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UN Charter Article 33(1) lists methods to peacefullysettle disputes between states.聯合國憲章第 33條第 1項列明了和平解決國家之間糾紛

的方法

Not always clear when dispute is "international";for example: is PRC/Taiwan dispute one betweenstates?何時糾紛是國際性的並不总是清晰的；例如：中國大陸與台灣之間的糾紛是否是國家间的？

The Peaceful Settlement ofInternational Disputes

國際糾紛的和平解決

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PRC/Taiwan dispute

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If dispute is international, it must be settled by peaceful means若糾紛是國際性的，它必須以和平方法解決

Two categories of settlement methods: 兩類的解決方法：

1. states rely on own resources;一、國家靠自己的資源

2. state get help of international entities二、國家求助於國際團體

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• Another way of dividing methods:另一划分方法

•1. non-judicial非司法性

• 2. quasi-judicial准司法性

• 3. judicial司法性

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Negotiations: by correspondence, or face-to-face談判：書面或面對面

Often condition for exercise of jurisdiction by international tribunals (Mavrommatis Case)往往是在國際性裁判團體執行管轄權的條件下进行(Mavrommatis 案 )

Negotiations can be used to lend legitimacy to use of force談判可用以將使用武力合法化

Negotiations usually advantage strong states談判通常有利於強國

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Good offices = 3d party (person, state, or international organ.) who brings parties into negotiations斡旋是指將各方引入談判的第三方﹝如個人、國家或國際團體﹞

3d party meets separately with each of parties to dispute. Serves as “honest broker”第三方分別與糾紛各方分別會面，有如「誠實的中間人」一樣工作

Example: “Contadora” states in 1980s that sought to settle US/Nicaragua dispute例如八十年代，孔塔多拉集團尋求方法解決美國與尼加拉瓜之间的糾紛

Inquiry is designation of persons or institution to be impartial fact-finder or investigatory body調查是任命人或機構成為公平的事實查證者或調查團體

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Commissions of inquiry good at settling boundary disputes調查委員會擅長於處理邊界糾紛

Dogger Case (1904) Russian fleet sinks British fishing boat, thinking it was Japanese torpedo boatDogger 案 (1904) 中，俄國海軍打沉英國漁船，誤以為那是日本漁雷艇

Hague Conference commission of five, with three neutrals used海牙會議有五名成員的委員會，有三名是中立的

Held: Russians negligent and had to pay Britain認為俄國人有過失，所以需要賠償英國

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Grand Chaco War of 1920s settled by commission of inquiry1920 年代大廈穀戰爭由調查委員會解決

UN SC or GA may establish inquiry commissions聯合國安全理事會或全體大會可以成立調查委員會

Conciliation is submission of dispute to already established commission or single person調和是将糾紛呈交給已成立的委員會或個人

Facts examined; solution proposed事實考證；提議解決方法

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Parties usually pay attention to conciliators’ report當事國通常注重调停者的報告

Many treaties have conciliation clauses, e.g Law of Sea treaty很多條約均有调和條款，例如《海洋法公約》

Conciliation procedures used in Iceland-Norway dispute over continental shelf ownership冰島─挪威之間有關大陸架所有權的爭議所使用的调和過程

Conciliation commission decisions not binding, but can be more flexible than those of courts调和委員會的決定是無約束力的，但是較法院的決定更有彈性

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Example: joint development zone proposed for Iceland/Norway continental shelf例如：建議冰島 / 挪威的大陸架聯合發展區

Mediation like good offices, but mediator active in settlement; meets with parties jointly調停好像斡旋，但調停人在處理時很主動， 與糾紛國家一起會面

Mediator makes substantive suggestions; should be neutral調停人作出重要的建議，應是中立的

US President T. Roosevelt mediated end of Russo-Japanese War; Pres. Carter mediated end of Egypt-Israel dispute美國總統羅斯福調停以令蘇日戰爭結束；總統卡特調停以令埃及─以色列的糾紛結束

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Norweign foreign minister mediated Israel-Palestine dispute挪威外交部長調停以色列─巴勒斯坦的糾紛

Good offices, inquiry, conciliation and mediation all non-judicial斡旋、調查、和解和調停全部是非司法性

Arbitration is quasi-judicial; produces binding decision仲裁是准司法性 , 產生有約束力的決定

Arbitration tribunal not part of permanent judicial body.仲裁法院不是永久司法體系的一部分

Arbitrator(s), jurisdiction and rules agreed on by parties仲裁者，管轄權和規則皆被當事國認同

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Israel-Palestine dispute

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Many treaties call for arbitration; arbitration commissions sometimes settle hundreds of cases很多條約提倡仲裁；仲裁委員會有時會處理數以百計的案件

Alabama Case (1872) provided impetus to modern arbitration阿拉巴馬案 (1872)為现代仲裁提供了推動力

Most friendship & navigation treaties, civil aviation treaties have arbitration clauses大部分友好和航海條約、民航條約皆有仲裁條款

Permanent Court of Arbitration under Hague Peace Conference「海牙和平議會」之下設立了「常設仲裁法院」

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PCA has roster of arbitrators常設仲裁法院有仲裁員的名單

Iran/US Claims Tribunal biggest example of arbitration伊拉克 / 美國求償法院是仲裁最重要的例子

If no treaty arbitration provision, compromise needed to identify issues and rules and pledge parties to obey arbitrator若無仲裁條約可用，需要協議來界定問題與規定並說服各當事國服從仲裁人

1959 UN Convention on Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 1959 年聯合國《承認和執行外國仲裁裁決的公約》

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Beagle Channel Arbitration (1977); dispute between Chile and Argentina over islands比格爾海峽仲裁案 (1977) ；智利和和阿根庭對於島嶼的爭議

UK arbitrated. Decision for Chile rejected by Argentina. Pope had to intervene英國負責仲裁。阿根庭拒絕對智利的決定。教皇不得不幹預

Most arbitration panels have one arbitrator from each state, plus one neutral.大部分的仲裁小組由雙方各任命一名仲裁員，加上一個中立的仲裁員

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• Neutral can be selected by ICJ and some arbitration decisions reviewed by ICJ中立的仲裁員可被國際法院所選擇，國際法院也会複核一些仲裁決定

• Arbitrators usually give something to both sides; no loss of face 仲裁員通常給雙方工作 ; 沒有丟臉的問題

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Adjudication 判決

1. takes place before permanent tribunal在常設法院前發生2. tribunals has fixed number of judges法院有固定數目的法官3. judges use law as basis of decision法官以法律為決定的基礎

International adjudication goes back to Central American Court of Justice (1907-1918)國際性判決復回到中美洲法院 (1907-1918 年 )

Permanent Court of International Justice (1920-1939)國際常設法院 (1920-1939)

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International Court of Justice (1946-present)國際法院 (1946 年至現在 )

Although ICJ part of UN, UN member states don‘t have to accept its jurisdiction雖然國際法院是聯合國的一部分，聯合國的成員國不一定要接納其管轄權

ICJ has 15 judges who serve as individuals國際法院有十五個以個人身分服務的法官

Only states can be parties to ICJ cases; individuals excluded只有國家可以是國際法院案件的當事人，不包括個人

International organizations (IOs) can work with ICJ on case國際組織可以與國際法院就案件一起工作

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States must seek binding decisions; IOs can seek non-binding decisions國家必須尋求有約束力的裁決，國際組織可以尋求沒有約束力的裁決

States not members of UN can use ICJ with authorization of UN SC非聯合國成員的國家在聯合國安理會的授權下，可以利用國際法院

ICJ has contentious jurisdiction in cases where both states accept that jurisdiction. States can當兩國接納時，國際法院具有訴訟管轄權。國家可以

1. accept jurisdiction on ad hoc basis for particular case就特別案例在臨時的基礎上接受管轄權

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2. adhere to treaty in which ICJ jurisdiction is specified for disputes involving that treaty就同特定條約相關的事宜接受管轄權

3. proclaim under “optional clause” of ICJ statute that it recognizes ICJ jurisdiction in all cases in which other party also recognizes it (reciprocity principle)宣稱根據國際法院規約的可選擇性條款，只要其他當事國也接受，國際法院對所有的案件都有管轄權﹝互惠原則﹞

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Reciprocity principle: all jurisdictional defenses that complaining state might be able to make are also available to respondent state互惠原則：所有投訴國家可提出的司法性辯護，同時亦是相對國家可提出的

Example: Case of Certain Norweign Loans (France v. Norway) (1957)例如：某些法國與挪威貸款案﹝法國對挪威﹞ (1957)

France sued Norway. France had accepted ICJ jurisdiction with “self-judging reservation” (no ICJ jurisdiction as to what France deems internal affairs).法國控告挪威，法國有「自我審判保留」的情況下接納國際法院的管轄權﹝法國認為對於內務事務國際法院是沒有管轄權的﹞

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Norway had accepted ICJ jurisdiction with “self-judging reservation.” Under reciprocity principle, Norway could make use of “self-judging reservation.”挪威也接納了「自我審判保留」的國際法院管轄權。根據互惠原則，挪威可以利用「自我審判保留」

ICJ judgments are final; no appeal國際法院的判斷是最終的，無上訴权

If losing party fails to comply with judgment, winning party can raise matter in UN SC; SC can adopt enforcement measures若敗訴一方沒有遵行判決，勝訴一方可向聯合國安全理事會提出；安全理事會可以採取強制的措施

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Permanent members of SC may veto enforcement measures.安理會常任理事國可投票否決強制措施

ICJ also has advisory jurisdiction國際法院也有諮詢性管轄權

Used by UN. Some treaties make advisory opinions binding.被聯合國所用。一些條約令諮詢意見有約束力

ICJ suits have become important:國際法院的訴訟已经變得重要

Yinhe incident銀河號事件

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Libyan bombers利比亞轟炸

Iran v. US oilwells case伊朗對美國的油井事件

Panamanians v. US巴拿馬人訴美國

Court of Justice of European Communities set up in 1952歐洲共同體法院成立於 1952 年

Cases involve states, corporations and individuals. Interprets European Union law案件包括國家、公司和個人。闡釋《歐洲聯盟法》

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European Court of H.R. set up in 1959.歐洲人權法院於 1959 年成立

Interprets Eur. Convention on H.R.闡釋《歐洲人權公約》

Individuals cannot use, but may file complaints with European Commission on HR. Commission may refer case to Court個人不能利用，但可向歐洲人權委員會提出投訴。委員會可把案件轉交法院處理

Benelux Court of Justice covers Belgium, Netherlands, LuxemburgBenelux法院涉及到比利時、荷蘭和盧森堡

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Inter-American Court of H.R> enforces American Convention on HR and other h.r. treaties美洲人權法院執行美洲人權公約和其它的人權公約

Only Inter-American Commission on H.R. and states may bring cases, but Commission can refer cases brought by individuals to Court祗有美洲人權委員會及國家才可以提交案件，但委員會可轉介個人提交的案件到法院

Some IOs have dispute settlement mechanism部分國際組織有解決糾紛的機制

UN has jurisdiction in disputes among member states where peace threatened當和平受到威脅時，聯合國對會員國之間的糾紛擁有管轄權

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May recommend that parties take dispute to ICJ or may use force or economic sanctions.可以推薦各方將糾紛提交國際法院或利用武力或經濟制裁

May work out peace plan, as in Cambodia in 1990可以制訂和平方案，例如 1990 年在柬埔寨

If SC doesn‘t handle matter where there’s threat to peace, then GA may do so, e.g. by advisory opinion在和平受到威脅時，如果安理會並沒有處理事件，那麼全體大會便會處理，例如諮詢性意見

UN can appoint special commissions, e.g. Kashmir dispute聯合國可以委任特別委員會，例如克什米爾糾紛

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Cambodia

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UN encourages use of regional organizations before dispute taken to SC聯合國鼓勵在將糾紛提交安理會之前，先利用地區性組織

UN may use regional arrangement to enforce its own settlement聯合國可能利用地區性安排以執行它本身的解決方法

No enforcement action should be taken under regional arrangements without authorisation of SC在地區性安排沒有安理會授權的情況之下，不應該有強制性行動

OAS American Treaty of Pacific Settlement includes good offices, mediation, conciliation, arbitration and ICJ judicial settlement美洲國家組織《關於和平解決爭端的美洲條約》包括斡旋、調停、和解、仲裁和國際法院的司法解决

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OAS has Inter-American Peace Committee for Peaceful Settlement美洲國家組織設有「關於和平解決爭端的美洲和平委員會」

OAU has Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration (rarely used)非洲統一組織設有「調停、和解及仲裁委員會」﹝很少使用﹞

Arab League, NATO also have intervened to settle disputes. 阿拉伯聯盟、北約均曾经干預解決糾紛