CIVIL ENGINEERINGHISTORICAL

CONTEXT

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Civil Engineering Civil engineering is the oldest of the main

disciplines of engineering. The first engineering school, the National

School of Bridges and Highways in France, was opened in 1747.

John Smeaton was the first person to actually call himself a "Civil Engineer". (noted for his design of an all-masonry lighthouse on Eddystone reef)

In 1828 the world's first engineering society came into being, the Institution of Civil Engineers in England.

Homo erectus1,600,000 - 500,000 BC: Homo erectus

Homo sapiens neandertalensis100,000 - 33,000 BC: Homo neanderthalensis

graves

Ice Ages Stone tools 125,000: Homo sapiens sapiens

STRUCTURES THROUGH TIME

EGYPTIAN

The Pyramid of Chephren

The Pyramid of Cheops

The differences of the length of four base sides are 111mm maximum and 7mm minimum. The maxmum difference of the level of base is only 21mm.

The pyramid of Chephren, Sphinx and the pyramid of Mycerinus

The Valley temple of King Chephren. South half of T-shaped hypostyle hall

Deir El-Bahari; Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (18th Dinasty, B.C. 1490-1468) and Mentuhotep II,III (11th Dinasty, B.C.2061-1998), Thebes, Egypt

The Temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak, 12th dynasty-Ptolemaic period, c.2000 B.C.-c.220 B.C. ; Karnak, Egypt

The center columns (opened papyrus columns) are 3.5m in diameter and 21.08m high

MESO-AMERICANOLMEC, MAYA,

AZTEC

Teotihuacan, Mexico; Proto Classic-Early Classic; B.C.100-600

In Early Classic Period, The city covered more than 20sq.km.(13 square miles) and attained a maximum population of 200,000.

Plaza of the Moon and Avenue of the Dead. View from the Pyramid of the Moon.

The size of the Pyramid of the Moon is 140mx150m at the base, 45.8m height. A.D.100-350.

Tikal, Guatemala, Tikal; Late Classic; B.C.300-900

Temple I (Temple of the Jaguars)

The temple has a sculpture of jaguars and the secret crypt. The height is 51 m

Temple II (Temple of the Mask)

There is a relief of the Mask on the roof-comb. The height is 42m and the lowest among the 5 pyramids

CHINA

趙州橋全長 64.4 米，拱頂寬 9 米，拱腳寬 9.6 米，跨徑 37.02 米，拱矢 7.23 米。從整體看，它是一座單孔弧形石橋，由 28 道石拱券縱向並列砌築而成。

GREEK

Temple of Apollo; Greece, Korinthos; About 540 B.C.

Parthenon; Greece, Athens; 447 B.C

Odeon of Herodes Atticus; Greece, Athens; C. 161 A.D.

Temple of Hephaestos; Greece, Athens 450-440 B.C.

The base is 4.45m x 32.53m square and center of the base is slightly raised up as the temple of Parthenon. The proportion of the base is almost 4 by 9 which is same as the Temple of Parthenon but the temple of Hephaestos is smaller than the cella of the Partenon.

Colinthian column. About 17m height and about 1.9m diameter.

Detail of Corinthian capital designed by Roman architect Cossutius. The design of this capital became the model of Corinthian order. Vitruvius, An old Roman architect, wrote that the cella of the temple had not the ceiling and roof.

ROMAN

Maison Carree; France, Nimes; approx. B.C.19

Meison Carree is one of those built in about B.C.20-19 by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Augustus' son-in-law. Mason Carre is a pseudoperipteros temple with 6 Corinthian columns in front in Early Imperial Rome period when the Roman temples have been strongly influenced by Greek temple style.

Pont du Gard, France, Nimes; late B.C.1c.(about B.C.20)

•On the top of the 35 small arches, about 8.5 m high 3 m wide, support the waterway.•The big arch, the bottom arch and middle arch, have 3 times or 4 times of the small arch in span and 6 times of the small arch in height. •There was only 17 m fall from the headwaters to Nimes and that meant the incline was 34 cm per 1 km.

•The bottom arches, which spans are 15.75 m to 21.5 m, are about 155 m long, 20 m high.•On the top of the bottom arches is a 7 m wide road which has expanded for the traffic of cars in 1743.•The middle arches are same spans of the bottom arches and the length is about 265 m in total. The height of middle part is about 21 m and width is 5 m.

The protruding stones were for supporting scaffolds at under construction.

Pantheon, Italy, Rome; 118-35 A.D.

The interior is a perfect circle which diameter and height are exactly same, 43m.The wall is 6.05m thick and on the lower level are seven niches with a pair of Corinthian columns.The lower level and the second level are divided by the cornis in the ratio of a square root of 2 to 1.

Colosseum; Italy, Rome; 72 A.D.

GOTHIC

Cathedral Paris; France, Paris; 1163-1250

Flying buttress

Cathedral Amiens; France, Amiens; about 1220-1410

Cathedral Amiens is the largest and most Classical of French cathedrals in Gothc era.The height of the ceiling is about 42.3m (about 37m at Cathedral Chartres, about 38m at Cathedral Reims) and the width of the nave is about 14.6m. The Cathedral Amien was built in 1152 with the Romanesque style and burnt in 1218 by lightnings.The reconstruction was started in about 1220 and the nave was completed in about 1245.

Duomo, Milano; Italy, Milano; 1386-1577, west front 1616-1813

The biggest and greatest late gothic architecture in Italy.The gothic style is unfamiliar in Italy and the renaissance style is essentially Italian.

Extremely linear design shows unstructural power against it's structure.

RENAISSANCE

St. Maria del Fiore, Italy, Firenze; Dome=1418-1436; Dome=by Filippo Brunelleschi

This had started to built, originally Gothic architecture, in 1296. The bell tower was built in 1334-87 by Giotto.The octagonal dome was designed by Brunelleschi in 1418 and was built in 1420-36.The diameter of inside of the dome is 43m, which is same as Pantheon, Roma.

BAROQUE

Colonnade of S. Pietro; Italy, Roma; 1656-1667; by Lorenzo Bernini

Johann Sebastian Bach's life (1685-1750)

ROMAN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Roman Concrete Roman concrete (opus caementicium), like

modern concrete, is an artificial building material composed of an aggregate, a binding agent, and water. Aggregate is essentially a filler, such as gravel, chunks of stone and rubble, broken bricks, etc.

Binding agent is a substance which is mixed with the aggregate wet (water added) and solidifies when it dries, or "sets."

Many materials, even mud, can be a binding agent, and used to make, what we generally call, mortar.

Historically lime or gypsum, mixed with rubble stones, have been used as binding agents in making a strong mortar.

Roman contribution to this basic structural mixture was the addition as primary binding agent pozzolona, a special volcanic dust found in central Italy.

Pozzolona created an exceptionally strong bond with the aggregate.

In most parts of the Roman world, where similar volcanic powders could not be found, local materials such as lime or gypsum were used as binding agents.

The binding agent used in modern concrete is called "cement," or Portland cement.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS: CISTERNS,

RESERVOIRS, AQUEDUCTS

In Pompeii, before the construction of the city's aqueduct at the end of the 1st century B.C., individual water tanks (impluvium) often located in the atrium of a house, under the roof opening, provided the modest water needs of the household.

Larger houses or villas, often depended on extensive cisterns. Villa Jovis, emperor Tiberius' retreat high up on the rocky eastern end of the water-starved island of Capri, was virtually designed around a courtyard supported by a vast netweork of concrete, vaulted cisterns.

One of the most impressive and immense cisterns ever created in the Roman world is near Pozzuoli, in the bay of Naples.

Known locally as "Piscina Mirabile," this gigantic structure has over fifty square bays of tall, soaring vaults.

All things being equal, the constant fresh supply of water brought by an aqueduct was preferred over a reservoir supply.

Early in their history Romans developed a highly effective systems of bringing water in conduits to their cities from sources many miles away.

The conduits were either open channels, or more commonly, pipes made of clay or bronze or lead, laid underground.

The system relied predominantly on gravity, the water source had to be higher than the city served by it.

Impressive as these are, they constituted only a small portion of a water-line which could be 30-40 miles long.

Rome's first aqueduct, Aqua Appia, dates back to 312 B.C.

By the beginning of the 2nd century A.D., the capital was served by nine aqueducts supplying a total of one-million cubic meters of water daily.

Once water was brought into the city it was piped to different neighborhoods from special distribution tanks (castella).

Imperial establishments, baths and public fountains received priority over private uses.

Pont du Gard One of the best preserved, textbook,

examples of a Roman aqueduct is the Pont du Gard, built by Augustus' friend Agrippa, ca. 20 B.C..

This aqueduct brought water to Nimes in southern France (ancient Nemassus) from a source 30 miles away.

The three-tiered arches of the structure cross the valley of River Gardon at a height of 150-feet.

Water ran at a slope of 1:3000 in an open conduit on the uppermost level

The bottom arches, which spans are 15.75 m to 21.5 m, are about 155 m long, 20 m high.

On the top of the bottom arches is a 7 m wide road which has expanded for the traffic of cars in 1743.

The middle arches are same spans of the bottom arches and the length is about 265 m in total. The height of middle part is about 21 m and width is 5 m.

On the top of the 35 small arches, about 8.5 m high 3 m wide, support the waterway.

The big arch, the bottom arch and middle arch, have 3 times or 4 times of the small arch in span and 6 times of the small arch in height.

There was only 17 m fall from the headwaters to Nimes and that meant the incline was 34 cm per 1 km.

The Ephesian aqueduct (Turkey)

Valencia Aqueduct

In the 3rd-century aqueduct which supplied the hill-top city Aspendos in Pamphylia (in southern Turkey), water was brought from a high mountain source under pressure in closed and sealed stone pipeline.

In order to relieve the excessive pressures built up in such a closed system (technically a siphon), three "pressure towers" were incorporated into the 850-meter stretch of the aqueduct arcade.

DAMS AND URBAN WATERWAYS

In the arid desert climate of North Africa many of the present-day oases, such as the Oasis near Gabes in Tunisia had been developed by Roman engineers.

The remains of a Roman dam built of blocks of sandstone improved the natural desert source and created a large reservoir of water.

http://id-archserve.ucsb.edu/arthistory/152k/large_pictures/lgA84.1.htm

Aezane Dam One of the best preserved and most

impressive operations in taming a torrential and uneven waterway is the dam built across the wide and hauntingly beautiful valley of River Rhyndacus, near Aezane in Asia Minor (A82, A81).

This dam also serves as a bridge connecting the main highways across the valley (B18, B17).

Urban Waterways

Many Roman cities had pools, artificial lakes, and urban canals which were integrated into the city's overall water distribution and public fountain system.

In Aezane, already mentioned, colonnades and public spaces lined both sides of the river which seems to have been developed as an urban artery just like a street.

A well-preserved and stunning example of a similar urban canal occupying the middle of a long colonnaded avenue in Perge, in Pamphylia, a province in southern Asia Minor

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS

In a centralized administrative system, such as the Romans had, a comprehensive network of paved highways, was a political and military expediency.

It ensured the fast and safe movement of troops, imperial decrees, personal mail, and provided reliable commercial ties between the cities and provinces.

In typical Roman road construction, a mosaic of heavy paving blocks closely trimmed and fitted is laid over a bedding of gravel and sand. Often, sturdy curb stones limit the sides.

Main southern highways entered Rome through Porta Maggiore

Via Piperatica

Ephesus, one of the largest cities in Roman Asia Minor: the Arcadiane connected the theater at the hearth of the town to the busy harbor in a straight shot (Turkey)

In Djemila and Hippo Regius, small but important provincial Roman cities in North Africa, streets paved with large, finely fitted paving blocks

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution

“This extraordinary metal, the soul of every manufacture, and the mainspring perhaps, of civilized society.” Samuel Smiles, Invention and Industry

Britannia Tubublar Bridge over the Menai Straits - 1849 This bridge excited

the attention of the world engineering community unlike any structure of its time.

While criticism was levelled at its uneconomic use of material compared with various truss designs, the intellectual effort involved in its design and construction was, and remains, a source of wonder.

Chelsea Suspension Bridge - 1860 Designed by Thomas

Page, the first Chelsea suspension bridge was demolished in the 1930s due to increased traffic loads.

p.51

Pontcysyllte, completed in 1805, to carry the Ellesmeré Canal over the Dee Valley near Llangollen.Length 307 mMax. height 38.7 m19 cast-iron arches, each spanning 13.7 m

The Union Bridge across the Tweed, linking Scotland and England, was built in 1820 by Captain (later Sir Samuel) Brown.

Conway River Bridge

The Menai Strait Bridge, Wales, England. It was never the world’s longest unsupported span: the Taoguan (Peach Pass) bridge in Szechuan, China, built in 1776, spanned 200 m.

Total length 521 mSuspended span 176 mTotal height of towers 46.6 mElevated deck above Strait 30.5 m

The Victorian Achievement

The Britannia Railway Bridge, Menai Strait, Wales

The Clifton Suspension Bridge as it is today, spanning 214 m across the Avon Gorge.