistakes correctly mirror reality, some mistakes are likely. (Diallo)are likely. (Diallo)

Schematic judgmentSchematic judgment

Schemas can influence our judgment of Schemas can influence our judgment of feelings about persons and other feelings about persons and other entities.entities.

Complexity-extremity effectComplexity-extremity effect Greater schematic complexity leads to less Greater schematic complexity leads to less

extreme judgmentextreme judgment

academic recordacademic record

strongstrong weakweak

ApplicantApplicant whitewhite

blackblack ++ ++ -- --

Schema for in-group was more complexSchema for in-group was more complex

Drawbacks of Drawbacks of schematic processingschematic processing

1. accepting of information that 1. accepting of information that fits consistently with a schema. –fits consistently with a schema. –confirmatory biasconfirmatory bias

2. fill in gaps in knowledge by 2. fill in gaps in knowledge by adding elements that are adding elements that are consistent with their schemas.—consistent with their schemas.—erroneous of factually incorrecterroneous of factually incorrect

3.Forced misapplication of a 3.Forced misapplication of a schemaschema

Schemas as cultural Schemas as cultural elementselements

Schemas are socially shared patterns of Schemas are socially shared patterns of thought that can be communicated thought that can be communicated intact from one person to another. intact from one person to another. Shared by the members of a groupShared by the members of a group

Holding specific schemas may be a Holding specific schemas may be a characteristic of group membership.characteristic of group membership.

Groups differ in the schemas used by Groups differ in the schemas used by their members.their members.

If the schemas used by one group differ If the schemas used by one group differ materially from the schemas used by materially from the schemas used by another, the two groups may have another, the two groups may have difficulty finding common ground.difficulty finding common ground. conflict, inhibit alliancesconflict, inhibit alliances Majority vote vs. consensus against Majority vote vs. consensus against

coalitioncoalition

Person schemasPerson schemasSome person schemas are very Some person schemas are very

specific and pertain to particular specific and pertain to particular people.people.

Other person schemas are very Other person schemas are very abstract and focus on the relations abstract and focus on the relations among personality traits.among personality traits.

Implicit personality theoryImplicit personality theoryA set of unstated assumptions about A set of unstated assumptions about

which personality traits are correlated which personality traits are correlated with on another.with on another.

2 dimensions and 5 dimensions2 dimensions and 5 dimensionsIntellectual, socialIntellectual, socialOpenness, conscientiousness ;Neuroticism, Openness, conscientiousness ;Neuroticism,

extroversion, agreeablenessextroversion, agreeableness

Bad social

Good social

Good intellectual

Bad intellectual

不幽默悲觀

不受歡迎

冷漠

快樂幽默好脾氣 受歡迎

果決勤勞有創意

科學的

愚笨

輕浮浪費邋遢

Origins of person schemasOrigins of person schemas

Distilled wisdom of our Distilled wisdom of our socializing agentssocializing agents

The very meanings of words in The very meanings of words in our languageour language

People we know actually do People we know actually do possess sets of personality possess sets of personality characteristics that occur characteristics that occur together.together.

Group stereotypeGroup stereotype

An unfortunate reality in our society An unfortunate reality in our society is that we have all heard remarks is that we have all heard remarks like these—categorical, extreme, like these—categorical, extreme, inaccurate characterization.inaccurate characterization.

A stereotype is a set of A stereotype is a set of characteristics attributed to all characteristics attributed to all members of some specific group or members of some specific group or social category.social category.By helping us to quickly place people By helping us to quickly place people

into categories, stereotypes let us form into categories, stereotypes let us form impressions of people and predict their impressions of people and predict their behavior with only minimal information.behavior with only minimal information.

Although stereotypes are Although stereotypes are overgeneralizations, we still constantly overgeneralizations, we still constantly use them as we go through our use them as we go through our everyday lives.everyday lives.

Many people are unaware of the impact Many people are unaware of the impact of stereotypic beliefs on their judgment of stereotypic beliefs on their judgment of others.of others.

Although there is nothing inherent in Although there is nothing inherent in stereotypes that requires them to be stereotypes that requires them to be negative, many stereotypes do contain negative, many stereotypes do contain negative elements.negative elements.

Stereotypes can have many negative Stereotypes can have many negative effects, especially when they are used effects, especially when they are used to limit access to important social roles.to limit access to important social roles.

Stereotype threatStereotype threatWhen a member of a group When a member of a group believes that there is a real believes that there is a real threat of being judged threat of being judged based on the stereotypes based on the stereotypes associated with his or her associated with his or her group, the result can be group, the result can be poorer performance.poorer performance.

Steele and Aronson’s experiment:Steele and Aronson’s experiment:--the difficulty of the test provided a ste--the difficulty of the test provided a stereotype threat for black students becaureotype threat for black students because poor performance would confirm a stse poor performance would confirm a stereotype that they are not as able as whereotype that they are not as able as white students.ite students.even though the white and black studeeven though the white and black students were matched on ability, the black snts were matched on ability, the black students scored much lower than the whtudents scored much lower than the white studentsite students**solve problem, not measure ability**solve problem, not measure ability**took the exam on a computer**took the exam on a computer**standards rather than stereotypes**standards rather than stereotypes

Origins of stereotypesOrigins of stereotypes

Direct experienceDirect experienceA biased distribution of group membeA biased distribution of group membe

rs into social rolesrs into social rolesA natural outcome of social perceptioA natural outcome of social perceptio

nn

ErrorsErrors．．．．．．

態度態度 AttitudesAttitudes

DefinitionDefinition

A predisposition to respond to a particA predisposition to respond to a particular object in a generally favorable or ular object in a generally favorable or unfavorable wayunfavorable way

A person’s attitudes influence the waA person’s attitudes influence the way in which he or she perceives and resy in which he or she perceives and responds to the world. (Allport, 1935; Thponds to the world. (Allport, 1935; Thomas and Znaniecki, 1918)omas and Znaniecki, 1918)

The components of an The components of an attitudeattitude

Cognition (knowledge)Cognition (knowledge)A set of cognitions or knowledge A set of cognitions or knowledge

structure associated with that labelstructure associated with that labelEvaluation (affection)Evaluation (affection)

Directions, IntensityDirections, IntensityBehavioral predisposition (practice)Behavioral predisposition (practice)

Consistency—Stability--PersuasionConsistency—Stability--Persuasion

Why the study of attitude Why the study of attitude occupies a central place in occupies a central place in

social psychologysocial psychologyAttitude and behaviorAttitude and behaviorEconomic: commercial, consumerEconomic: commercial, consumerPolitical: propaganda, election campaPolitical: propaganda, election campa

ignignMilitary: propaganda, solidating moraMilitary: propaganda, solidating mora

lele

Attitude formationAttitude formation

Social learning and socializationSocial learning and socializationClassical conditioningClassical conditioningInstrumental conditioningInstrumental conditioningObservational learningObservational learning

More complicated learning and More complicated learning and socialization processes (educational socialization processes (educational effects on attitudes)effects on attitudes)

Functions of attitudesFunctions of attitudes

Heuristic (instrumental)Heuristic (instrumental)Schematic (knowledge)Schematic (knowledge)Define the self and maintain self-Define the self and maintain self-

worthworthProtective, direct anger toward Protective, direct anger toward

minorityminority

Cognitive consistencyCognitive consistency

Balance theoryBalance theoryCognitive dissonance theoryCognitive dissonance theory

FestingerFestinger

Theory of cognitive Theory of cognitive dissonancedissonance

Postdecision dissonancePostdecision dissonanceCounterattitudinal behaviorCounterattitudinal behavior

Dissonance effectDissonance effectIncentive effectIncentive effectWhen Prophecy Fails: a social and psychoWhen Prophecy Fails: a social and psycho

logical study of a modern group that predlogical study of a modern group that predicted the destruction of the world icted the destruction of the world 19641964

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

lowdissonance

($20)

highdissonance

($1)

control

0

1

2

3

4

5

$0.50 $1.00 $5.00 $10.00 control

Post-decisional dissonancePost-decisional dissonance

選擇

被選的

沒被選的

Post-decision ConfidencePost-decision Confidence

Waiting in line

After bet is placed

bet