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Research Paper Writing

Mavis Shang

97年度第二學期

Section II

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Survey Research

I. Main Purpose of Survey Research:• Collect data from a larger number of people• Rely on individuals’ self-reports of their knowledge, attitudes, or behaviors

II. Design Phase:• Write the purpose of the survey (like a thesis statement)• Write research questions based on the purpose (thesis) (see p. 170)

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Survey Research

III. Three Design Considerations:

• Descriptive approach

• Cross-sectional approach

• Longitudinal approach

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Survey Research

• Descriptive approach: A survey describing

the characteristics of a sample at one point in

time (e.g., senior students’ research paper

writing difficulties in the Department of

Applied English at I-Shou University in 2009)

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Survey Research

• Cross-sectional approach: A survey examining several groups at one point in time (e.g., different grade level students’ writing difficulties in the AE Department at ISU in 2009)

Pro: Compare responses across different grade levels in a shorter time

Con: Not easy to make a comparison due to different subjects

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Survey Research

• Longitudinal approach: A survey examining one group at different points in time (e.g., 1-year, 2- year-, and 3-year graduates’ perceptions of RP course in the AE Department at ISU in 2006-2008)

Pro: Follow the same subjects over a period of time

Con: Take a longer time

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Survey Research

IV. Data Collection Choices: Mail, telephone, personal interviews, email, web-based surveys, etc.

• Mail: Pro: Collect closed-ended information; low cost; enough time for the respondents

Con: Lower response rates; no more in-depth information

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Survey Research

• Phone interviews:

Pro: Collect open-ended information; higher response rate; more additional information

Con: More costly; can’t observe participants’ body language and facial expressions

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Survey Research

• Personal interviews:

Pro: Less structured approach; more conversational style; easy to get additional information; highest response rate

Con: Take more time

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Survey Research

V. Sampling Plan:

• Identification of participants: Identify the participants who have the information you want or who have experienced the event

• Population definition: More specific about the participants’ sources

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Survey Research

• Two Sampling decisions:

1. Probability sampling: Need to specify to whom the results will be generalized 1-1. Sampling frame: to give a list of people who have a chance to be selected 1-2. Only choose the population included in the sampling frame

2. Purposeful sampling: Need to provide sufficient details about the important characteristics of the participants

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Survey Research

• Three sources of sampling errors:

1. Coverage errors: (a) should be in the sampling frame, but not there, (b) should not be in the frame, but in there

2. Nonresponse errors: (a) refuse to be interviewed, (b) can’t complete questionnaire, (c) can’t be reached

3. Sampling errors: Use different (wrong) sampling strategies drawn from a population

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Survey Research

VI. Designing the Questionnaire:

A. Review the literature: Borrow what has been designed before (with appropriate citations and permissions)

B. Develop your own questionnaire: 1. follow Delphi Technique : Ask experts to provide ideas for better questionnaire, and then do a pilot testing with a larger sample (see p. 180)

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Survey Research

2. Explain to yourself why asking each question

3. Decide format: Open (answer questions in own words) or closed format (multiple-choice, true-false, checklist)

4. Do a pilot study to include all alternative responses

5. Avoid psychologically threatening (socially desirable) questions

6. Clear items: Provide a definition of the terms first

7. Short items

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Survey Research

8. Avoid negative wording questions (e.g., Which of these are not ……?)

9. Avoid items that ask more than one idea

10.Use appropriate word level

11.Avoid leading questions

12.Emphasize critical words by using italics or underlining or bold letters

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Survey Research

VII. Formatting the Questionnaire:

1. Make it attractive

2. Organize and lay out the questions

3. Number the items and pages

4. Put the returned address and name at the beginning and end of the questionnaire

5. Include brief, clear instructions

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Survey Research

6. Use examples if necessary

7. Organize the questions in a logical sequence

8. Begin with a few interesting and nonthreatening items

9. Do not put the most important items at the end

10.Avoid using questionnaire or checklist on the form

(use the title “Response Form”)

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Survey Research

VIII. Pilot Testing the Questionnaire:

1. Select a sample similar to your population

2. Give more spaces for writing comments

3. Encourage pilot participants to give suggestions

4. Follow the procedures that you plan to use in your study

5. Add, change, or delete any questions if necessary

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IX. Special Types of Questions:

1. Demographic questions: 1-1. Background information (see p. 186)

2. Nonthreatening behavioral questions: 2-1. Ask general questions on usual behavior first 2-2. Bounded recall: “e.g., In the last year……..” 2-3. Wording of question: “e.g., Are your difficulties in writing a research paper mainly due to your grammar problem?”

Survey Research

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3. Threatening behavioral questions: Any questions elicit a defensive reaction in the participant; better to use :

3-1. open-ended questions 3-2. longer questions with explanations 3-3. familiar words 3-4. put answers into sealed envelopes 3-5. use appropriate wording (e.g., “Did you ever happen to ….”, “Such behaviors occur with different frequencies….”) 3-6. use multiple measures until getting the truth

Survey Research

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4. Knowledge questions: Ask questions to test participants’ knowledge of a subject in school; better to use: 4-1. knowledge questions before asking attitude questions 4-2. appropriate level of difficulty 4-3. avoid asking “Do you happen to know …..?” 4-4. avoid using mail survey (may check up the answer)

Survey Research

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Survey Research

5. Attitude questions: Should give a definition of the term or concept in advance; better to ask: 5-1. three kinds of attitudes: 5-1-1. affective (like vs. dislike): How does the person feel about this? 5-1-2. cognitive (knowledge): What does the person know about this? 5-1-3. action: What is the person willing to do about this?

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Survey Research

5-2. assess attitude strength (e.g., How much do you like or dislike ….?)5-3. avoid asking more than one concept (e.g., Would you vote for me and peace or my opponent and war?)5-4. use bipolar questions (e.g., Are you satisfied or dissatisfied with …….?)5-5. move on to measure degree of positive or negative attitude (e.g., Are you strongly satisfied or moderately satisfied with …….?)5-6. Use five points/alternatives on the rating scale

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Survey Research

X. Letter of Transmittal: A cover letter to specify the purpose of the survey; hints to motivate the returned questionnaires

1. Appeal to authority: Need the well-known person’s signature

2. Appeal to self-interest: “You are one of the few people with the intelligence to be able to help us with this issue.”

3. Appeal to professional interests: “This is a very important question in our field (society).”

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4. Appeal to altruism: “The results of this survey will be used to solve one of our students’ writing problems.”

5. Appeal to curiosity: Offer to send a copy of the results

6. Appeal to greed: Offer to send a monetary incentive

7. Appeal to a sense of connection: Enclose a tea bag or a pencil

(more details will be shown in the consent form)

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Survey Research

XI. Conducting the Survey:

1. Send out an advance (cover) letter2. Enclose the questionnaire with the transmittal letter 3. Supervise the data collection4. Send a follow-up to nonrespondents 4-1. send again 4-2. send a postcard reminder 4-3. make a call5. Control processing errors6. Enter the data into the database7. Clean up the data before you begin analysis

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Survey Research

XII. Notes Specific to Personal Interviews:

1. Hold an introductory meeting to share the purpose, and get assurance to participate

2. Schedule the interview time3. Make a flexible interview4. Don’t use yes or no questions; plan to ask open-ended questions

(e.g., How do you feel about …..? What is you opinion about …..? What do you think about ….?)

5. Conclude with open-ended questions: (e.g., Is there anything that I didn’t ask about…..? Is there anything that you wanted to tell me….?)

6. Pretest your interview procedures

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XIII. Starting and Conducting the Interview:

1. Briefly review the purpose of the interview and information needed

2. Focus on what the participant is saying

3. Sequence the questions from general to specific

4. Ask for specific examples

5. Ask a variety of different kinds of questions (see p. 201)

6. Avoid asking “why” questions; better to use “how come”

7. Use role play or simulation questions (If I were your …..)

8. Record the interview and take notes