Wars of ReligionEconomic Renewal and Wars of Religion,1560-1648

Overview The Wars of Catholic Spain: the Netherlands and England The Disintegration and Reconstruction of France The Thirty Years War:1618-1648: the Disintegration of Germany

The Wars of Catholic Spain: the Netherlands and EnglandThe Habsburg Dynasty Charles V, having tried in vain for 35 years to preserve religious unity in Germany, abdicated his many crowns and retired to a monastery in 1556, the year after the Peace of Augsburg had given the ruler of each German state the right to choose its own religion. He left Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary to his brother Ferdinand, who was soon elected Holy Roman Empire Emperor. All his other possessions Charles left to his son Philip, who became Philip II of Spain. The Habsburg dynasty remained thereafter divided into two branches, the Austrian and the Spanish. The two cooperated in European affairs. The Spanish branch for a century was the more important.

The Wars of Catholic Spain: the Netherlands and England

The Ambitions of Philip II Philips possessions the Spanish kingdoms Portugal 17 provinces of the Netherlands the Free County of Burgundy (member states of the Holy Roman Empire) Milan in north Italy, Naples in south Italy Tunis Titular king of England until 1558 Claimed France to the throne in 1589 All America

Philips goalsUniversial church Protect Spanish and Habsburg interests: protect and enhance Spanish power in Italy; control of the Mediterranean Sea

The Catholic offensive In the first years of Philips reign, the religious issue was in flux. Everywhere there were people who looked for guidance outside their own countries. Fervent Calvinists in England, France, and the Netherlands felt closer to one another than to their own monarchs or their own neighbors. Fervent Catholics, in all three countries, welcomed the support of international Catholic forces the Jesuits, the king of Spain, the pope. National unity threatened to dissolve or was not yet formed. For about five years, it seemed that a resurgent Catholicism might prevail. Catholic forces took the offensive on all fronts.

In 1567, Philip sent a new and firmer governor general to the Netherlands. In 1569, Philip put down a revolt of the Moriscos (converted Muslims) in Spain. In 1570, the pope excommunicated Elizabeth, their heretic queen. In 1572, the Catholic leaders of France decided to make an end of Huguenots, or French protestants. Over 3,000 were seized and put to death on the eve of St. Bartholomews Day in Paris alone.

The Wars of Catholic Spain: the Netherlands and EnglandThe Revolt of the Netherlands The heightening of the Netherlandish Identity The Netherlands roughly comprised the area of the modern kingdoms of the Netherlands and Belgium and the grand duchy of Luxembourg. They consisted of 17 provinces , which in th 15th century were inherited by Charles V and his son, Philip II. In the northern provinces the people spoke German dialects; in the southern provinces they spoke dialects of French. The southern provinces had for centuries been busy commercial centers. The wealth of the northern provinces was drawn from deep-sea fishing. They had a popular literature of their own, written in their own kind of German, which came to be called Dutch. Each of the 17 provinces was a small state or country in itself . The only common bond of all 17 provinces was simply that they had the same ruler. The feeling of Netherlandish identity was heightened with the accession of Philip II.

Earnestness in religion

Protestant ideas took root in the Netherlands very early. After 1560, when the religious wars began in France, a great many French Calvinists fled across the borders. At first, there were more Calvinists in the southern provinces than in the northern, more among the people who we now call Belgians than among those whom we now call Dutch. Anti-Catholic and anti-Spanish demonstrations The leagues petition The mass revolt

The measures taken by Philip II to deal with the revolt Philip II appalled at the sacrilege, sent in the Inquisition, the Duke of Alva, and reinforcements of Spanish troops. Alvas Council of Troubles, nicknamed the Council of Blood, sentenced some thousands to death, levied new taxes, and confiscated the estates of a number of important nobles. These measures united people of all classes in opposition. In 1576, the anti-Spanish feeling prevailed over religious difference. Representative of all 17 provinces, putting aside the religious question, formed a union to drive out the Spanish at any cost.

The Wars of Catholic Spain: the Netherlands and EnglandThe Involvement of England Surreptitious aid lent to the Netherlands For many years, Queen Elizabeth of England lent aid to the netherlands surreptitiously, not wishing to provoke a war with Spain, in which it was feared that English Catholics might side with the Spaniards. Elizabeth was troubled by having on hwr hands an unwanted guest, Mary Queen of Scot. Mary had remained a Catholic and had been queen of France until her husbands premature death, and queen of Scotland until driven out by irate Calvinist lords, and who if the pope, the king of Spain, the Society of Jesus, and many English Catholics were to have their way would also be queen of England. Elizabeth under these circumstances kept Mary imprisoned.

The Alliance with the Netherland patriots

In 1576, Don Juan, half-brother of Philip II, became governor general of the Netherlands. He developed a grandiose plan to subdue the Netherlands and then to use that country as a base for an invasion of England. After overthrowing Elizabeth with Spanish troops, he would put Mary Stuart on the throne, marry her himself, and so become king of a re-Catholicized England. Thus the security of Elizabethan and Protestant England was coming to depend on the outcome of fighting in the Netherlands. Elizabeth signed an alliance with the Netherlands patriots.

The Union of Utrecht

Don Juan died in 1578 and was succeeded as governor general of the Netherlands by the prince of Parma. A diplomat as well as a soldier, Parma appealed not only to the more zealous Catholics but also to moderate who were wearying of the struggle and repelled by mob violence religious vandalism. He rallied the southernmost provinces to his side. The seven northern provinces responded by forming the Union of Utrecht in 1579. In 1581, they formally declared independence from the king of Spain, calling themselves the United Provinces of the Netherlands. But neither side accepted any such partition. Parma still fought to reconquer the north, and the Dutch still struggled to clear the Spanish out of all 17 provinces.

Englands open and defiant alliance with the Protestant Dutch

England as bulwark of Protestantism: the country rallied to Protestantism and to Elizabeth. The execution of Mary Stuart in 1587 on the eve of foreign attack. The ruin of the Spanish Armada: The great Armada consisted of 130 ships, weighing 58,000 tons, carrying 30,000 men and 2,400 pieces of artillery the most prodigious assemblage of naval power that the world had ever seen. The plan was for the fleet to sail to the Netherlands, from ehich it was to escort the prince of Parmas army across the straits to the English coast. But the Armada never reached the Spanish army.

The Wars of Catholic Spain: the Netherlands and England

The Results of the Struggle For England The English assured their national independence, acquired an intense national spirit, and became more solidly Protestant, almost unanimously set against popery. With the ruin of the Armada, they were more free to take to the sea. For the Netherlands In 1609, a Twelve Years Truce was agreed to. By this truce the Netherlands were partitioned. The seven provinces that had formed the Union of Utrecht were known as Dutch. The ten southern provinces were known as the Spanish Netherlands.

For Spain

The beginnings of Spanish decline: At the death of Philip II the monarchy was living from hand to mouth. The productive forces of the country were weakened by inflation, by taxation, by emigration, by depopulation. The Moriscos were put on boats and sent off with what they could carry. Spain lost one of the most socially valuable of all its minorities. Olivaress policies provoked strong opposition throughout Spain. In 1640, Portugal reestablished its independence. The Catalan war lasted for almost 20 years. * The Spanish kingdoms were disunited in spirit and in institutions.

The Disintegration and Reconstruction of France

Political and Religious Disunity Centralization vs. Localism France by the idea of the time was a very large country. It was three times as big as England and five times as populous. Local influence was therefore very strong. Beneath the platform of royalty was almost as little substantial unity in France as in the Holy Roman Empire. When the Empire had 300 states, France had 300 areas with their own legal systems. Where the Empire had free cities, France had the kings good towns, each with its stubbornly defended corporate rights. Where the Empire had middle-sized states, France has provinces as great as some European kingdoms, each ruled by the French king, to be sure, but each with its own identity, autonomy, laws, courts, tariffs, taxes, and parliament or provincial estates.

The Huguenots (the French Calvinists)

Since 1516 the king of France had the right to nominate the French bishop. The fact that both the monarchy and the clergy already felt independent of Rome held them back from the revolutionary solutions of Protestantism. The Protestism which did spread in France therefore developed without government support and embraced the most radical theological wing of the Reformation, namely Calvinism. In the 1560s or 1570s more than a third, and possibly almost a half, of the French nobility was Rrotestant. Frequently the seigneur, or lord of one or more manors, believed that he should have the right to regulate religion on his own estates. It thus happened that a lord might defy the local bishop, put a Calvinist minister in his village church, throw out the images, simplify the sacraments, and have the service conducted in French. In all parts of the country, north as well as south, many towns converted to Protestantism.

Opposition to Calvinism

Calvinism, a kind of grassroots movement in religion, rising simultaneously among laity and reforming ministers, seemed to threaten not only the powers of monarchy but also the very idea of a nationally established church. The fact that in France the nobility, a traditionally ungovernable class, figured prominently in the movement only made it look the more like political or feudal rebellion. Persecution of Huguenots, with burnings at the stake, began in the 1550s. The Huguenots, under persecution, were too strong a minority to go into hiding. Counting among their number a third or more of the professional warrior class, the nobles, they took naturally and aggressively to arms.

The Disintegration and Reconstruction of FranceThe Civil and Religious Wars The parties involved

The Huguenots led by Admiral de Coligny and Henry of Bourbon, king of Navarre. Among them some fought for local liberties in religion, while the more ardent spirits hoped to drive idolatry and popery out of all France, and indeed out of the world itself. Catherine de Medici, the kings mother was left in the middle, opposed like all monarchs to Calvinism but unwilling to fall under the domination of the Guises. For a time she tried to play the two parties against each other. A pronounced Catholic party arose under the Guise family, headed by the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine.

St. Bartholomews Day massacre

In 1572 fearing the growing influence of coligny over the king, and taking advantage of a great concourse of leading Huguenots in Paris to celebrate the marriage of Henry of Navarre, Catherine de Medici decided to rid herself of the heads of the Huguenot party at a single blow. In the resulting massacre of St. Bartholomews Day some thousands of Huguenots were dragged from their beds after midnight and unceremoniously murdered. Coligny was killed; Henry of Navarre escaped by temporarily changing his religion.

The consequences of the massacre

This outrage only aroused Huguenot fury and led to a renewal of civil war, with mounting atrocities by both sides. Both parties hired companies of mercenary soldiers, mainly from Germany. Spanish troops invaded France at the invitation of Guises. Protestant towns appealed for armed support from Elizabeth of England. Neither side could subdue the other, and hence there were numerous truces, during which fighting still flared up, since no one had the power to impose peace.

The Politiques Gradually, mainly among the more perfunctory Catholics, but also among moderate Protestants, there developed still another group who thought of themselves as the politicals or politiques. The politiques concluded that too much was being made of religion, that no doctrine was important enough to justify everlasting war, that perhaps after all there might be room for two churches, and that what the country needed above all else was civil order. They believed that people lived primarily in the state, not in the church. One of the politiques, Jean Bodin held that in every society there must be one power strong enough to give law to all others, with their consent if possible, without their consent if necessary. Thus from the disorders of the religious wars in France was germinated the idea of royal absolutism and of the sovereign state.

The Disintegration and Reconstruction of FranceThe End of the Wars: Reconstruction under Henty IV Henry IV accepts Catholicism After 30 years of civil strife, the majority of the French people were still Catholic and the Huguenots were not only a minority but an increasingly unpopular minority. Henry IV in 1593 abjured the Calvinist faith, and subjected himself to the elaborate processes of papal absolution. Thereupon the politiques and less excitable Catholics consented to work with him. The Huguenots were now not only outraged by Henrys abjuration but also alarmed for their own safety. They demanded positive guarantees for their personal security as well as protection of their religious liberty.

The Edict of Nantes In response to the Huguenots demand, Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes. The Edict granted to every seigneur, or noble who was also a manorial lord, the right to hold Protestant services in his own household. It allowed Protestantism in town where it was in fact the prevailing form of worship, and in any case in one town of each pillage (a unit corresponding somewhat to the English shire) throughout the country; but it barred Protestantism churches from Catholic Episcopal towns and from a zone surrounding and including the city of Paris. It promised that the Protestants should enjoy the same civil rights as Catholics, the same chance for public office, and access to the Catholic universities. In certain of the superior law courts it created mixed chambers of both Protestants and Catholics. The Edict also gave Protestants their own means of defense, granting them about 100 fortified towns to be held by Protestant garrisons under Protestant command. Frances chief minority was thus protected by the central government, not by popular wishes.

The foundations of absolutism

Henry IV, having appeased the religious controversy, did everything that he could to let the country gradually recover from its decades if civil war. His ideal was a chicken in the pot for every Frenchman. He worked also to restore the ruined government, to collect taxes, pay officials, discipline the army, and supervise the administration of justice. Roads and bridges were repaired and new manufactures were introduced under mercantilist principles. A country that had just jacked itself to pieces in civil war scarcely able to govern itself, and so, under Henry IV, the foundations of the later royal absolutism of the Bourbons were laid down.

Cardinal Ruchelieu

After Henry IV was assassinated 1n 1610 by a crazed fanatic who believed him as a menace to the Catholic church, the control of affairs gradually came into the hands of Cardinal Richelieu in the name of Marie de Medici and her young son, Louis XIII. Richelieus economic policy: He tried to strengthen the state economically by mercantilist edicts. Richelieus military policy: But the nobles still feuded with each other and evaded the royal jurisdiction. Richelier prohibited private warfare and ordered the destruction of all fortified castles not manned and needed by the king himself. The Huguenots, with their own towns and their armed forces under the Edict of Nantes, had become something of a state within the state. In 1627 the Duke of Rohan led a Huguenot rebellion based in the city of La Rochelle. Richelieu after a year suppressed the rebellion and in 1629, by the Peace of Alais, amended the Edict of Nantes. The Huguenots lost their fortified cities, their Protestant armies, and all their military and territorial rights, but in their religious and civil right they were not officially disturbed. Richelieus foreign policy: Opposed on every front the European supremacy of the House of Habsburg.

The Thirty Years War:1618-1648: the Disintegration of Germany

Background of the Thirty Years War Lutheran gains: In decades following the Peace of Augsburg, the Lutherans made considerable gains, putting Lutheran administrators into the church states, or secularizing them and converting them into lay principalities. In addition, Calvinism spread into Germany. A number of states became Calvinist. One of these was Palatinate, important because its ruler the Elector Palatine was one of the seven persons who elected the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1608 the Protestant states, urged on by the Elector Palatine, formed a Protestant union to defend their gains. To obtain support, they negotiated with the Dutch, with the English, and with Henry IV of France. In 1609 a league of Catholic German state was organized by Bavaria. It looked for help from Spain. The Germans were thus falling apart, or rather coming together, into two parties in anticipation of a religious war.

Other issues

The Twelve Years Truce between Spain and the Dutch singned in 1609, was due to expire in 1621. The Spanish were again preparing to crush the Dutch Republic. Since the Dutch insisted on independence, a renewal of the Dutch-Spanish war appeared to be inevitable. The Spanish also wished to consolidate the Habsburg position in central Europe and enhance their access to the Netherlands by gaining control of new territories along the Rhine River and in various Swiss cantons, which naturally aroused the opposition of France. The Austrian branch of the Habsburg family was slowly bestirring itself to eradicate Protestantism in its own domain and to turn the Holy Roman Empire into a more modern type of state. The idea of a strong power in Germany was abhorrent to the French.

The complexity of the Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years War, resulting from all these pressures, was therefore exceedingly complex. It was a German civil war fought over the Catholic-Protestant issue. It was also a German civil war fought over the central power of the Empire and the member states struggling to maintain independence. These two civil wars by no means coincided, for Catholic and Protestant states were alike in objecting to imperial control. It was also an international war, between France and the Habsburgs, between Spain and the Dutch, with the kings of Denmark and Sweden becoming involved.

The Thirty Years War:1618-1648: the Disintegration of GermanyThe Four Phases of the War The fighting began in Bohemia. It is in fact customary to divide the war into four phases, the Bohemia (1618-1625), the Danish (1625-1629), the Swedish (1630-1635), and the Swedish-French (1635-1648).

The Bohemia war (1618-1625)

The two sides

The Bohemians, or Czechs with assistance from the Protestant Union, the Dutch, and the prince of TransylvaniaThe Emperor Ferdinand, Matthiass successor, assisted by money from the pope, by Spanish troops sent from Milan, and by the forces of Catholic Bavaria Causes of the warTwo emissaries from the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire were thrown out of the window by the Bohemians who feared the loss of their Protestant liberties.

Results of the war The emperor overwhelmed the Bohemians at the battle of theWhite Mountain in 1620. The estates of almost half the Bohemian nobles were confiscated and then granted as endowments for Catholic churches and monasteries or as gifts to those who has entered the emperors service. The Danish (1625-1629) The two sides

The king of Denmark, also Duke of Holstein, a state of the Holy Roman Empire, with a little aid from the Dutch and the English, and with promises from Richelieu Emperor Ferdinand commissioned Wallenstein to raise an army.The results: Wallenstein and other imperial generals soon defeated the king of Denmark, reached the Baltic coast, and even invaded the Danish peninsula.

The Swedish (1630-1635)

Gustavus Adolphus The king of Sweden was Gustavus Adolphus, a ruler of superlative ability, who had conciliated all parties in Sweden and had extended Swedish holdings on the east shore of the Baltic. Using Dutch and other military experts, he had created the most modern army of the time, noted for its firm descipline, high courage, and mobile cannon. Himself a religious man, he had his troops march to battle singing Lutheran hymns. He was ideally suited to be the Protestant champion, a role he how willingly took up, landing in Germany in 1630.

The isolation of the Swedes in Germany

The Swedes, with military aid from Saxony and financial aid from France and the Dutch, won a number of spectacular victories. But the brilliant Swedish victories came to little. Both sides were weakened by disagreement. Wallenstein, who disliked the Spanish influence in Germany, virtually ceased to fight the Swedes and Saxons, with whom he even entered into private talks hoping to create an independent position for himself. On the Swedish-Saxon side, the Saxons decided to make a separate peace. Saxony therefore signed with the emperor the Peace of Prague of 1635. The other German Protestant states concurred in it and withdrew their support from the Swedes. The Swedes were left isolated in Germany.

The Swedish-French (1635-1648)

Neither France nor Spain wished peace or reconciliation in Germany. Richelieu renewed his assurance to the Swedes, paid subsidies even to the wealthy Dutch, hired a German princeling to maintain an army of Germans in the French service, and at last brought Catholic France into open support of the German Protestants. The Spanish, from their based in Belgium, drove deep into France. Champagne and Brugundy were ravaged, and Paris itself was seized with panic. But the French soon turned the tables. When Portugal and Catalonia rebelled against Philip IV, France immediately recognized the independence of Portugal, as did England, Holland and Sweden. French troops streamed over the Pyrenees into Catalonia, spreading the unsal devastation. In Germany the Swedish-French phase of the war was not so much a civil war among Germans as an international struggle on German soil. Few German states now sided with the French and Swedes. A feeling of national resentment against foreign invasion even seemed to develop.

The Thirty Years War:1618-1648: the Disintegration of GermanyThe Peace of Westphalia, 1648 Its contents The Peace of Westphalia represented a general checkmate to the Country Reformation in Germany. It not only renewed the terms of the Peace of Augsburg, granting each German state the right to determine its own religion, but it also added Calvinism to Lutheranism and Catholicism as an acceptable faith. On the controversial issue of church territories secularized after 1552 the Protestants won a complete victory; Catholic claims to the territories were abandoned.

The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was now confirmed in politics and international law. Borderlands of the Empire fell away. The Dutch and Swiss ceased to belong to it, and both the United Provinces and Swiss cantons were recognized as sovereign and independent. From the disintegrating western frontier of the Holy Roman Empire the French cut off small pieces, receiving sovereignty over three Lorraine bishoprics, which they had occupied for a centre. The king of Sweden received new territories in northern Germany, thus adding to Swedens trans-Baltic possessions. The German states, over 300 in number, became virtually sovereign. Each receive the right to conduct diplomacy and make treaties with foreign powers.

Its significance System of sovereign states: The Peace of Westphalia blocked the Counter Reformation, frustrated the Austrian Habsburgs, and forestalled for almost two centuries any movement toward German national unification. Within Europe as a whole, it marked the advent in international law of the modern system of sovereign states. The diplomats who assembled at Westphalia represented independent powers which recognized no superior or common tie. No one any longer pretended that Europe had any significant religious or political unity. Statesmen delighted in the absence of such unity, in which they sensed the menace of universal monarchy. Europe was understood to consist of a large number of unconnected sovereignties, free and detached states, which acted according to their own laws, following their own political interests, forming and dissolving alliances, exchanging embassies and legations, alternation between war and peace, shifting position with a shifting balance of power.

The End of the Wars of Religion. With the close of the Thirty Years War the Wars of Religion came to an end. While religion remained an issue in some later conflicts, it was never again an important cause of conflicts in the political affairs of Europe as a whole. In general, by the close of the seventeenth century, the division between Protestant and Catholic had become stabilized. Neither side any longer expected to make territorial gains at the expense of the other. Both the Protestant and the Catholic reformations were accomplished facts.

SummarizationThe Habsburg Dynasty The Ambition of Philip IIThe Catholic offensive The revolt of the Netherlands The Thirty Years War

7. Homework What are some of the causes of the religious war? Describe the four phases of the Thirty Years War? Whats the significance of the Peace of Westphalia?

Terms Calvinism The Huguenots The Union of Utrecht The Edit of Nantes St. Bartholomews Day Massacre

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