1 grammar review - teilar.grteilar.gr/dbdata/profann/profann-e19a0f74.pdf · 3 •...

1GRAMMAR REVIEW

1. NOUNS-ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΑ

ΚΑΤΗΓΟΡΙΕΣ:

• Αφηρημένα: hope, faith, love, hate ……

• Συγκεκριμένα :musician , student, doctor …….

• Κύρια: John, Greece, Athens, the Parthenon

• Περιληπτικά : family, police, government ……

• Κοινά: book, pen, school ……..

THE PLURAL OF NOUNS - ΠΛΗΘΥΝΤΙΚΟΣ ΤΩΝ ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΩΝ

Ο πληθυντικός των ουσιαστικών σχηματίζεται προσθέτοντας:

• s στο ουσιαστικό (book- books)

• es στα ουσιαστικά που τελειώνουν σε -s, -ss, -x, -ch, -sh.

(Bus-buses, glass-glasses, fox-foxes, match-matches, flash-flashes)

• ies στα ουσιαστικά που τελειώνουν σε σύμφωνο (consonant) + y. (body-bodies, hobby -

hobbies)

• s στα ουσιαστικά που τελειώνουν φωνήεν ( vowel )+ y. (boy – boys, play - plays)

• es στα ουσιαστικά που τελειώνουν -o. (tomato – tomatoes)

• s στα ουσιαστικά που τελειώνουν σε :

vowel (φωνήεν) + o : video- videos, διπλό - o : tattoo - tattoos,

abbreviations (συντομογραφίες) photograph / photo - photos

musical instruments cello - cellos

proper nouns Navaho – Navahos

κάποια ουσιαστικά που τελειώνουν σε - o παίρνουν είτε –es ή –s όπως :

zeroes/zeros, volcanoes/volcanos, buffaloes/buffalos

κάποια ουσιαστικά που τελειώνουν σε - –f / - fe παίρνουν - ves όπως :

scarf – scarves, knife – knives, wife-wives

Αλλά : chief – chiefs, roof – roofs, cliff – cliffs

2 κάποια ουσιαστικά Ελληνικής και Λατινικής προέλευσης σχηματίζουν τον πληθυντικό τους

προσθέτοντας ελληνικές και λατινικές καταλήξεις (suffixes) :basis – bases, medium – media,

criterion - criteria

τα σύνθετα ουσιαστικά ( compound nouns) σχηματίζονται στον πληθυντικό προσθέτοντας στο

τέλος - s / -es:

• στο 2ο ουσιαστικό αν αυτό αποτελείται από 2 ουσιαστικά i.e. motorbike, motorbikes

• στο ουσιαστικό, αν το σύνθετο ουσιαστικό αποτελείται από ένα επίθετο και ένα ουσιαστικό: steering wheel, steering wheels

• στο πρώτο ουσιαστικό αν τα σύνθετο ουσιαστικό αποτελείται από 2 ουσιαστικά που συνδέονται με πρόθεση ή στο ουσιαστικό αν το σύνθετο έχει μόνο ένα ουσιαστικό: student of medicine, students of medicine, passer-by-passers-by, hanger on, hangers on

• στο τέλος του σύνθετου αν αυτό δεν αποτελείται από κανένα ουσιαστικό: runaway - runaways

IRREGULAR FORMS-ΑΝΩΜΑΛΑ

Man – Men Goose - Geese Spacecraft - Spacecraft

Woman – Women Sheep - Sheep Aircraft - Aircraft

Foot – Feet Deer - Deer Means - Means

Tooth – Teeth Fish - Fish Species - Species

Louse – Lice Trout - Trout Hovercraft - Hovercraft

Mouse – Mice Ox - Oxen

Child – Children Salmon - Salmon

COUNTABLE/UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS - ΜΕΤΡΗΣIΜΑ / ΜΗ ΜΕΤΡΗΣΙΜΑ ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΑ

Countable (αυτά που μπορούν να μετρηθούν) 1 chair, 2 chairs etc

Uncountable (αυτά που δεν μπορούν να μετρηθούν) bread, wood, furniture etc.

Τα μη μετρήσιμα ουσιαστικά παίρνουν ρήμα ενικού αριθμού και δεν παίρνουν άρθρο a/an. Μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούνε τα some, any, no, much etc.

• Bread is necessary for the diet.

• Can I have some bread, please?

BUT: a relief, a pity, a wonder, a shame, help, a knowledge (of sth).

- What a relief!

- What a pity!

Μη μετρήσιμα είναι :

• Μάζας (liquids, solids, gases, particles): blood, beer, oxygen, air, butter etc

• Αντικείμενα μελέτης : history, physics, economics etc

• Γλώσσες : Greek, Italian etc

3• Παιχνίδια: baseball, darts, billiards etc

• Ασθένειες : flu, pneumonia, chicken pox, measles, mumps, tuberculosis etc

• Φυσικά φαινόμενα : fog, darkness, snow, shade etc

• Ουσιαστικά που μετριούνται με some : advice, anger, behavior, business, news, music, education, dirt etc

• Περιληπτικά : furniture, jewellery, luggage, machinery etc

Με εκφράσεις που δηλώνουν διάρκεια ( duration) , απόσταση (distance) or money (με τη

σημασία ‘όλου του ποσού’ ) χρησιμοποιούμε ρήμα σε ενικό αριθμό.

Two years was too long to wait.

Πολλά μη μετρήσιμα ουσιαστικά μπορεί να γίνουν μετρήσιμα :

A piece of paper/cake/cheese ….

A glass/ bottle of beer, water, wine ….

A slice/loaf of bread, ham…

A carton of milk, juice….

A bar of chocolate, soap….

A kilo/pound of meat …. etc

ΟΥΣΙΑΣΤΙΚΑ ΠΑΝΤΑ ΣΕ ΠΛΗΘΥΝΤΙΚΟ

• Αντικείμενα που αποτελούνται από δυο ‘μέρη’ : garments (trousers, pyjamas etc)

Instruments (compasses, binoculars etc.)

tools ( scissors, pliers etc)

• Επίσης : arms, ashes, barracks, clothes, congratulations, earnings, looks, people, police, stairs etc.

• Group nouns (ομαδικά): army, class, club, public μπορούν να πάρουν ρήμα είτε σε ενικό είτε σε πληθυντικό ανάλογα με το πώς αναφερόμαστε στο group: σαν σύνολο ή σαν ξεχωριστά άτομα.

- The police are after the runaway for months.

- The police is after the runaway for months.

4PRACTICE

1. Form the plural of the following nouns.

1. Fish 6. Blood

2. Bunch 7. Housework

3. Louse 8. Species

4. Shelf 9. Tooth

5. Mosquito 10. Item

2. Underline the correct verb form.

1. The bronchi belongs / belong to the respiratory system.

2. Bloods contains / contain many nutrients.

3. Measles is / are a very infectious disease.

4. Water is / are necessary for survival.

5. According to Darwin, human species have / has evolved from ape.

6. This information were / was very useful.

52. WORD FORMATION- ΠΑΡΑΓΩΓΗ ΛΕΞΕΩΝ

Για να περιγράψουμε ανθρώπους προσθέτουμε: - ar, -er, -or, - ee στο τέλος των ρημάτων , ή –ist,

- ian στο τέλος των ουσιαστικών ή των ρημάτων (κάνοντας τις κατάλληλες ορθογραφικές αλλαγές ).

Example: employ – employee, lie – liar, drive – driver, music – musician etc.

1. Ουσιαστικά μπορούν να σχηματιστούν από ρήματα

-age dose – dosage -al propose – proposal

-ance perform- performance -ation operate-operation

-ence refer – reference -ion suggest – suggestion

-ment develop – development -sion divide – division

-sis analyze – analysis -tion repeat – repetition

-y injure – injury

2. Ουσιαστικά μπορούν να σχηματιστούν από επίθετα

-ance malignant - malignance -cy current – currency

-ence patient – patience -ty anxious – anxiety

-iness lonely – loneliness -ity familiar – familiarity

- ment content – contentment -y various – variety

- ion desperate – desperation

63. ADJECTIVES –ΕΠΙΘΕΤΑ / ADVERBS - ΕΠΙΡΡΗΜΑΤΑ

Τα επίθετα περιγράφουν ουσιαστικά. Είναι το ίδιο σε ενικό και πληθυντικό αριθμό.

Τα επίθετα δείχνουν:1. κάτι αντικειμενικό (factual:small, red, new etc) 2. γνώμη (opinion:

good, beautiful)

Πάντα χρησιμοποιούμε επίθετα μετά από τα ρήματα : appear, be, become, get, look, seem, smell,

sound, stay, taste (never adverbs)

- It smells great!

1. Τα επίθετα μπορούν να σχηματιστούν από ουσιαστικά και ρήματα.

a. με καταλήξεις :

b.με προθέσεις:

-a asexual -pro pro- war -mal maltreated

-im immoral -anti antisocial -super superhuman

-pre prearranged -ir irresistible -hyper hyperactive

-ab abnormal -sub sub-zero -non non-nucleus

-in inactive -dis disinfected -un undiagnosed

-il illegal -over overweight -under undernourished

-able fashionable -ian Italian - some fearsome

-ible credible - ant hesitant -like lifelike

-ful joyful -ent persistent -esque picturesque

-less helpless - ate compassionate -ist racist

- ous dangerous - ar spectacular -ive collective

- ious contagious - ary voluntary - ish stylish

- al medical

- ial artificial

- ory sensory

-ic melodic

-ical dramatical

-ly lively

-y faulty

72 .Τα σύνθετα επίθετα (compound adjectives) σχηματίζονται με :

- Μετοχή Ενεστώτα (Present particles): a long-lasting lesson

- Μετοχή αόριστου (Past participles): an under nourished child

- Αριθμητικά (cardinal numbers)+ nouns a three-year old child

- Well, badly, ill, poorly,+ past participle a poorly-lit room, an ill-formed idea

-

3. μετοχές Ενεστώτα και Αόριστου μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως επίθετα

The talk was interesting.

He is an interesting writer.

4. Collective (Περιληπτικά) adjectives + the

The young, the poor, the ill, the strong, the week etc

Order of the adjectives- Σειρά των Επιθέτων

Opinion Fact

Adjectives Adjectives

size age shape colour origin material use noun

A nice small modern round green English wooden kitchen table

Δεν χρησιμοποιούμε επίθετο μετά από : alone, afraid, alive, alike, ashamed, asleep, content, ill,

glad.

Τα ουσιαστικά που δείχνουν Υλικό (Material), Σκοπό (Purpose), ή Ουσία (Substance)

μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως επίθετα

A cotton shirt, an oxygen bottle, a carton box

Μερικά από τα επίθετα αυτά μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν μεταφορικά :

A gold ring / a golden heart

a steel door/ a steely heart

Regular comparative and superlative forms- Ομαλά Παραθετικά των Επιθέτων.

1.Adjectives Positive

Θετικός

Comparative

Συγκριτικός

Superlative

Υπερθετικός

μονοσύλλαβα + (e)r / -(e)s στον συγκριτικό

και υπερθετικό βαθμό

short Shorter (than) The shortest (of/in)

8Δισύλλαβα που λήγουν σε -ly, -y, -w

επίσης παίρνουν –er / est

funny funnier the funniest

Με δυο ή περισσότερες συλλαβές παίρνουν

more/most

modern more modern the most modern

*Μερικά επίθετα σχηματίζουν τον συγκριτικό και υπερθετικό βαθμό είτε με –er / -est ή με more/most. Αυτά είναι : clever,

common, cruel, friendly, gentle, narrow, pleasant, polite, shallow, simple, stupid, quiet.

ADVERBS- ΕΠΙΡΡΗΜΑΤΑ

Tα επιρρήματα περιγράφουν ρήματα, επίθετα, άλλα επιρρήματα ή και ολόκληρη πρόταση.

Περιγράφουν το Πώς (τροπικά -adverbs of manner), το Πότε (χρονικά/ when ), το Που (τοπικά-where

/place), Πόσο συχνά (συχνότητας/ frequency), και σε τι βαθμό (to what extent /degree).

ΣΧΗΜΑΤΙΣΜΟΣ ΕΠΙΡΗΜΑΤΩΝ ΑΠΟ ΕΠΙΘΕΤΑ

Adverbs= adjectives + y slow – slowly

Επίθετα που τελειώνουν σε consonant: - ly quick - quickly

Επίθετα που τελειώνουν σε –ic παίρνουν -ally sporadic – sporadically

Επίθετα που τελειώνουν σε –le αφήνουν το –le και παίρνουν –ly comfortable – comfortably

Επίθετα που τελειώνουν σε –e παίρνουν –ly false – falsely,

Όμως : whole – wholly, true – truly

Επίθετα που τελειώνουν σε –ly (elderly, friendly, lively etc) σχηματίζουν το επίρρημα τους σε -ly

και δείχνουν τρόπο/ μέσο (manner/way)

For example: He said good morning very friendly

Κάποια επιρρήματα και επίθετα έχουν τον ίδιο τύπο (form)

Best, better, big, cheap*, clean*, clear*, close*, cold, daily, dead, dear*, deep, direct, dirty,

early, easy, extra, far, last, fast, fine*, free, further, hard, high, hour, inside, kindly, last, late, loud*, low,

monthly, quick*, quiet*, right, slow, straight, sure, thin*, thick, tight, weekly, well, wide, wrong, yearly etc.

* can be found with –ly with no difference in meaning. They are more formal though.

9 ΠΑΡΑΘΕΤΙΚΑ ΤΩΝ ΕΠΙΡΡΗΜΑΤΩΝ –ΟΜΑΛΟΣ ΤΥΠΟΣ

Adverbs positive comparative superlative

Αυτά που έχουν ίδιο τύπο (form) με τα επίθετά

τους και παίρνουν –er/ -est

fast faster the fastest

Το early αφήνει το –y και παίρνει –ier/ -iest

early earlier the earliest

Τα δισύλλαβα ή σύνθετα(compound) επιρρήματα

παίρνουν more/most

often more often

IRREGULAR FORMS - ΑΝΩΜΑΛΑ ΕΠΙΡΡΗΜΑΤΑ

positive comparative superlative

good/well better best

bad/badly worse worst

much more most

many/ a lot of more most

little less least

far farther farthest

far further furthest

ΠΡΟΣΟΧΗ:

• Well is the adverb of good. -She’s a good writer. She writes well.

• Further/farther (adv)= longer in distance -He’s house is farther/further than mine.

• Further (adj) = more -I will need some further help.

• Very + positive degree - He’s very tired lately.

• Even / much / far / a bit + comparative degree - His composition is far better this time.

• Most + adj/adv of positive degree = very - Your question was most disturbing.

• Any + comparative (used in negatives and questions)- Could you speak any louder please?

10 Κάποια επιρρήματα έχουν δυο τύπους και διαφορετικό νόημα μεταξύ τους

* Σύνθετα είναι τα επιρρήματα που σχηματίζονται από επίθετα + ly : thoughtful – thoughtfully

deep: a long way down full: exactly; very late: not early sure: certainly

deeply: greatly fully: completely lately: recently surely: without a doubt

direct: by the shortest

route

hard: intently; with effort near :close wide: off-target

directly: Immediately hardly: scarcely

nearly: almost

widely: to a large extent

easy: gently and slowly high: at to high a level pretty: fairly wrong: incorrectly

(wrong/wrongly go after

verbs)

easily: without difficulty highly: very much prettily: in a pretty

way

wrongly: unjustly*

(*wrongly goes before

verbs/past participles

free: without cost last: after all others

short: suddenly

freely: willingly lastly: finally shortly: soon

11Practice B

1. Make compound adjectives to describe the following:

1. A disease that lasts a long time……………………………………………………………..

2. An analysis that is not accurate……………………………………………………………..

3. A sample that has not been properly maintained………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. An organism that is infectious and has not been identified…………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. A person that is susceptible to a disease and has not been immunized…………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Underline the correct item.

1. I can hard / hardly read the label on the tube.

2. This substance is high / highly concentrated.

3. Blood clots fast / fastly.

4. I full / fully understand the instructions.

5. Stir with a rod quick / quickly.

3. Complete the sentences using the words in bold.

1. I find mathematics easier than gymnastics.

Not Gymnastics ……………………………. mathematics for me.

2. If we stay longer, we will enjoy more the show.

The The ………………………………. the show.

3. Jane had twice as much money as Greg.

Half Greg had ………………………….. Jane.

4. Mary and Franny have the same clothes.

As Franny’s clothes. ………………………Mary’s.

5. No other player is as well - paid.

Best He ………………………………….player.

12THE TENSES PART I

1. PRESENT SIMPLE (ΕΝΕΣΤΩΤΑΣ ΑΠΛΟΣ) (I work, he works, I don’t work, he doesn’t work, do you work? does he work?)

Ο απλός Ενεστώτας μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να περιγράψει

α. Συνήθεια (Habit) , Επανάληψη ( Repetition) , Ρουτίνα (Routine) +Επιρρήματα Συχνότητας (Adverbs

of Frequency)/ Χρονικές Εκφράσεις ( Time expressions )

[ always, often, usually, sometimes…etc]

- I always wake up early in the morning.

- Does he go to the theatre often?

- He never eats meat.

b. Γενική Αλήθεια ( General truth), Φυσικά Φαινόμενα(Natural phenomena), Επιστημονικά Γεγονότα

( Scientific fact)

- It is always cold in Sweden.

- Water freezes below zero.

- China is a big country.

- The sun rises in the east and sets in the west

c. Μόνιμες Καταστάσεις ( Permanent states)

- Her sister teaches French in Africa.

- We travel a lot.

- He works in an oil drilling company.

d. Ωρολόγια Προγράμματα (Timetables)/Προγραμματισμένα Δρομολόγια ( Schedules)

- The train leaves at 8 a.m.

- School starts in September and finishes in May.

e. Περιγραφή ( Description), Διαδοχικές Δράσεις στο Παρόν ( Successive actions in the present)

[matches, live reports, news ] , Θεατρικές Οδηγίες( Stage directions) , Οδηγίες με προστακτική

(Instructions in the imperative )

13- It’s a detached house with a huge garden at the front and a garage at the rear. Description

- Humphry shoots the ball but he unfortunately hits the post! Successive actions in the present -

match

- The protesters are gathered outside the embassy and prepare to march. live report

- Take the first turn on the left and then go straight down the road. The station is on your right.

directions

- To make spaghetti: fill a pan with water. Let it boil. Then… instructions-recepies

- ….. “ He walks in quietly, picks up the knife and moves towards the old man….” Stage directions

f. Με εκφράσεις όπως Here, There, Why don’t …… στην αρχή των προτάσεων

- Look! Here comes the bride!

- There’s your coffee!

- Why don’t you get some rest?

Τα επιρρήματα συχνότητας και οι χρονικές εκφράσεις μπαίνουν πριν το κυρίως ρήμα (main verb)

και μετά το βοηθητικό (auxiliary). Είναι όμως δυνατό να βρίσκονται στην αρχή ή στο τέλος της πρότασης

- He usually comes home late.

- They sometimes go to the gym.

Τα rarely, seldom, never, scarcely, hardly έχουν αρνητικό (negative) νόημα και το ρήμα που ακλουθεί

πρέπει να είναι καταφατικό (affirmative).

- He seldom goes shopping.

- They hardly eat their dinner.

2. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (I’m working, is he working? they aren’t working…)

Κυρίως χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει :

a. μια πράξη που εξελίσσεται τώρα – την στιγμή του λόγου – ή για μια πράξη που εξελίσσεται για

μια συγκεκριμένη χρονική περίοδο στο παρόν ( temporary situations).

“ What are you doing?” “ I’m having a lesson” (right now )

James is doing the shopping this week. (temporary situation)

I’m staying at my aunt’s for the time being. (tem. sit )

Always, usually, often, occasionally,

frequently, seldom, scarcely, hardly,

ever, never, randomly, every

day/week/month etc

14

Ακολουθείται από χρονικές εκφράσεις όπως

b. για σαφή (de facto) πλάνα και διευθετήσεις (arrangement) με μελλοντική σημασία + Time

expressions

- Hannah is flying to Rome next week.

- We are visiting Australia this summer.

c. για να εκφράσουμε ενόχληση, δυσαρέσκεια ή μη ικανοποίηση για κάτι που κάποιος

επανειλημμένα κάνει + adverbs of frequency

- You’re always interrupting me when I speak!

- He’s always borrowing money!

Stative verbs

Τα Στατικά ρήματα (Stative verbs) δεν δέχονται progressive form.

Τα συνηθεστέρα είναι:

Senses (αισθήσεων): see, hear, smell, touch, taste

Feeling (συναισθήματα): like, dislike, love, hate, want, need, prefer, care, and forgive

Knowledge & perception (γνώσης & αντίληψης): remember, forget, remind, know, believe, guess,

realize, suppose, doubt, imagine, understand, notice, seem, belong (to), matter, look like, appear, contain,

have, own, cost, mean.

Στατικά ρήματα με «διπλό» νόημα ( είτε στον απλό είτε στον ενεστώτα διαρκείας )

HAVE: - I have a country house (own)

- I’m having some coffee (drink, eat, do etc)

SEE: - I can see clearly (sense)

- Are you seeing your doctor this week? (Have an appointment)

THINK: -I think this is wrong (opinion)

- Stop thinking about the details so much! (Think)

SMELL: - The soup smells great! (Has smell)

Nowadays, at (the) present,

at this moment, this minute, right now,

for the time being, today, this week/

15 - Are you smelling something burning?

TASTE: - The pizza doesn’t taste nice (has taste)

- Stop tasting the roast from the pan! (Testing the taste)

HOLD: -This bottle holds 3 liters. (Contain)

- He is holding a rose.

WEIGH: - How much do you weigh? (Have weight)

-The doctor is weighing the newborn baby.

EXPECT: - I expect he’ll be home soon. (Wait)

- She’s expecting a baby in December. (Will give birth)

LOOK: -That dress looks expensive. (Appear)

- Why are you looking at me?

*BUT : She’s looking great today = appear / appear to be

Practice A

1. Present Simple or Progressive?

1. “ What …….. you …….. (do) next Friday ?” “ Nothing special. I ………. (stay) at home.”

2. I ………. (stay) with Tom and Ann for the time being.

3. Here ……. (come) Paul. He ……… (carry) a sports bag.

4. ………. you (usually go) out at night, or ……….(stay) at home ?

5. Peter……… (work) hard all day, but he ………(not work) tonight.

2. Present Simple or Progressive?

1. I ……… (guess) they ………(come) on the Rome flight.

2. I ……… (not like) fish. I …….. (prefer) chicken.

3. This fruitcake ………. (taste) delicious.

4. He………(hold) a rose. It ……… (smell) lovely.

5. “ What ……… you ………. (do) tomorrow ?” “ I……. (see) an old friend”

163. PAST SIMPLE (Αόριστος απλός) (I worked, she worked, did I/he work? he didn’t work…)

Χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει:

α. μια πράξη που έγινε και τελείωσε σε μια συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο παρελθόν ή για πράξεις που

δεν είναι δυνατό να επαναληφθούν (ανακαλύψεις, εφευρέσεις κλπ)

- I went shopping yesterday.

- A. G. Bell discovered the telephone.

b. επανάληψη στο παρελθόν (+ when clause)

- When I was a child, I always went to the park on Sunday.

c. διαδοχικές πράξεις στο παρελθόν

- He stood up, walked out the door and left quietly.

Adverbs / Time expressions

Συνήθως «μπαίνουν» στο τέλος της πρότασης . αν όμως θέλουμε να δώσουμε έμφαση, τότε μπορούμε να τα

τοποθετήσουμε στην αρχή.

- This morning, he came late.

- Many years ago, people had no electricity.

Special structures

1. The last time+ past+ was+… ago/in /on /at

The last time I saw Niki , was 2 tears ago / in August / on Sunday…

2. How long ago?

How long ago did she finish high school?

How long ago did she (last) go to the cinema?

Yesterday, ago, last, in the year 2000, this morning, at 8 o’clock etc

17

3. How long is it since + past simple

How long is it since you last saw her?

How long is it since you (last) saw her?

το Last χρησιμοποιείται για πράξεις που τείνουν να επαναληφθούν. Π.χ δεν μπορούμε να

πούμε :

How long is it since he last died / left his work? Etc

4. How long + present perfect + since

How long has it been since you graduated?

4. PAST PROGRESSIVE (I was working was she working, they were working, we weren’t working….)

Περιγράφει :

a. μια πράξη σε εξέλιξη σε μια συγκεκριμένη χρονική /περίοδο στο παρελθόν + Time expressions

- The fire was still burning at 8 a.m.

- The dog was howling all night!

- We were watching T.V all evening.

b. μια πράξη σε εξέλιξη στο παρελθόν η οποία διακόπηκε από κάποια άλλη

Past progressive + when + past simple

- We were sleeping when the earthquake started.

- I was sunbathing when it started raining.

c. για ταυτόχρονες πράξεις στο παρελθόν

Past progressive + while + past progressive

- They were playing football while we were jogging.

- Mary was sleeping while I was doing the housework.

Then, from.. to , at that time, at 7 o’clock,

t thi ti t d ll d / i ht t

18 USED TO

Χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει μια συνήθεια στο παρελθόν η οποία είτε σταμάτησε είτε άλλαξε.

Είναι πάντα σε αόριστο και δεν παίρνει άλλο τύπο.

I used to play tennis

He used to drink a lot of coffee.

Negation / Question σχηματίζονται με το βοηθητικό did.

He didn’t use to drink tea.

Did you use tο get up early?

He never used to play cards.

Practice

1 . Past or Present ?

Use the antonyms

1. Prices often ………… but rarely ………. !

2. She always ……….. to lock the door. It’s strange she ………. It this time.

3. It was a short flight. We ……….. at 3.30 and ………….. in Athens half an hour later !.

4. “ I can’t understand it! You always ………. your tests.

Why ………. you ………… this one ?”

2. The last time…………

1. We/take/a break/ 5 hours ………………………………………………………….. …..

2. I/ see/ Tim/10 years ………………………………………………………………………

3. They/have/a party/in June …………………………………………………………………

4. I/hear/ from/him/Monday …………………………………………………………………..

5. Ann /be/ill/spring ……………………………………………………………………………

3. How long ago / How long is it since?

1. He/leave his job? ………………………………………………..

2. She/break/her leg? ………………………………………………

3. Sue/wear/that/dress? ……………………………………………

4. It/start/raining? …………………………………………………..

5. You/weed/the/garden?……………………………………………

remember / forget , take off / land

go up / come down, pass / fail

194. Past (simple or progressive)

1. He…….. (sit) in a café when I…….. (see) him.

2. When I……… (realize) what he……… (mean) it be too late.

3. The bus…….. (leave) while I……… (walk) down the road.

4. When I……. (arrive) home he……… (still sleep).

5. What …….. you ……(do) when I…….. (call) you at nine?

6. He really……….. (like) his job because he……… (meet) a lot of people.

6. He………. (fall) and ………(hurt) himself while he……… (run) in the garden.

5. Past (simple or progressive)

Yesterday, I……… (go) to an important meeting when my car …………. (break) down. I……… ( wear) my best

suit but I……. (look) in the engine, then under it, too see what the problem was. I…….. ( have) a flat battery.

When I………. ( get ) up again, I…….. ( be) covered in oil and dirt.

I…….. ( continue) my journey. Then I………( run ) out of petrol. Two minutes later I…….

( hear) a strange noise. Now I……. ( have) a flat tyre.

What next! It was late and I knew my boss ……… (wait) for me. At that moment I……..

( see) my boss. He……..( walk) down the street.

“ Good Heavens! What a mess you are!” he said. “ And don’t forget the meeting tomorrow”

6. Used to or past progressive?

1. He ………….. (pay) me every week.

2. I fell just as I ………….. (get ) off the bus.

3. What ………. you ( do) when the burglars broke in ?

4. Sarah ……….. (spend) hours in front of the mirror when she was young.

5. You…………. ( never smoke) so much, did you ?

20PART II

5. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

(I have worked, she has worked, have I worked, they haven’t worked)

Ο απλός Παρακείμενος συνδέει το παρελθόν με το παρόν.

Χρησιμοποιείται :

a.για μια πράξη που μόλις τελείωσε + just

- Jane has finished her work.

- They have just returned from Spain.

b. για μια πράξη που άρχισε και τελείωσε στο παρελθόν αλλά ο χρόνος (πότε ) δεν αναφέρεται

- They’ve made a lot of money.

- He’s traveled a lot.

c. μια πράξη που άρχισε στο παρελθόν και συνεχίζεται στο παρόν

- I’ve worked in this company for 13 years.

- Jane has studied in this faculty for 2 years.

d. για μια πράξη που συνέβη στο παρελθόν, σε μη δεδομένη χρονική στιγμή και της οποίας τα

αποτελέσματα είναι «ορατά» στο παρόν

- I can’t come to your party because I ‘ve broken my leg.

- He’s lost his job. He’s so worried!

Time expressions

Τα Just, already, ever, never, always ακολουθούν το ρήμα

- He’s worked hard lately.

Just, already, yet, always, recently, lately, ever, never,

21- I haven’t finished my study yet.

- Have you ever been to the Amazon?

SINCE / FOR

Το Since δείχνει την «απόσταση» ανάμεσα σε 2 χρονικά σημεία :

- I’ve lived here since 1993 from 1993 to the moment of speech

- He hasn’t been out since out last weekend.

Το For «μετράει την διάρκεια» μιας κατάστασης :

- I’ve worked here for two years.

- He has been unemployed for 6 months.

Present perfect simple and the superlative degree

Ο απλός παρακείμενος συνήθως χρησιμοποιείται μετά από επίθετα υπερθετικού βαθμού όπως

This / That / He……..+ be + superlative degree

This is the + best, worst, tallest, most expensive + noun + (that) I’ve ever seen, done, heard etc.

Μπορεί επίσης να χρησιμοποιεί για να δείξει κάποια «έλλειψη» :

- We haven’t been to the movies since last year.

- The dogs haven’t been fed since last night.

Μπορούμε επίσης να δείξουμε «έλλειψη» με άλλους 2 τρόπους :

- I haven’t seen her for a week The last time I saw her was a week ago

It’s (been) a week since I (last) saw her

HAVE BEEN IN / TO VS HAVE GONE TO

Have been in/to = I am, I live, I work etc

22

Χρησιμοποιείται για να εκφράσει που διαμένει κάποιος, που ζει ή που δουλεύει για κάποια χρονική

περίοδο :

- We’ve been in this town for 6 years.

- Where have they been? I haven’t seen them for ages.

• Have gone to

Χρησιμοποιείται για να εκφράσει ότι κάποιος έχει πάει κάπου (ή είναι καθ’οδόν ή επιστρέφει ).

- Tom has gone to the supermarket (he’s still there).

- My aunt has gone to Miami.

Have been to = I have visited

Χρησιμοποιείται για να εκφράσει ότι κάποιος έχει επισκεφτεί έναν τόπο αλλά δεν είναι πλέον εκεί.

- We’ve been to Paris twice this year.

- Have you ever been to Jerusalem?

*Το Gone to δεν μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί με I, you, παρά μόνο σε notes π.χ. I’ve gone shopping. Back in

10’.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE VS PAST SIMPLE

1. Ο Απλός Παρακείμενος χρησιμοποιείται είτε όταν κάποιος δεν ενδιαφέρεται για το πότε (χρόνος

) ένα περιστατικό συνέβη είτε γιατί κάποιος δεν γνωρίζει το πότε . Με το Απλό Αόριστο ο χρόνος

(πότε) δίνεται ή εννοείται.

- James has left.

- James left. (Yesterday, 2 years ago etc)

2. με τον Απλό Παρακείμενο η πράξη στην οποία αναφερόμαστε ίσως να μην έχει ολοκληρωθεί.

αντίθετα με τον απλό Αόριστο η πράξη έχει ολοκληρωθεί

I have corrected 50 test papers (so far but I haven’t finished yet).

I corrected 50 test papers. ( the action is finished)

3. Με τις εκφράσεις this week/ month/ year/ morning etc χρησιμοποιούμε παρακείμενο όταν ο

χρόνος/χρονική περίοδος δεν έχει παρέλθει.

23- He’s done a lot of work this week. (still this week)

Όταν όμως η χρονική περίοδος έχει παρέλθει χρησιμοποιούμε απλό Αόριστο.

- This week we did a lot of work. (the week is over)

6. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

( I have been working, he has been working, have they been working?, they haven’t been working…)

χρησιμοποιείται για να εκφράσει :

α. μια πράξη που ξεκίνησε στο παρελθόν, συνεχίζεται ακόμη και μπορεί να συνεχιστεί και στο

μέλλον.

- Nora has been practicing the piano since early this morning.

b. για να περιγράψουμε μια πράξη η οποία εξελισσόταν μέχρι τώρα ή μέχρι πριν από μια σύντομη

χρονική περίοδο και της οποίας τα αποτελέσματα είναι ορατά στο παρόν.

- My clothes are so dirty! I’ve been repairing the car.

- Her eyes are so red. She’s been crying all day!

c. για να περιγράψουμε ενόχληση η δυσαρέσκεια.

- Look at this mess! They have been partying all night.

- Morris is still asleep. He has been drinking again.

Since , For, How Long

- I’ve been waiting for my sister since last night. Her flight is delayed.

- How ( or For how ) long have you been looking for a job?

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE VS PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE.

Με τον Απλό Παρακείμενο ο ομιλητής ενδιαφέρεται την πράξη καθώς και για τα

αποτελέσματα της.

Με τον Παρακείμενο Διαρκείας ο ομιλητής ενδιαφέρεται για την διάρκεια της πράξης –όχι

τόσο για τα αποτελέσματα της .

- Terry has cleaned her room.

24- Terry has been cleaning her room all evening.

Με κάποια ρήματα όπως : live, work, stay etc, στον παρακείμενο απλό και διάρκειας τα since και

for μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν το ένα αντί του άλλου.

- I’ve lived here since 1990.

- I’ve lived here for 12 years.

PRACTICE B

1. Present Perfect

1. Somebody/ take/ dog /out/ just.

2. I /own /this /car/ for/ more than a year.

3. You/ see / my glasses / anywhere?

4. Who / drink /all the lemonade?

5. We / have / any time / to see / them / hardly.

6. They / try / sailing / never.

7. She/ wash / dishes / already.

8. He / not see / his family / lately.

9. Kate / not mail / the letter/ yet.

10. I / see/ two films / since / last weekend.

2. Superlative degree + present perfect

1. This / book / I read.

2. He / boring / person / I meet

3. What / big / mistake / you make?

4. Which / nice / place / you visit?

5. This / difficult / lesson / we have.

253. I HAVEN’T THE LAST TIME + Past Simple

1. The last time she visited her town was three years ago.

She

2. We haven’t spoken to each other for three years.

The last time

3. I haven’t had vacation for ages.

The last time

4. The last time they had a party was two years ago.

They

4. I HAVEN’T IT’S (BEEN)…..SINCE …..+ PAST SIMPLE

1. It’s a long time since I saw my neighbors.

I

2. I haven’t heard from Terry for a year.

It’s

3. It’s been four years since it last snowed.

It

4. It’s been a whole month since they last wrote me.

They

5. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE (been/ gone – to/in)

1. Greg isn’t home. He to the market.

2. I‘ve Italy since I finished my studies.

3. I can’t find Jane . Where she ?

4. Penny has to Athens today. She’ll be back on Tuesday.

6. PRESENT PERFECT- PAST SIMPLE

1. I ………………..(not have) the time to do the housework yet.

2. She …………….( always want) to be a lawyer.

3. We ……………. ( buy) the car in May. We ……………( have) it for only 6 months!

4. “……… he…..…..(come) to the club yesterday? “ No, he …………(show up) for ages!

5. They ………….. (not speak) to each other since they ………….. (quarrel).

7. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (since-for)

261. He / sell / cars/ long time.

2. What / you / do / a / whole month?

3. We/ look for / the keys/ two hours.

4. It / snow / heavily / this morning.

8. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (since + past simple)

1. He/fish – we / arrive / at the lake.

2. Mum / cook – she / get up.

3. She / take / bus – she / lose / bike.

4. He/ go / to/ church – he/ be / a boy.

27

7. PAST PERFECT SIMPLE- ΥΠΕΡΣΥΝΤΕΛΙΚΟΣ

(I had been working, had they been working? they hadn’t been working….)


a. να περιγράψει μια πράξη η οποία είχε ήδη ολοκληρωθεί πριν από μια δεδομένη στιγμή στο

παρελθόν ή πριν από κάποια άλλη πράξη στο παρελθόν.

- When I got at the airport the plane had already taken off. the plane took off at 7, I got there at 7.30

Adverbs/ time expressions

Επιρρήματα /χρονικές εκφράσεις

1. Past Perfect + by + time expressions

- He had left town by 6 o’clock yesterday.

2. Past Perfect + by the time + past simple

- The children had slept by the time I returned home

3. After, Before + (Past) Perfect

χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει δυο διαδοχικές πράξεις στο παρελθόν – μπορούμε να δείξουμε την πράξη η

οποία προηγήθηκε είτε με απλό αόριστο είτε με υπερσυντέλικο χωρίς να υπάρχουν σημαντικές διαφορές στο

νόημα.

- Tim left for Sweden before I had (had) the chance to say goodbye. I didn’t feel the same after Tim

(had) left.

4. Thought – Said – Told – Remembered – Realized – Knew – Imagined

μετά τα παραπάνω ρήματα στον απλό αόριστο μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε απλό υπερσυντέλικο για να

περιγράψουμε κάτι το οποίο είχε ήδη συμβεί.

- I knew I had made the right choice

- He only imagined he had heard a strange noise.

Already, just, almost, yet, before, for, since, on Monday, ¨

in spring, at 8 o’ clock, by the time, by….., when etc

28

8. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE- ΥΠΕΡΣΥΝΤΕΛΙΚΟΣ ΔΙΑΡΚΕΙΑΣ

(I had been working, had they been working? they hadn’t been working….)


a. για να εκφράσουμε και να τονίσουμε την διάρκεια μιας πράξης σε εξέλιξη στο παρελθόν όταν

κάτι άλλο συνέβη ή πριν κάτι άλλο συμβεί.

We had been watching the film for an hour when the power went off.

They had been living together in this house for 4 years before they quarreled.

b. για να περιγράψουμε μια πράξη η οποία εξελισσόταν στο παρελθόν για κάποιο χρόνο και της

οποίας τα αποτελέσματα ήταν ορατά στο παρελθόν.

- Everybody was so tired! They had been trekking for 8 hours!

- Greg was exhausted. The police had been interrogating him all night.

Time adverbs / expressions

Χρονικά Επιρρήματα / εκφράσεις

PRACTICE C.

1. Past (perfect) simple

1. The concert/ start/ the time/ we/ arrive

2. He/ leave/ the office/ when /I /phone/ him.

3. Mum/ not /cook/ dinner/ when/ we /get/ home.

4. I /just/ water/ the plants/ when/ it/ start /to rain

5. We/ move/ to a new apartment/ before/ two weeks.

2. Past (perfect) simple.

1. You ………. (can) tell by the tears in her eyes that she……………. (receive) very bad news.

2. He……………. (die) after he………………….. (be operate)

3. There ……………. (be) no liquor left after the party.

4. The flat …………… (look) a mess. Nobody ………………. (clean) it for month.

5. The moment he …………. (see) her he…………. ( fell) in love with her.

For, since, before, until

293. Past perfect simple / progressive.

1. The train ……………(already, depart) by the time we ………… (arrive).

2. He was thirsty because he ……………… (walk) for 3 hours.

3. The mechanic ……………… (just, repair) my car when I …………. (got) there.

4. When the rain ……………… (start), we …………….. (have) picnic.

5. His shoes were so muddy because he …………… (dig) the garden all morning.

9. FUTURE SIMPLE- ΜΕΛΛΟΝ ΑΠΛΟΣ (I will work, Will I work?, She will not/ won’t work….)


a. για να εκφράσουμε υποσχέσεις ( promises) , αιτήματα ( requests) , προβλέψεις ( predictions)

καθώς και αποφάσεις που παίρνονται στιγμιαία ( αυθόρμητα).

- I‘ll buy you a new raincoat. (promise)

- I’ll tell the police! (threat/warning)

- Will you bring me some tea? (request)

- They will arrive soon. (prediction)

- I’ll answer the phone. (impulsive decision)

Time adverbs / expressions

Χρονικά Επιρρήματα / εκφράσεις

Shall I / we?

Χρησιμοποιείται για να δείξει ότι κάποιος προσφέρεται να κάνει κάτι για κάποιον άλλο(offers) ή όταν ζητάμε

συμβουλή ( advice), οδηγίες ( instructions) ή για να προτείνουμε κάτι (suggestιοns).

- Shall I get you a beer? (offer)

- What shall we do now? (suggestion)

- Shall I visit a doctor? (advice)

BE GOING TO

Χρησιμοποιείται για πράξεις τις οποίες έχουμε την πρόθεση να κάνουμε ή σχεδιαζουμε ή έχουμε

αποφασίσει να κάνουμε αλλά δεν είμαστε βέβαιοι.

Soon, later, tonight, in three days,

Shortly after, (the day after) tomorrow, Tomorrow

in two years time etc

30- She’s going to look for a new apartment.

- They are going to have a lot of children.

Επίσης για εκφράσουμε κάτι που πρόκειται να συμβεί σύντομα ή στο κοντινό μέλλον.

- It’s going to rain.

- It’s going to be a harsh winter.

10. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE-ΜΕΛΛΟΝ ΔΙΑΡΚΕΙΑΣ

(I will be working, will I be working? she won’t be working……)

χρησιμοποιείται :

για να περιγραψει μια πραξη η οποια θα εξελισσεται για συγκεκριμμενη χρονικη περιοδο στο

μελλον.

I’ll be waiting for you outside the cinema at that time.

What will you be studying this week?

Time expressions

11. FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE- ΣΥΝΤΕΛΕΣΜΕΝΟΣ ΜΕΛΛΟΝΤΑΣ

(I will have worked, Will I have worked? they will not/ won’t have worked…)

Χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει μια πράξη η οποία θα έχει ολοκληρωθεί μέχρι μια ορισμένη

χρονική στιγμή ή πριν από κάποια άλλη πράξη στο μέλλον.

- They will have finished dinner by 8 o’ clock.

- I will have arrived at the station before you get there.

Time expressions / adverbs.

BY this time, next week/ month, then, that time, 3 o’clock, Easter, midnight etc

BEFORE midnight, then, that time, Christmas etc

IN two years, two weeks’ time etc

At this / that time (tomorrow), this/next week, after school/ work,

from…..to, then etc

31

TILL- UNTIL χρησιμοποιούνται με αρνητικές προτάσεις και σπάνια με καταφατικές ή ερωτηματικές

- The concert will have started until by 10 o’ clock.

- Will the concert have started until by 10 o’ clock?

Τα Until και by δεν είναι συνώνυμα. Το Until υπονοεί συγκεκριμένο χρόνο ή μετά από

αυτόν. Το by υπονοεί οποιαδήποτε χρονική στιγμή πριν αλλά όχι μετά από κάτι.

BY THE TIME + BEFORE + PRESENT (PERFECT)

Όταν μια πράξη θα έχει ολοκληρωθεί πριν από κάποια άλλη στο μέλλον, τότε η δεύτερη πράξη

μπορεί να εκφραστεί με ΕΝΕΣΤΩΤΑ ή ΠΑΡΑΚΕΙΜΕΝΟ απλό χωρίς νοηματική διαφορά.

- The teacher will have corrected the compositions by the time the bell rings/ has rang.

- Before the exams start/ has started I will have revised everything.

12. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE- ΣΥΝΤΕΛΕΣΜΕΝΟΣ ΜΕΛΛΟΝΤΑΣ ΔΙΑΡΚΕΙΑΣ

( I will have been working, will they have been working?, they will no have been working….)


Για να περιγράψουμε την διάρκεια μιας πράξης πριν ή μετά από ορισμένο χρόνο στο μέλλον, ο

οποίος είτε δηλώνεται είτε εννοείται.

Specific time Future Perfect Progressive Period of Time

in the future

When I’m 22 I will have been studying for 4 years

By next summer he will have been working for us for 5 years

On Thursday they will have been staying with us for a month

32 Όταν η κύρια πρόταση αναφέρεται στο παρόν ή στο μέλλον τότε ακολουθείται από απλό

Ενεστώτα η Παρακείμενο.

Κύρια πρόταση ( Main clause) Χρονική πρόταση (Time clause)

We’ll have a break after we finish / have finished this discussion.

Don’t call the police until we see / have seen what is missing.

I’ll call you as soon as I arrive / have arrived.

Δεν χρησιμοποιούμε ποτέ μέλλοντα με χρονικές προτάσεις. Μόνο όταν το when είναι

ερωτηματική λέξη. i.e. - When will you come?

Όταν η κύρια πρόταση αναφέρεται στο παρελθόν, τότε το η χρονική πρόταση ακολουθείται

από Αόριστο απλό ή Υπερσυντέλικο.

- The film began soon after we (had) entered the room.

- He left for a walk as soon as he (had) finished his work.

PRACTICE D

1. Future (Simple / Progressive)

1. …………… you ( post) the letter for me please ?

2. It’s getting cold! ……………… we ……………. (switch on) the radiator?

3. Fay will be very busy tomorrow. She ………………… (write) the wedding invitations all morning.

4. I ……………….. (still, have) a lesson at 6.

5. “There’s no more coffee!” “ Don’t worry. I …………… (buy ) some”

2. Future Perfect Simple + present (perfect)

1. He (apologize) his behavior – the time he (get) there.

2. She (tell) everyone – the time you (enter) the building.

3. The time we (arrive) – he (leave) work.

4. I (think) a solution- the time you (get) back.

333. Future (Perfect) Simple.

1. He ………….(not be) hungry because he………….. ( already, have) lunch by then.

2. She……………. (never, speak) to you again.

3. By the time you get back mum …………….. (tidy) the room.

4. I ……………….(never, come) to this restaurant again.

4. Future (Perfect) Simple / Progressive

1. When they come back, I …………………( already / finish).

2. James ……………. (not wake up) by the time Sue…………. (get )home.

3. By 7 o’clock I……………… ( drive) for 5 hours.

4. Tania ……………… (graduate) by the end of the year.

34THE PASSIVE VOICE

Στην παθητικη φωνη η εμφαση ειναι δινεται στην πραξη – οχι στο ‘ποιος’ την έκανε.

Ειναι επισης πιθανο ειτε καποιος να αγνοει το ατομο που εκανε κατι (το ποιητικο αιτιο -agent)ειτε or καποιος να μην το θεωρει σημαντικο ωστε να το αναφερει.

- The windows are broken. τονιζεται το γεγονος και οχι το ποιος το εκανε - The problem will be solved soon. απο ποιον θα λυθει δεν ειναι το σημαντικο σ’ αυτη την περιπτωση .

Συνταξη

TO BE + PAST PARTICIPLE OF THE MAIN VERB(παθητικη μετοχη του κυριως ρηματος )

TO BE

Present: am, is, are Past: was, were Present Perfect: have/has been

Past Perfect: had been Future: will be Future Perfect: will have been

Προκειμενου να μετατρεψουμε μια προταση απο την ενεργητικη(active) στην παθητικη(passive) φωνη :

Example

(active sent.) “Janis cooks dinner for everyone”.

1. χρησιμοποιουμε το αντικειμενο (object) της ενεργητικης προτασης

ως υποκειμενο στην παθητικη προτασης Dinner

2. χρησιμοποιουμε το ρημα to be στον ιδιο χρονο,

Προσωπο και αριθμο με το υποκειμενο

της παθητικης προτασης + the past participle Dinner + is + cooked

του κυριως ρηματος

3. προσθετουμε την υπολοιπη προταση Dinner is cooked +for everyone

4. στο τελος , μπορει να προστεθει και το Dinner is cooked for everyone +by Janis

ποιητικο αιτιο (the agent*).

35

* The Agent: το ποιητικο αιτιο ειναι το υποκειμενο της ενεργητικης προτασης he/she…. Who does something. Οπως αναφερθηκε παραπανω, δεν ειναι παντα αναγκαιο να αναφερθει ο agent εκτος και αν ειναι σημαντικο ή συγκεκριμενο*. Η θεση του agent στην παθητικη προταση εξαρταται απο την εμφαση που εμεις θελουμε νε δωσουμε. Συνηθως μπαινει στο τελος της προτασης εκτος και αν υπαρχει χρονικη ή αλλη εκφραση.Τοτε μπαινει πριν απο αυτη.**

* The fire- brigade saved the little boy. The little boy was saved by the fire- brigade **Our school team won the cup last year. The cup was won by our school team last year.

NOBODY – ANYBODY

1. οταν οι προτασεις ειναι αρνητικες και εχουν αντικειμενα οπως : any, anyone, anybody, τοτε στην passive αρχιζουμε με no, no one, nobody, nothing χωρις να χρησιμοποιησουμε not.

2. οταν υπαρχουν υποκειμενα οπως nobody, anybody τοτε στην passive ο agent παραλειπεται.

ΧΡΟΝΟΙ ΔΙΑΡΚΕΙΑΣ - PROGRESSIVE FORMS

Μονο ο PRESENT και PAST PROGRESSIVE μετατρεπονται στην παθητικη φωνη. ΚΑΝΕΙΣ ΑΠΟ ΤΟΥΣ ΑΛΛΟΥΣ ΧΡΟΝΟΥΣ ΔΙΑΡΚΕΙΑΣ.

Γαι να μετατρεψουμε τους present / past continuous σε passive ακολουθπυμε την παρακατω συνταξη :

BE + BEING + PAST PARTICIPLE

PRESENT: am, is, are + being + past participle

- They are watering the flowers (active) The flowers are being watered (passive)

PAST: was, were + being + past participle

- The dog was chasing us We were being chased by the dog.

36 ΠΡΟΣΤΑΚΤΙΚΗ- IMPERATIVE

1. όταν το ρήμα στην ενεργητικής φωνή είναι σε προστακτική τότε στην παθητική χρησιμοποιούμε must be / should be

- Study your notes. Your notes must be /should be studied.

2. όταν το ρήμα στην ενεργητικής φωνή είναι σε αρνητική προστακτική don’t τότε στην παθητική χρησιμοποιούμε mustn’t / shouldn’t .

- Don’t touch the wires! The wires mustn’t / shouldn’t be touched!.

PHRASAL VERBS-ΦΡΑΣΤΙΚΑ ΡΗΜΑΤΑ

Τα φραστικα ρηματα ή τα ρηματα που ακολουθουνται απο προθεση παντα ακολουθουνται απο την προθεση τους μετα την παθητική μετοχή στην παθητική φωνη.

- They will carry out a new experiment. A new experiment will be carried out soon.

ΕΡΩΤΗΣΕΙΣ - QUESTIONS

Όταν μια πρόταση είναι ερωτηματική (interrogative) και εισάγεται με Do, Does or Did (είναι δηλ. σε ενεστώτα ή απλό αόριστο) τότε στην παθητική φωνή στην θέση του Am, Is / Are τα Was/ Were χρησιμοποιούνται αντιστπιχα.

- Does he wash the car everyday? Is the car washed everyday?

- Did they redecorate the house again? Was the house redecorated again?

Όταν η ερωτηματική πρόταση αρχίζει με όποιο άλλο βοηθητικό ρήμα ή modal τότε η ερώτηση γίνεται ως συνήθως .

- Will he have finished the job by tomorrow? Will the job have been finished by tomorrow?

ΡΗΜΑΤΑ ΜΕ ΔΥΟ ΑΝΤΙΚΕΙΜΕΝΑ (TWO OBJECTS)

Αρκετά ρήματα έχουν δυο αντικείμενα. Τα πιο συνηθισμένα είναι

Ask Offer Tell

Bring Play Send

Give Teach Promise

- They gave their grandson a new bicycle.

Ένα εκ των δυο αντικειμένων αυτών των ρημάτων είναι συνήθως έμψυχο και ονομάζεται έμμεσο αντικείμενο (grandson); το άλλο είναι άψυχο και ονομάζεται άμεσο (bicycle).

Όταν μετατρέπουμε μια τέτοια πρόταση σε παθητική μπορούμε να αρχίσουμε με ένα από τα δυο αντικείμενα σαν υποκείμενο. Συνήθως προτιμάται το έμμεσο αντικείμενο. They gave their grandson a new bicycle.

Their grandson was given a new bicycle.

A new bicycle was given to their grandson.

37

Όταν αρχίζουμε με το άμεσο αντικείμενο πρέπει να προσέχουμε να μην παραλείψουμε την πρόθεση for ή to (ανάλογα με το νόημα ) που ακολουθεί το ρήμα .

ASK

- They asked him a favor. He was asked a favor.

A favor was asked of him.

MAKE - BE MADE TO

Το Make γίνεται be made to στην παθητική.

- They made him study. He was made to study.

HEAR - SEE

Όταν ακολουθπυνται από απλο απαρεμφατο στην ενεργητικη φωνη τοτε στην παθητικη ακολουθουνται από full infinitive (to +Infinitive).

- I saw him drive up the mountain. He was seen to drive up the mountain.

LET – BE ALLOWED TO

Το Let γίνεται allowed to στην παθητική.

- They didn’t let them take pictures of the painting.

They weren’t allowed to take pictures of the painting.

38PRACTICE I

1. Turn the following sentences into the passive voice.

1. They will build a new bridge next year.

2. They had repaired the car before.

3. The zookeeper hasn’t fed the animals yet.

4. The painter finished my portrait.

5. They have not found the runaway criminal.

6. People play football all over the world.

7. They didn’t inform him about the meeting.

8. They will operate him tomorrow.

2. Passive voice (modals)

1. She may ask you to help.

2. They are going to fire him.

3. We must leave our personal stuff outside.

4. Someone is going to mend the fence.

3. Passive (imperative- phrasal verbs)

1. Don’t throw rubbish on the grass!

2. Drink it up!

3. Clear up all this mess now!

4. Someone has broken into the house.

4. Passive voice (Present / Past Progressive)

1. A famous architect is designing the hotel.

2. They are teaching them how to take blood samples.

3. They were moving it carefully.

4. They were having a celebration when we got there.

5. Someone is building a house next to ours.

5. Passive Voice (mixed types)

1. Someone was making the beds.

2. They are sending it today.

3. Don’t leave the TV all night.

4. A rat has eaten all the cheese.

5. You work for success

39

6. Passive Voice (Questions)

1. Should we tell the police?

2. Did she leave a message for me?

3. Must I do this right now?

4. Does he go to the gym everyday?

5. Has anybody found my glasses?

7. Passive voice –(in) direct object.

1. Someone told me the truth.

a.

b.

2. They promised him a promotion.

a.

b.

3. They should offer their guest a drink.

a.

b.

4. His mother gave him a puppy.

a.

b.

5. The artist showed us his paintings.

a.

b.

40PASSIVE VOICE PART II

ΠΡΟΣΩΠΙΚΗ – ΑΠΡΟΣΩΠΗ ΣΥΝΤΑΞΗ

Αυτού του είδους οι προτάσεις εκφράζουν γενική ή αόριστη αναφορά σε κάτι : It is said (λέγεται), It is thought

(πιστεύεται ), It is claimed ( υποστηρίζεται) etc

Τα πιο συνηθισμένα ρήματα είναι :

Believe, Consider, Expect, Hope, Know, Report, Say, Think, Claim

Σύνταξη :

It is + past participle + (that) + clause (2ουσα πρόταση)

Active voice Passive voice

They believe believed

People consider It is considered

Everybody claim claimed

Personal (προσωπική)

Ένας άλλος για να μετατρέψουμε αυτές τις προτάσεις είναι

Example They say he robs banks

1. χρησιμοποιώντας το υποκείμενο της 2ουσας πρότασης he 2. αλλάζοντας το ρήμα της κύριας πρότασης από ενεργητικό σε παθητικό is said

3. αλλάζοντας το ρήμα της 2ουσας σε απαρέμφατο to rob banks

He is said to rob banks.

Note: όταν το ρήμα της ενεργητικής πρότασης είναι σε χρόνο μέλλοντα ή προηγείται “be going to” τότε η

μετατροπή σε παθητική φωνή γίνεται με απρόσωπη σύνταξη.

- They believe she will fail It is believed she will fail.

41PRACTICE II

1. Passive Voice ( special structures)

1. We saw him leave the building.

2. They won’t tell anyone.

3. They made her pay $ 200.000.

4. We can’t do anything without your help.

5. They don’t let children under 16 drive a car.

2. Passive Voice (impersonal structure)

1. Newspapers report that he committed the crime.

2. We expect they will arrive soon.

3. People say that all 16 children are his.

4. They claim the stock market will collapse.

3. Passive Voice (personal structure)

1. People know that she tells lies.

2. People consider that justice is blind.

3. They believe he is a murderer.

4. They claim that the statement is true.

42THE INFINITIVE

PRESENT INFINITIVE PERFECT INFINITIVE

(present/future) (past)

ACTIVE (to) use (to) have used

PASSIVE (to) be used (to) have been used

PROGRESSIVE (to) be using (to) have been using

1. BARE INFINITIVE (ΑΠΛΟ ΑΠΑΡΕΜΦΑΤΟ)

Η ΚΥΡΙΑ ΧΡΗΣΗ ΤΟΥ BARE INFINITIVE ΕΙΝΑΙ ΜΕΤΑ ΑΠΟ MODAL & SEMI-AUXILIARY VERBS (ΗΜΙ-

ΒΟΗΘΗΤΙΚΑ).

<You must be joking> < He can’t have done this> < He used to play tennis when he was younger>

1. Μετά τα can, could, may, might, must, shall & should.

They could be on their way now.

You must pay the bill today.

Αλλά : They ought to try harder.

2. FULL INFINITIVE (ΠΛΗΡΕΣ ΑΠΑΡΕΜΦΑΤΟ)

Το FULL INFINITIVE μεταφράζεται με να, για να, με το σκοπό να, και χρησιμοποιείται κυρίως μετά

από:

1. CERTAIN VERBS

attempt, threaten, deserve, fail, manage, afford, ask, want, hope, expect, remember etc.

<He managed not to be late at work> 



2. QUESTION WORDS

(who, which, what, when, where, how)

<He asked how to go to the pub> <They will tell us where to go.>

3. TO BE + ADJECTIVE

<It’s nice to know that people care for you>

<Is is dangerous to drive if you had been drinking>

434. TO BE +ADJECTIVE OF/FOR HIM/HER

<It was clever of her to invite them> <It’s unusual for Jane to be late>

SAME / DIFFERENT SUBJECTS

Όταν το υποκείμενο του ρήματος είναι ίδιο μ αυτό του απαρεμφάτου, τότε έχουμε ταυτοπροσωπία. Όταν όμως,

τα υποκείμενα είναι διαφορετικά, τότε έχουμε ταυτοπροσωπία.

Όταν, στην ετεροπροσωπία, το υποκείμενο του απεραμφάτου είναι προσωπική αντωνυμία, τότε αυτό μπαίνει σε

αιτιατική πτώση.

<She expects to pass the test> (same subject)

<She expects him to pass the test> (different subject)

*Not the use of the full infinitive in the structure so+adj+as < Would you be as kind as to help me?>

SPECIAL CASES

A. FULL INFINITIVE

I. THE FIRST/SECOND/…..TO, (THE) ONLY …..TO

Χρησιμοποιούμε FULL INFINITIVE μετά το ρήμα to be με τα επίθετα the first, the second, the last, the

next, the only, the best etc.

<Susan was the first to arrive at work and the last to leave> <He was the only one to accept the offer>

ALSO: <She got to the bank only to find it was closed> (unnecessary result)

II. NO/ANY/SOME (BODY, THING….) TO

<There wasn’t anything else to do.>

<There’s nowhere to go.>

<There’s nobody to talk to.>

III. TOO…..TO, ENOUGH TO…..

<He’s too young to smoke>

<He isn’t old enough to drive a car>

IV. OPENING PHRASES

To begin with……… To be honest……….

To be frank………… To sum up……………..

To tell you the truth……To give an example…………..

44B. BARE/FULL INFINITIVE

I. Xρησιμοποιούμε το FULL INFINITIVE μετά από τα ρήματα make & let στην ενεργητική φωνή*.

 < they didn’t let me see the headmaster>

*Στη παθητική φωνή, το make γινεται be made to και το let be allowed to.

Το Help συντάσσεται εξίσου με BARE ή FULL INFINITIVE.

<He helped me (to) find the way>

II. Xρησιμοποιούμε Lets/Why (not) + bare infinitive για να προτείνουμε κάτι:

Let’s go to the beach (suggestion) > < why not go to the beach? (suggestion)

< Why pay extra money?> (unnecessary)

45PRACTICE

FULL/BARE INFINITIVE?

1. It’s useful …………………………..(know) what…………………….(do) in an emergency. 2. Can you…………………. (teach) me how………………..(ride) a bike? 3. It’s impossible………………… (learn) this theory by heart. 4. Did the dentist advise you………………………….. (give) up sugar? 5. I can’t ………………….. (afford).................... (buy) a new car. 6. Did you manage ……………………….(not stay) late at the party? 7. He warned me ……………………….(not touch) his laptop. 8. I just can’t ……………….. (understand) how………………….. (do) it.

FULL/BARE INFINITIVE?

They couldn’t find the key anywhere. (nowhere) The …………………………………………………………………………………… found. They let her do it her way. (to) She ……………………………………………………………………………………. her way. I hope that I’ll get the job. (to) I ……………………………………………………………………………………….. the job. They will ban cars from the city centre. (allowed) Cars ………………………………………………………………………………….. enter the city centre. It’s difficult for her to understand all this at her age. (young) She’s …………………………………………………………………………………. all this at her age. You’re not fast enough to win the race. (too) You’re ………………………………………………………………………………… the race. Only John saw what happened. (only) John was ………………………………………………………………………….…what happened. They made him tell them everything. (to) He……………………………………………………………………………………… everything. We haven’t got anybody to ask for help. (nobody) There’s ……………………………………………………………………………….for help. I have to be honest and tell you I don’t like your hair like that. (frank) To ………………………………………………………………………………………like your hair like that. Let’s hire a car instead of taking our own. (not) Why …………………………………………………………………………………. rather than take our own? I opened my bag and discovered it was empty. (only) I opened my bag …………………………………………………………………..was empty.

46ΤΗΕ GERUND

Χρησιμοποιούμε gerund στις εξής περιπτώσεις :

I. AFTER PREPOSITION

<He passed the exam without studying very hard>

<How about traveling to Spain?>

<They made money by selling antiques.>

II. SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE

<Driving while drunk is dangerous>

<Learning foreign languages is useful>

<Laughing is better than crying>

III. OBLECT OF A SENTENCE

Admit, attempt, avoid, consider, deny, fancy, finish, imagine, keep, understand (sb), miss (μου

λείπει), postpone, practice, risk, suggest

Μερικές φορές αντί για present gerund - doing χρησιμοποιούμε perfect gerund- have done για να

δώσουμε έμφαση σε μια παρελθοντική πράξη.



VERBS/ADJECTIVES + PREPOSITIONS

IN ON ABOUT/FROM/ OF/FOR

Specialize in Insist on Revent sb from

Succeed in Decide on Discourage sb from

Believe in Be keen on Suspect sb of

Result in Focus on Think of/about

Be interested in (dis)agree on Apologise for

Be involved in Congradulate sb on Be responsible for

Be famous for

Blame sb for

47Infinitive or gerund?

1. He’s tired of ……………………. (drive) all day; he deserves ………………………….(have) a break.

2. Fancy …………………….. (wear) shorts to a wedding!

3. He’s famous for …………………………….. (climb) Mount Everest.

4. ………………………….. (admit) you’ve done a mistake is a sign of maturity.

5. I did the …………………………… (cook) before ……………………………. (leave) the house.

6. I can’t remember how …………………….. (make) rice pudding.

7. I considered ……………………………… (become) a lawyer for a while.

8. I hope …………….... (come) this summer, but ……………………. (decide) on the exact date will be

difficult.

9. By…………………….. (sell) souvenirs to tourists they were able ……………………….. (save) up…………………………….. (build) a house.

10. I’m annoyed about …………………… (be) so careless and ……………… (lose) all that money.

EXPRESSIONS & OTHER USES

I. EXPRESSIONS+GERUND

It’s no use/good… I spend/waste my time…….

I can’t help…. I am used to…………

I’m busy….. I (am) look(ing) forward to

I can’t stand/bear….. There is no point in ………..

I’m fed up with…. I like the idea of…..

It’s (not) worth (while) I feel like …..

II. SHORT PROHIBITIONS

Χρησιμοποιουμε γερούνδιο για να δηλώσουμε απαγόρευση. Αν όμως υπάρχει αντικείμενο στην πρόταση, τότε

χρησιμοποιούμε προστακτική.

No waiting. No smoking. No parking.

But Don’t park your car here.

III. COME/GO+ING

Όταν μετά τα ρήματα ακολουθεί come & go ακολουθεί ρήμα που φανερώνει (σωματική) δραστηριότητα, τότε

χρησιμοποιούμε γερούνδιο.

<Why don’t you come jogging with me tomorrow?> <Did you go dancing last night?>

48Transformations

1. Take an aspirin; it will cure your headache. (by) You can cure……………………………………………………. an aspirin.

2. I hate to wait in queues. (stand) I …………………………………………………………………… in queues.

3. It’s a waste of time for us to wait any longer. (in)

There’s ……………………………………………………………. any longer. 4. I can’t wait to get a letter from them. (forward) I …………………………………………………………… ….a letter from them.

5. This small key opens the garage door. (for) This small key ……………………………………………… the garage door.

SPECIAL CASES

INFINITIVE- GERUND (WITH NO DIFFERENCE)

I. LIKE-LOVE-PREFER-HATE

Μετά απο τα παραπάνω ρήματα μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιούμε full infinitive ή gerund, όμως χωρίς να

υπάρχει ιδιαίτερη διαφορά.

<On Sundays I prefer to stay/staying at home.>

I’D LIKE, I’D LOVE, I’D PREFER

Μετά απο τις παραπάνω φράσεις, όμως, χρησιμοποιούμε πάντα full infinitive.

<I’d like to work as a photographer> <I’d love to see you again>

II. START-BEGIN…

Μετά απο τα ρήματα start, begin, bother, continue, intend, propose, μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε εξίσου

full infinitive ή gerund.

< Don’t bother to lock/locking the door.>

Όταν τα ρήματα start/begin βρίσκονται σε χρόνο διαρκείας συντάσονται μόνο με full infinitive

49 INFINITIVE- GERUND (WITH DIFFERENCE IN MEANING)

I. REMEMBER-FORGET

Τα ρήματα remember & forget συντάσσονται με gerund όταν αναφερόμαστε στο παρελθόν και με

full infinitive όταν αναφερόμαστε σε κάτι που πρέπει (ή έπρεπε) να (έχει) γίνει .



<Remember to lock up before you leave>



II. STOP

α. Όταν το stop σημαινει σταματώ αυτό που κάνω για να κάνω κάτι άλλο, τότε συντάσσεται με full

infinitive.



b. όταν όμως σημαίνει γενικά σταματώ (οριστικά) να κάνω κάτι, τότε συντάσσεται με gerund.



c. όταν το stop είναι σε προστακτική τότε συντάσσεται με gerund.

<Stop complaining >

III. REGRET

Όταν το regret σημαίνει μετανιώνω (για κάτι που έγινε στο παρελθόν) συντάσσεται με gerund.

Όταν όμως σημαίνει λυπάμαι, τότε συντάσσεται με full infinitive.



<We regret to say we can’t help you>



*NEED: όταν το NEED συντάσσεται με γερούνδιο έχει παθητική έννοια.

<The garden needs watering (to be watered)>

<The car needs repairing>

Infinitive-Gerund?

1. I stopped for half an hour ………………………… (give) my eyes a rest.

2. He stopped ……………………….. (complain) about it eventually.

3. This parcel needs ……………………………………….. (wrap) up.

4. I’d prefer ………………………. (go) out for dinner as I hate ……………………….. (cook).

5. I regret …………………………. (stay) that I forgot …………………….. ( buy).

6. I remember …………………….(tell) him to lock the door. I regret ………………….. (not do) it myself.

50 OTHER SPECIAL CASES

I. SEE-HEAR-WATCH-FEEL

Τα παραπάνω ρήματα συντάσσονται με –ing όταν αναφέρονται σε πράξεις που βρίσκονται σε εξέλιξη, ενώ με

full infinitive όταν αναφέρονται σε πράξεις που έχουν ολοκληρωθεί.





II. MIND

Μετά το ρήμα mind (κυρίως στην άρνηση και στην ερώτηση) χρησιμοποιούμε πάντα γερούνδιο.

<Would you mind staying a little longer?>



III. TRY

Όταν το ρήμα try σημαίνει δοκιμάζω να κάνω κάτι, τότε συντάσσεται με gerund . Ενώ, όταν σημαίνει

προσπαθώ να κάνω κάτι συντάσσεται με full infinitive.

<Since the exercise is so difficult, why don’t you try asking your teacher?>



Infinitive-Gerund

1. You can ……………………(make) money by ………………………. (work) at home.

2. I can’t help …………………… (wonder) why he risks ………………… (go) ………………… (fish) in such

terrible weather.

3. I keep ……………………. (ask) myself what ……………….. (do) .……………… and where ……………(go). I’ll

never forget ………………… (meet) George Bush.

4. Would you mind ……………………….. (look) after the baby? I forgot ……………….. (buy) anything for

supper.

Infinitive-Gerund

I can’t afford …………………. (stop) work yet, but I don’t deny …………………….(dream) of the day when I retire. I really like the idea of ………………. (spend) all my time ………………………(do) things I enjoy. I’d like …………………. (do) a bit of painting and maybe some writing. I don’t feel like …………………………….. (move) but my wife wants …………………. (sell) our house as it is a lot of work. She says there’s no point in ………………….. (keep) such a big place for just the two of us. She keeps ……………… (talk) about a small bungalow we have seen, but I can’t help …………………… (wonder) if we’ll have enough money …………………….. (live) on with me working.

51REPORTED (INDIRECT) SPEECH

Ο ευθύς λόγος (direct speech)χωρίζεται σε 3 κατηγορίες προτάσεων: Statements [affirmative (καταφατικές)/ negative (αρνητικές)] “I can’t sleep” he said Questions [ερωτιματικές (interrogative) προτάσεις] “When are you coming?” Commands-Requests [προστακτική (imperative)- παρακλήσεις ] “Fasten your seatbelt” the pilot said.

Με τον ευθύ λόγο χρησιμποποιούμε κυρίως το ρήμα say είτε μόνο του είτε με to + έμμεσο αντικείμενο (him, them, Jim).

She said “I enjoy sports” * She said to me “ I enjoy sports”

Χρησιμοποιούμε το say όταν δεν υπάρχει έμμεσο αντικείμενο. Αν υπάρχει χρησιμοποούμε το tell (χωρίς

to). She said (that) she enjoyed sports. She told me (that) she enjoyed sports (όχι she told to me)

Η λέξη that είναι προαιρετική.

Το εισαγωγικό ρήμα say παραμένει το ίδιο. Όταν όμως ακολουθείται απο αντικείμενο (say sthg to sb), τότε συνήθως εισάγεται με tell (sb) και το ρήμα της 2ουσας πρότασης μπαίνει σε past form.

He said “I can’t start my car” He said that he couldn’t start his car. He said “Doctor, the pain is getting worse” He told the doctor that the pain was getting worse.

CHANGES TENSES

Simple Present Simple Past

Present Continuous Pat Continuous

Simple Past Simple Past Perfect

Present Perfect -/-

Past Continuous Past Continuous

Past Perfect Continuous

Present Perfect Cont. Past Perfect Continuous

Future Tenses Will Would

Will play Would play

be playing be playing

have played have played

have been playing have been playing Ο Simple Past και ο Past Perfect Continuous δεν αλλάζουν.

52 MODALS Can-could, may-might, needn’t-needn’t/didn’t have to, Shall-should (συμβουλή/οδηγίες), must-must

(λογικό συμπέρασμα), must-must/had to (υποχρέωση)

Τα Would, Could, Might, Should, Ought to & Needn’t δεν αλλάζουν.

“They may buy the house” she said. She said that they might buy the house. “They needn’t hurry” she said. She said that they needn’t /didn’t have to hurry. Reported speech- Statements 1. “They haven’t laid the table for supper” said Mary. Mary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. ‘I’ve saved up enough money for our trip,” he said to her. He ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Peter said, “I will ask Jenny what to do.” Peter …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

4. “I can’t make out your handwriting,” she said. She……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

5. “You ought to buy a bigger car, Arthur,” said Danny. Danny………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

6. “I hadn’t had such a delicious meal before,” he said to us. He ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Other Changes in Reported Speech. This that, it, the These those, the, they, them Here there, in/at that place Come come/go Bring take/take Next month, week the following summer, year…. Tomorrow the following/next day Last week, month the previous week, month, year…./ the year, month, week before Today/tonight that day/night Now then, at that time Ago before Yesterday the previous day/the day before

Οι χρόνοι δεν αλλάζουν στον πλάγιο λόγο όταν:

Το εισαγωγικό ρήμα είναι σε Present, Present Perfect, Future Όταν έχουμε Unreal Past δηλ. 2ου τύπου conditional Μετά τις φράσεις would rather & wish/if only, it’s time

<She said “I wish I knew what to do” she said she wished she knew what to do.>

53 Οι χρόνοι και τα χρονικά δεν αλλάζουν επίσης, όταν λέγεται κάτι αμέσως μόλις ειπώθηκε ή αν το νόημα της

πρότασης εξακολουθεί να ισχύει την ώρα που το αναφέρουμε.

Όταν πρόκειται για: Φυσικούς νόμους /φαινόμενα/γενικές αλήθειες Εφευρέσεις , ανακαλύψεις Παροιμίες, γνωμικά, ρητά

Οι Simple Past & Past Continuous όταν χρησιμοποιούνται σε χρονικές προτάσεις (time clauses) She said “when I saw him, he was washing the car”. She said that when she saw him he was washing the car.

Οι Present και Future Tenses μπορει να μην αλλαξούν όταν αυτό που περιγράφουν εξακολουθεί να ισχύει.

He said “the Pyramids are in Egypt”. He said that the Pyramids are/were in Egypt. PRACTICE A. 1. “This is the last time I will come here.” ……………………………………………………………………………………………

2. “She bought these shoes last week.” ………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. I’ve been to this place twice before” ……………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. “I’ll leave the shopping here.” ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

5. “This is the last time I’ll warn you.” ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

6. “You ought to phone him tomorrow” ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

7. “We’re going to Spain next August.” ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

8. “I’ll meet you here at this time tomorrow” ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

9. “She left all this junk here a month ago.”……………………………………………………………………………………………….

10. “This is the first time I’ve eaten here” ………………………………………………………………………………………………… B. 1. Galileo said, “The earth moves round the sun”

…………………………………………………………………………………

2. “If I saw him, I would tell him” said Andrea.

……………………………………………………………………..……………

3. “If only he were here with us” she said.

…………………………………………………………………………………….

4. “I would play better if I practiced more” said Billy.

………………………………………………………………………..…………..

5. “I’d rather you left at once”, my sister said.

…………………………………………………………………………………....

54II. QUESTIONS

Οταν η ερωτηματική πρόταση εισαάγεται με ερωτηματική λέξη, τότε το εισαγωγικό ρήμα μπορει να

γινει asked, wondered, wanted to know Οι ερωτηματικες λεξεις επαναλαμβάνονται Η ερώτηση γινεται κατάφαση

He said to me “when did you arrive?” He asked me/ wanted to know when I had arrived. He said “which way is the post office madam?” He asked the woman which way the post office was.

Πολλές φορές το υποκείμενο του εισαγωγικού ρήματος «βγαίνει» ανάλογα με το περιεχόμενο της

μετατρεπόμενης πρότασης « Did you give them the address of our house, Mary?” Mary’s mother asked if she had given them the address of their house. PRACTICE She said to me…. She asked me…… 1. “Which book are you reading?” ……………………………………………………

2. “When did they buy this flat?” ……………………………………………………

3. “Who is that man?” …………………………………………………..

4. “How can we fix it?” ……………………………………………………

5. “How often do you see him?” ……………………………………………………

Όταν στον ευθύ λόγο η ερωτηματική πρόταση ξεκινάει με βοηθητικό ρήμα ή modal, τότε στον

πλάγιο λόγο η πρόταση εισάγεται με if ή whether (αν) He said to Claire “Have you seen my keys?” He asked Claire if/whether she had seen his keys. He said…… He asked her…….

1. “Why aren’t you dancing?” ……………………………………………………….

2. “Where have I seen you before?” ……………………………………………………….

3. “Do you believe in love at first sight?” ………………………………………………………..

4. “Did you come to the party with a friend?” ………………………………………………………..

5. “Are you enjoying yourself?” ………………………………………………………..

ΙΙΙ. COMMANDS-REQUESTS

Όταν στον ευθύ λόγο το ρήμα είναι σε προστακτική, τότε στον πλάγιο λόγο το said αλλάζει σε told, asked, advised, warned, ordered…να’αλογα με το νόημα της πρότασης. Στην συνέχεια προσθέτουμε το αντικείμενο και full infinitive. The doctor said “Stay in bed, Paul” The doctor advised Paul to stay in bed. Mr Clark said to me “Don’t touch the wires”. Mr Clark warned me not to touch the wires. “Stand still!” said the policeman. The policeman ordered them to stand still. *Στις εντολές / προσταγές, ακόμα κι αν δεν υπάρχει αντικείμενο στον ευθύ λόγο, στον πλάγιο προσθέτουμε ένα (me, him etc) καθώς τα εισαγωγικά ρήματα που συνήθως χρησιμοποιούνται απαιτούν αντικείμενο.

55 PRACTICE 1. “Tell me who broke my watch” said dad. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2. “don’t let the children play near the swimming pool” said the supervisor. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. “Take your dog out every day” said the vet. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4. “Get out of the room at once” said the teacher. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5. “Stay where you are.” said the robber. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. INTRODUCTORY VERBS Στον πλάγιο λόγο μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθουν εισαγωγικά ρήματα που συντάσσονται με διαφορετικούς τρόπους: Verb + full infinitive verb + object +full infinitive verb + that clause Offer to (πρροσφέρομαι) ask to (ζητώ) agree that (συμφωνώ) Refuse to (αρνούμαι) invite sb to (προσκαλώ) claim that (ισχυρίζομαι) Promise to (υπόσχομαι) advise sb to (συμβουλεύω) insist that (επιμένω) Agree to (συμφωνώ) warn sb to (προειδοποιώ) boast that (καυχιέμαι) Claim to (ισχυρίζομαι) remind sb to (υπενθυμίζω) promise that (υπόσχομαι) Threaten to (απειλώ) complain that (παραπονούμαι) Verb+preposition+gerund Insist on (επιμένω) Accuse sb of (κατηγορώ) Criticize sb for (επικρίνω) Blame sb for (κατηγορώ) Boast about (καυχιέμαι) Complain to sb about (παραπονούμαι) PRACTICE 1. “We must inform them immediately,” Sue said. Sue …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2. “You behaved like a child,” said Ann. Ann …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3.” I can speak five languages,” said Tom. Tom ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4. “Would you like to have dinner with me, Claire?” said Fred. Fred ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5. “We will burn your house down if you don’t give us the money,” the men said. The men …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

56 SUGGEST, DENY, APOLOGISE, ADMIT, & SPECIAL TRANSFORMATIONS

I. LET’S/WHY NOT/WHY DON’T…….SUGGEST Let’s/why not/ don’t we send for a doctor? He suggested (their) sending for a doctor. He suggested that they sent for a doctor. He suggested that they (should) send for a doctor. II. APOLOGISE (to sb) for sth/gerund “I’m sorry I caused that trouble.’’ She apologized for (causing/having caused) that trouble. “I’m sorry I didn’t count you in.” He apologized (to me) for not counting having counted me in. III. DENY+ gerund/(that) clause

“I didn’t break the law.” He denied breaking/having broken the law. He denied (that) he had broken the law. IIII. ADMIT+ noun/gerund/ (that) clause “Yes, I’m guilty.” He admitted his guilt. He admitted being /having been guilty. He admitted (that) he was guilty.

SPECIAL TRANSFORMATIONS “Many thanks for your support.” He expressed his gratitude for my support. “You’ve let me down.” He expressed his disappointment with her. “Fancy meeting the band here!” He expressed his surprise at meeting the band there “I’m happy/pleased/satisfied……” He expressed his happiness/pleasure…… PRACTICE 1. “Let’s have the party at my house,” said Tony. Tony ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2.”I did not call him names,” said Melanie. Melanie …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3. “Fancy getting lost in their home town,” Mark said. Mark ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. “No, I didn’t remember to switch off the lights,” Sandra said. Sandra ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5. “Why don’t you keep a record of your expenses?” Tim said to me. Tim …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

57CONDITIONALS –ΥΠΟΘΕΤΙΚΟΙ ΛΟΓΟΙ

1. TYPE I

Ο πρώτος υποθετικός λόγος αναφέρεται στο ‘πιθανο’ (probability)- κάτι που είναι πιθανό να συμβεί στο παρόν ή στο μέλλον.

IF+PRESENT TENSES FUTURE TENSES

(simple/progressive) (SEMI) MODALS

IMPERATIVES

If I’m working tomorrow, I’ll call you.

If you are ill, you may/can/must stay at home.

If you have completed the test, (I’ll) take it away.

2. TYPE II

Ο δευτερος υποθετικός λόγος αναφερεται σε κατι μαλλον ‘απίθανο’ ή χαμηλής πιθανότητας (low probability)- κατι που ειναι δύσκολο ή αδύνατο να συμβεί στο παρόν ή στο μέλλον.

IF+PAST* WOULD/COULD/MIGHT

(simple/progressive) + BARE INFINITIVE

If I studied more, I would/could/might pass the exams.

If I was working more, I would earn more money.

*Ο Aόριστος της υπόθεσης αναφερεται στο παρόν ή στο μέλλον και γι’ αυτό λεγεται unreal past.

Τα will/would μπορει να χρησιμοποιηθουν στην if clause για να εκφρασουν αβεβαιότητα (uncertainty), αμφιβολία (doubt), αίτημα (request), ενόχληση (annoyance), απροθυμία (unwillingness) ή επιμονή (persistence).

I don’t know if this will help you, but you can try.

I’d be if you wouldn’t use my computer all the time.

SPECIAL CASES

IF + SHOULD= IF BY (ANY) CHANCE

Στον 1ο υποθετικο λόγο μπορούμε επισης αντί για present tenses να εχουμε should που σημαίνει «αν κατα τυχη»

If you should see Jim, tell him to call me.

IF I WERE YOU

Χρησιμοποιειται για να δωσουμε συμβουλες .

If I were you, I would drive more carefully.

IF I WERE TO…

Στον 2ο υποθετικο λόγο, αντί για past,μπορουμε επισης να έχουμε were to.

If I were to leave, I would tell you.

58

ZERO CONDITIONAL

Οταν αναφερόμαστε σε φυσικα φαινόμενα ή γενικές αλήθειες και το if εχει την εννοια του when , τότε έχουμε ZERO CONDITIONAL

IF +PRESENT TENSES PRESENT SIMPLE

If you pour oil on water, it floats.

NOTE: Εκτός απο το if οι υποθετικες προτασεις μπορει να εισαχθούν και με τα ακόλουθα:

Whether……or not, even if, suppose, supposing, provided (that), on condition that, as long as

3. TYPE III

Ο 3ος υποθετικος λόγος αναφέρεται σε γεγονότα που ειναι αδύνατο να συμβουν, γιατι αωήκουν στο παρελθόν.

IF+PAST PERFECT WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + PERFECT INFINITIVE

If It hadn’t snowed last night, we would/could/might be able to travel.

If I had been you, I wouldn’t have quit my job.

TIME EXPRESSIONS

Οταν εχουμε if +χρονικες λεξεις οπως last week, before, earlier, yesterday, etc., αναφερομαστε στο παρελθον (3ος υποθετικος λόγος)και γι’ αυτο χρησιμοποιουμε ΥΠΕΣΥΝΤΕΛΙΚΟ και οχι Αοριστο.

If you had got up earlier this morning, you would have caught the train.

CONDITIONALS + UNLESS

Στην υποθεση και των τριων υποθετικών λόγων όταν το if ...... not έχει την έννοια του except if (εκτός αν) ή του on condition that (με την προϋπόθεση οτι), μπορουμε να το αντικαταστησουμε με unless.

• He won’t succeed much if he doesn’t try harder.

He won’t succeed much unless he tries harder.

BUT: If unless my car hadn’t broken down, I wouldn’t have been late.

NOTE: Τo not μπορει επισης να χρησιμοποιηθει με το unless We can go now, unless you aren’t ready yet.

SO …..THAT/TOO…..TO 3RD CONDITIONAL

• The test was so difficult that I couldn’t do it.

If the test hadn’t been so difficult, I could have done it.

• He arrived too late to see the film.

If he had arrived earlier, he could have seen the film.

59PRACTICE

1. CONDITIONALS (1st, 2nd & zero type)

1. If we go by train, it…………………(be) faster.

2. If you…………………(leave)snow in the sun, it melts.

3. I …………………(travel) all around the world, I …………………(had)the money.

4. If I …………………(be) shorter, he …………………(be) a pilot.

5. If you …………………(feel) well, …………………(call) a doctor.

6. If you…………………(live) so far away, I …………………(visit) you more often.

7. I’d buy a Porsche if I ………………… (have) the money.

8. If I …………………(be) to move to another country, I …………………(move) to Brazil.

9. If I…………………(be) you, I…………………(study) harder for the exams.

10. …………………(take) those shoes, if you …………………(want) to run faster.

2. CONDITIONALS (3RD type)

1. If Claudia …………………(know) you were at the hospital, she …………………(visit) you.

2. If you …………………(book) a seat, we …………………(can, go)to the theatre last might.

3. If we …………………(have) a camera with us, we …………………(take) a lot of pictures.

4. If she …………………(see)the advertisement earlier, she …………………(apply) for the job.

5. He …………………(pay) all his debts if we …………………(lend) him the money.

3. CONDITIONALS (1ST, 2ND & 3RD type)

1. You …………………(break) the ice sooner, if you …………………(speak) to the new staff earlier.

2. He …………………(make) more money, if he works more hours.

3. Their friendship …………………(come) to an end if she found out the truth.

4. I …………………(pay) you a visit if I come to Athens.

5. I …………………(be) out of work if you …………………(find) me that job in time.

6. If you …………………(come) to class on time, the teacher wouldn’t get so upset.

7. If I were you, I …………………(not break) my promise.

8. They …………………(get into) trouble if we …………………(help) them that day.

4. UNLESS/IF NOT

1. The dog will attack you if you aren’t careful.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. We can go to the cinema tomorrow unless you are busy.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. We’ll be late if we don’t hurry.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

604. We can’t go on holiday unless we save more money.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. She wouldn’t have come if you hadn’t invited her.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

6. Don’t do it if you aren’t sure you can.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

7. He won’t give it back if you don’t ask him.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

8. I would never have believed it unless I had seen it with my own eyes.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. SO …THAT/TOO…TO

1. Τhe meat was too raw to eat. (been)

If the meat………………………………………………………….raw, I would have eaten it.

2. If he hadn’t drunk so much, he would have been able to drive (too)

He ………………………………………………………………………drive.

3. If it hadn’t been so foggy, I could have driven up the mountain. (that)

It was ……………………………………………………………………not drive up the mountain.

4. The children behaved so badly that they were asked to leave. (not)

If the children ………………………………………………………, they wouldn’t have been asked to leave.

5. She spoke too softly for us to hear. (so)

If she……………………………………………………………, we would have been able to hear.

TENSE USE FOR FACT‐REVIEW Verb tenses in English fall into two major categories: those used for FACT and those used for NON‐FACT. By fact we mean what we can treat as real or quite possible. Non‐fact is what is supposed (or HYPOTHETICAL or SUPPOSITION) or wished for, which is either unreal or improbable. Fact is directly related to time, and so generally is the tense use. Non‐fact has no direct relationship with time and neither has the tense use. TENSES SIMPLE I (1)became Managing Director five years ago, a I (2) had been Personnel Manager for three years b and (3) joined /had joined the firm in 1970, a,b so I (4) have been here for fifteen years. c I (5) work in an office on the top floor. d I (6) retire in five years. e I think I (7) will/shall go and live in the country. f,r I (8) will/shall have been with the firm for twenty years by then. g,r TENSES PROGRESSIVE s I (9) was still working at eight o’clock yesterday evening. h I (10) had been working since early morning. j We (11) have been working very hard at the office lately k as we (12) are negotiating an important contract. l Tomorrow I (13) am flying to Milan. m (14) Will it still be raining like this when I get back, I wonder? n, r I hope not, because I (15) am going to take a few days off as soon as I can. p I (16) ‘ll be working non‐stop for over three weeks. q, r (d)PRESENT SIMPLE refers principally (5) to what exists or occurs habitually (I work) in our present lives or nowadays. In this use it refers to repeated, not single, events: When do you go to the gym? – (I go) On Fridays/Every Friday. (e) PRESENT SIMPLE (FUTURE USE) refers (6) to a future that is planned, usually through regulations, programmes, timetables etc. in this use it may refer to single events: When (according to your daily schedule) go to the gym?‐ (I go) On Friday/ next Friday. (l) PRESENT PROGRESSIVE refers (11) to what is in progress now (12) or at repeated time points nowadays: ‘They’re always /often/never watching television when I visit them. ‘ Compare: ‘They always /often/never (=start to) watch television when I visit them’ Always or continually may be used with the present or past progressive without reference to time points: They’re/they were always watching television.

This is for a repeated activity that, usually because it annoy us, claims our attention to such an extent that it seems to be always in progress. (m)PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (FUTURE USE) refers (13) to a future that is planned, usually, as a particular arrangement rather than as part of a programme etc. (e, n). (a) PAST SIMPLE (1,3) refers to a definite time in the past or ‘then’ (five years ago, in 1970). The time itself is not always mentioned: Thomas Edison invented the electric light bulb. (h)PAST PROGRESSIVE refers to what is IN PROGRESS in the past. When this was over a PERIOD of time, either the progressive or the simple form may be used with no essential difference in meaning: Yesterday I was working/worked from eight in the morning until nine at night. But for what is in progress at a POINT in time (9) only the progressive form can be used. (c) PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE refers (4) to indefinite time before or until (for fifteen years) now. It cannot refer to definite time or ‘then’ (not ‘I ‘ve joined the firm in 1990). But it may be used with several words to refer to ‘before now’: He has just told me that he has recently been made Managing Director and has already been busier than he has ever been before. Recently and just now also occur with the past tense: The man you just spoke to/ spoke to just now recently became our Managing Director. (k)PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE refers (11) to what has been in progress until now. It may be used with just, recently or already, but not with before ( I’ve worked (not have been working) here before.) (f) FUTURE SIMPLE is used for the future when there is no definite plan or intention (but see p below), or if there is a condition attached. It often occurs with think (7), expect, wonder, perhaps, probably etc. But it is used for a planned future when the verb has no progressive form (see s below): I’ll have my new car next month. (n) FUTURE PROGRESSIVE refers (14) to what will be in progress at a future time point (when I get back) . It is also used when we anticipate something without actually arranging it. Compare the following with reference to e, m:

(According to my travel schedule) I don’t return until next week. I’m not returning until next week. (That’s a particular arrangement.)

I shan’t be returning until next week. (That’s what I anticipate.)

The distinction between these uses is not a strict one.

(p) Going to is used for intention (15), before we have made a definite plan. For sudden intention (when we make up our mind or on the spur of the moment) it is usually replaced by the future simple. Compare the following with example 15: I’m taking a few days off next week. (I’ve already arranged it) so you’re going to Wales. What a good idea! I’ll take a few days off and come too!( I’ve suddenly thought of it) Going to is also used when we are convinced something is going to happen; either (i) because it has already started to happen or (ii) because of what we know of the circumstances. In the second use (ii), but not in the first, going to can alternate with the future simple tense: i She’s going to (not will) have a baby i She’s going to find /will find it difficult to carry on working. To express the future from the point of view of the past, going to may be used with was/were:

He was going to take a few days off; I hope he managed it. (s) NON‐USE OF PROGRESSIVE FORMS* when there is nothing in progress or happening, such as when we think (=believe) or have (=process) something, progressive forms are not used: i I think Kevin has two cars. Am I right? But ii I’m having (=taking) a holiday next month. I’m thinking of (=contemplating) going hang‐gliding. * stative verbs (g) FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE usually refers (8) to indefinite time (for 20 years) before or until then in the future (by then). But like past perfect and unlike the present perfect, it may sometimes refer to definite time:

I’ll be tired when I arrive, I’ll have had an exam the day before.

(q) FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE is similar in principle to j and k above, but with reference to what will have been in progress until then in the future.(16) (r) WILL AGAINST SHALL IN FUTURE TENSES. The question of which to use is not an important one. Apart from the fact that they are often contracted and therefore indistinguishable (16), it is seldom incorrect to use will with all persons (I, we, as well as she, you etc)

Exception

In questions asking for instructions or advice and not just for information, uncontracted shall is used, which changes to uncontracted should or was/were to. This difference in usage allows us to distinguish between meanings.

‘Sheila’ said Helen, ‘what shall I do if your friend Ken is late?’ ‐ Helen asked Sheila what she should /was to do if her friend Ken was late.

Helen asked Sheila what she should /was to do if her friend Ken was late. (=‘Sheila’ said Helen, ‘what’ll I do if your friend Ken is late?’)

(b) PAST PERFECT SIMPLE refers (2) to indefinite time until ( for three years) then, or before * then. It may also refer (3) to a definite time (in 1980) before then.

* as, for example in ‘I’d acted as a Managing Director several times before (then).’ Several times before and for three years are both indefinite because they do not answer the question When….? Compare five years ago, in 1980.

(j) PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE refers (10) to what was in progress until then. If the activity itself did not last until then, its effect did:

I couldn’t shake hands as mine were dirty; I’d been working on my car.

PRACTICE

Exercise 1

For each verb in brackets, choose one of the following tenses; the present, present perfect, past or past perfect, in either the simple or progressive form. If there is an adverb before the bracket, note the position it should have in a perfect or a progressive tense.

1.

When the North and South finally (1 lay) down their arms in 1865 at the end of the American Civil War they (2 fight) for over four years and the South, which (3 win) several battles but (4 lose) the war, (5 be) economically exhausted. It (6 be) a tragedy that Abraham Lincoln, who (7 lead) the North to victory and (8 be) now ready to be generous to the South, (9 not/survive) to make the peace. Five days after General Lee (10 surrender) at Appomattox, Lincoln (11 be) assassinated.

2.

‘What (1 do/you) with yourself lately? I (2 not/see) you for over a month.’ ‘I (3 be) in Stockholm since I last ( 4 see) you.’ ‘Really? How long (5be/you) there and what (6 do/you)?’ ‘Nearly three weeks. I (7 do) some research at the Royal Library. I think I already (8 tell) you that I (9 work) on a book about Scandinavia.’ ‘Yes. How (10 go/it)? ‘Not so bad. I (11 hope) to have it in the hands of the publisher by the end of the year.’ 3.

(On the telephone): Yes, I’m at Georgina’s house this evening. What (1 do/I ) here? I (2 babysit). She and her husband (3 go) to a party. Four‐four children. They (4 be) usually wild. I (5 babysit) here once when they all (6 start) screaming. But they (7 be) very good at the moment. I can see the youngest now in the room next door: she (8 eat) a huge box of chocolates that Georgina (9 give) me before she (10 leave). The others (11 find) a tin of paint and happily (12 paint) the walls of the kitchen. They (13 assure) me that they (14 do) this before and that their mother and father (15 have) no objection then. I only (16 hope) they (17 tell) me the truth. One of them (17 get) himself in a bit of a mess. I (18 try) to clean him up with paint remover, but so far without much success.

Exercise 2

Use the simple or progressive future, future perfect and present tenses, and the going to form ( the tenses and forms used for future time).

1. ‘I’ve just heard the weather forecast. It (1 snow) and that reminds me that Christmas soon (2 be) here. Have you any plans for a holiday? ‘I (3 fly) to Mercia to stay with a friend, but as I probably (4 not/get) a visa in time I’ve decided to cancel the trip. So it looks as if I (5 spend) Christmas at home as usual. (6 do/you) the same? ‘No, I (7 go) to Sweden.’ ‘Really? What (8 do/you) there?’ ‘I (9 do) some research for my book on Scandinavia. Then, if I have time, I (10 visit) friends in Dalarna, about three hundred kilometers from Stockholm.’ ‘So when (11 be/you) back in England?’ ‘I (12 fly) back on the eighth of January.’

2. ‘Do you think there (1 be) an election next month?’ ‘There definitely (2 be) one; they’ve just announced it on the radio. They haven’t given a date, but it probably (3 be) on the second Tuesday’. ‘Who do you think (4 win)?’ ‘I don’t know who (5 win) but the Government ( 6 lose).

3. I (1 see) Willi tomorrow at our weekly Japaneese class, so I (2 tell) him what you have just told me. He (3 be) very pleased to know that you have passed your music exam. What (4 do/you) next? (5 prepare) you for the higher grade?

4. I hope Brenda still (1 work) for me when I retire in six year’s time. She (2 retire) herself a few years afterwards, because she then (3 be) sixty. She (4 work) for the firm for twenty years by then and (5 qualify) for the firm’s full pension. She says that when she retires she (6 work) as a business consultant. She probably (7 earn) more money doing that than she does now. At the moment she is in London on a special assignment, but she (8 come) back tomorrow, so if you look in then I (9 introduce) you to her. (10 tell /I) her you may come?

5. ‘Have you heard the latest? I expect it (1 surprise) you. Helen and Dennis (2 get) married!’ ‘I (3 believe) that when it happens. I’m sure their engagement or whatever you like to call it (4 not/last) long they soon (5 start) quarreling again.’

Exercise 3. Choose a suitable tense for each verb (all tenses) in the brackets.

1.

Next month I (1 be) married for ten years. We (2 live) in this house fourteen years too. We (3 celebrate) the two anniversaries with a party to which we (4 invite) some friends and neighbours. Most of our neighbours (5 be) also our friends, and already (6 say) they (7 come). The family next door, however, (8 not/be) very friendly at the moment and the (9 decline) the invitation, presumably because a dispute about the fence between their garden and ours. We (10 have) the fence repaired last week, since it (11 be) broken for several months, with the result that dogs (12 get) in on several occasions and (13 do) quite a lot of damage. It is our neighbours who (14 be) responsible for the maintenance of this particular fence, and so we naturally (15 send) them the bill, which they so far (16 refuse) to pay.

2.

‘It (1 not/be) so very long ago that man first (2 land) on the moon. What an astonishing achievement that (3 be)! I remember how one evening at nine o’clock Armstrong and Aldrin ( 4 walk) about and ( 5 chat) 400,000 kilometers away, and you and I ( 6 watch) and (7 listen) to them. Nothing like it ever (8 happen) before and I sometimes (9 think) that nothing like it ever (10 happen) again.’

‘Why (11say/you) that nothing like it ever (12 happen) before? Astronauts from other planets ( 13 visit) our solar system ever since it (14 begin). At this very moment spaceships (15 hover) overhead and (16 watch) what you and I (17 do). As I (18 walk) home the other evening I (19 see) something in the sky which definitely (20 not/come) from anywhere on this planet. And if you (21 think) I (22 drink) you are wrong. That (23 not/be) the only time I (24 see) strange objects in the sky. I (25see) quite a few over the years and (26 report) them all to the UFO club. One day I (27write) a book about them. Tomorrow, though, I (28 go) to Manchester to buy the latest UFO literature.’

1

VERB TENSES‐ the past tense of certain verbs (with past participle)

Certain verbs, although they are quite common verbs, their past tenses often cause difficulty. Not all of them are irregular verbs since regular verbs (e.g. flow, lay, raise, stroke) can also cause difficulty through confusion with irregular ones (fly, lie, rise, strike).

Arise arose arisen Bet bet bet Bid bid bid Bind bound bound Bleed bled bled Broadcast broadcast broadcast Deal dealt dealt (rhymes with felt) Dig dug dug Fall fell fallen Feed fed fed Feel felt felt Flee fled fled Flow flowed flowed (rhymes with slow(ed)) Fly flew flown Forbid forbade forbidden Grow grew grown (rhymes with throw‐ threw

‐thrown ) Hit hit hit

Hurt hurt hurt Lay laid laid (rhymes with made not

said) Lie lay lain Quit quit quit Raise raised raised Rise rose risen Saw sawed Sawn/sawed (πριονίζω) Seek sought sought Sew sewed Sewn/sewed (pronounced like Saw) Shed shed shed

Shine shone shone Skid skidded skidded Slit slit slit Sow sowed Sown/sowed Speed up Speeded up Speeded up Split split split Spread spread spread (rhymes with made not

bread) Stick stuck Stuck

Strike stroked stroked Stroke stroked stroked Sue Sued sued (rhymes with made not

food) Swell swelled Swelled/swollen (swollen rhymes with

2

Exercise.

Combine the question and the answer to make a complete statement as shown in the examples below.

Example

What time did the sun rise? The sun rose just after 5 o’clock Just after 5 o’clock. 1. 1. How far did the car skid? Nearly thirty meters. 2. Why did the driver tread on the accelerator? Because he thought it was the break. 3. Did the accelerator stick wide open? Yes, it did. 4. What did the car hit? A lamp‐post 5. What did they bind the driver’s wound with? A piece of shirt. 6. How long did the passenger’s nose bleed? Quite a long time. 7. Where did the passenger lie down? On the pavement. 8. Where did the driver wake up? In hospital. 9. Who did they lay the blame on? The other driver. 10. How much did they sue him for? Twenty thousand pounds. 11. When did he quit his job? Straight after the accident.

12. Why did he flee the country? To escape the law. 13. Did anyone shed any tears when he left? No, no one. 14. Where did he seek refuge? In Australia. 15. Did he dig for gold there? Yes, he did. 16. Did he strike any gold? Hardly any. 17. Did he grow rich? No, grass. 18. Where did he sow grass? Wherever he could. 19. Why did he saw down trees? To make a fence for sheep. 20. What did he feed the sheep on? Bananas, of course!

stolen) Tread trod trodden (Tread rhymes with bread)

Wake woke woken weave wove woven

3

2.

1. Why did Sheila’s lip swell up? Because a wasp stung her. 2. How did Ken split his trousers? Climbing over the fence her. 3. Did Toby bet that Ken could not sew them up himself? Yes, he did. 4. Did Ken sew them up himself? Yes, he did. 5. How did Helen slit the envelope open? With her enormously long fingernail. 6. How did Marilyn speed up her typing? By going to evening classes. 7. How much did Zena bid for the Chinese vase? A couple of hundred . 8. When did she fall? Going down the stairs. 9. How did she feel about breaking the vase? Terrible. 10. Did she hurt herself? Yes, her wrist.

11. Where did all the water flow? Downstairs. 12. Why did Helen fly out of the room in a rage? Because of what her father said. 13. What did her father forbid her to do? Go out with Dennis. 14. How did her father deal with her? By stopping her monthly allowance. 15. Why did Dennis stroke Helen’s hand? To try and calm her down. 16. What rumor did Helen’s friends spread? That she was going to get married. 17. What did Marylyn weave her rugs on? The looms over there. 18. How much did she raise her prices by? Fifteen percent. 19. When did the question of a bank loan arise? At the directors’ meeting. 20. When did they broadcast the news? Just now, on the BBC.

Ρast Particip|e

lend

ιet

light

Ιose

make

mean

meet

pay

puι

reacι

ride

ring

rise

run

say

5ee

sell

send

set

5e\Λ/

shake

shine

shoot

show

shut

sing

sit

sreep

speaK

spend

stand

steal

stick

sting

s\Λ/ear

5\Λ/eep

swim

take

teach

tear

tell

thinkthro\Λ/

understand

lent

let

lit/lighted

Ιost

made

meanτ

met

paid

puι

read

rode

rang

roSe

ran

said

sa\ν

sold

sent

set

seνveο

shook

shone/shined

shot

showed

shut

sang

)aι

slept

spoke

spent

stood

stole

stuck

stung

5\Δ/ore

swept

5\Μam

tooktaughttore

told

thoughtthrew

understood

\MOKE

\nr'ore

\Λ/on

\Λ/rote

lent

let

lit/lightedιost

maαe

meanτ

met

paid

put

reacι

ridden

run9

risen

run

said

seen

sold

5enι

set

5e\Λ/n

shaken

shone/shined

shot

sno\Λ/n

shut

sun9

sat

slept

spoken

spent

stood

stolen

stuck

stung

s\Λ/orn

s\ffept

s\Λ/um

taken

taughtιorntoldthoughtthro\Λ/n

understood

woken

\Δ/orn

\Λ/on

written

wake

\Λ/ear

win

\Λ/rite

oe

bearι.^^+UEo ι

become

begin

bite

blowbreak

bring

build

burst

buy

can

catch

choose

come

co5ι

cut

deal

dig

do

draw

drink

drive

Eoι

fall

feedΞ^^|

fightfind

flv

forbid

forget

forgive

freeze

9eιgive

go

9ro\Λ/

have

near

hide

hit

hold

hurt

κeep

Knoνv

lead

teave

\Λ/a5,\Λ/ere

bore

beat

became

οegan

bit

blewbroke

brought

built

burst

bought

could

caught

chose

came

co5τ

cut

dealt

dug

did

drew

drank

drove

ate

fell

fed

feltfoughtfound

flewforbade

forgotforgave

froze

gotgave

\Μent

9re\Δ/

had

heard

hid

hit

held

hurt

kept

knew

led

left

been

born(e)

beaten

οecome

begun

bitten

blown

broken

brought

built

burst

bought

(been able to)

caught

cnosen

come

co5τ

cuι

dealt

dug

done

drawn

drunk

driven

eaιen

fallen

fed

felt

foughtfound

flownforbidden

forgotten

forgiven

frozen

gotten

given

9One

9ro\ffn

had

heard

hidden

hit

held

hurt

kept

Kno\Λ/n

led

left

1 grammar review - teilar.grteilar.gr/dbdata/profann/profann-e19a0f74.pdf · 3 •...

Documents