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CH 1

Introduction toAnimal Anatomy

and Physiology

Credit: Carlos J Bidot Author 2006

Revised 2010


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Gross Anatomy

Regional all structures in one part of the

body (such as the abdomen or leg)

Systemic gross anatomy of the body

studied by system

Surface study of internal structures as

they relate to the overlying skin


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Microscopic Anatomy

Cytology study of the cell

Histology study of tissues


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Developmental Anatomy

Traces structural changes throughout life

Embryology study of developmentalchanges of the body before birth


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Specialized Branches of

Anatomy

Pathological anatomy study of

structural changes caused by disease

Radiographic anatomy study of internal

structures visualized by X ray

Molecular biology study of anatomical

structures at a sub-cellular level


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Exploratory Surgery

Medical Imaging

Cytology

Gross Anatomy

Histology


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Chemical level

Atoms combine to

form molecules

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2

3

4

Cellular level

Cells are made up of molecules

Tissue level

Tissues consist of

similar types of

cells

5 Organ system level

Organ systems consist of different organs

that work together closely

Organ level

Organs are made up of

different types of tissues

6 Organismal level

The human organism is

made up of many organ

systems

Atoms

Molecules

Smooth m uscle cel l

Smooth

muscle

t issue

Connectivetissue

Smoothmuscletissue

Epithelialtissue

Bloodvessel

(organ)

Heart

Blood

vessels

Cardiovascular

system

Levels of Structural Organization

Figure 1.1


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Physiology

Considers the operation of specific

organ systems

Renal kidney function

Neurophysiology workings of the nervous

system

Cardiovascular operation of the heart and

blood vessels Focuses on the functions of the body,

often at the cellular or molecular level


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Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a

relatively stable internal environment in an

ever-changing outside world

The internal environment of the body is in

a dynamic state of equilibrium

Chemical, thermal, and neural factors

interact to maintain homeostasis


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Homeostatic Imbalance

Disturbance of homeostasis or the

bodys normal equilibrium

Overwhelming of negative feedback

mechanisms allowing destructive positive

feedback mechanisms to take over-

possible disease or death.


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Anatomical Position

Body erect

Feet slightly apart

Palms facing forward Thumbs point away

from body

Figure 1.7a


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Directional Termsterms used to describe positions of structures on body, relative to other structures or

locations- each directional term usually has a partner term which has an oppositemeaning

Superior and inferior toward and away

from the head, respectively

Anterior and posterior toward the front

and back of the body

Medial, lateral, and intermediate

toward the midline, away from the midline,

and between a more medial and lateral

structure


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Directional Terms Table 1.1


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- some terms differ from those used in human anatomy,due to quadruped posture of domestic animals

- relative position on trunk of animal can bedescribed by termscranial & caudal

Cranial:nearer to the head of the animalCaudal:nearer to tail

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- relative position on a limb:

- Proximal: nearer to attachment of the

appendage to the body- Distal: farther away from the attachment ofappendage to the body

- relative position of structures on the front & backsides of the limbs of an animal require two sets ofdescriptive terms

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- positions relative to the outer surface of the animal aredescribed by the terms superficial and deep

superficial:structure is near the body surface

deep:structure is farther away from surface

-positions of structures can also be described by the termsmedial and lateral

medial:structure is near the midline of the limb/trunk/head

lateral:structure is farther away from the midline of

the limb/trunk/ head

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Regional Terms: Anterior View

Axial head,

neck, and

trunk

Appendicular

appendages

or limbs

Specific

regional

terminology

Figure 1.7a


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Regional Terms: Posterior View

Figure 1.7b


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Body Planes

Sagittal divides the body into right and

left parts Midsagittal or medial sagittal plane that

lies on the midline

Frontal or coronal divides the body intoanterior and posterior parts

Transverse or horizontal (cross section)

divides the body into superior andinferior parts

Oblique section cuts made diagonally


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Body Planes Figure 1.8


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Anatomical Planes of Section Terminology

-planes of section are often used to describe surgical incisionsor other sections ("cuts") made on the whole animal, abody part, or an organ eg orientation of the sound waves inan ultrasound scan

- an animal/body part/organ is a three-dimensional object, 3

main orientations of these planes:

atransverse planeof section divides the trunk or head into a front(rostral or cranial) half and a back (caudal) half

the section is perpendicular to the long axis of the head or trunk

a transverse section can also be made of the limb: the limb isdivided into proximal & distal halves

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- adorsal/coronalsection divides the head or trunk into

upper and lower halves along the long axis

- amediansection divides the head, trunk or limb intoequal right and left halves along the long axis of the bodypart

- a sagittal section is a section parallel to the medianplane of the animal

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Anatomical Variability

Humans vary slightly in both external

and internal anatomy

Over 90% of all anatomical structures

match textbook descriptions, but:

Nerves or blood vessels may be

somewhat out of place

Small muscles may be missing Extreme anatomical variations are

seldom seen


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Anatomical Variation

Abdominal Aorta and Common Iliac Arteries


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Body Cavities

Figure 1.9a

Body Cavities


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Body Cavities

Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system,

and is divided into two subdivisions Cranial cavity is within the skull and

encases the brain

Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebralcolumn and encases the spinal cord

Ventral cavity houses the internal organs

(viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions:- Thoracic andAbdominopelvic cavities

Body Cavities


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Body CavitiesFigure 1.9b


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Body Cavities Thoracic cavity is subdivided

into pleural cavities, the mediastinum, and thepericardial cavity

Pleural cavities eachhouses a lung

Mediastinum contains thepericardial cavity, and surrounds the

remaining thoracic organs

Pericardial cavity

encloses the heart


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Body Cavities

The abdominopelvic cavity is separatedfrom the superior thoracic cavity by the

dome-shaped diaphragm

It is composed of two subdivisions Abdominal cavity contains the

stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and

other organs Pelvic cavity lies within the pelvis and

contains the bladder, reproductive

organs, and rectum


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Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Parietal serosa lines internal body walls

Visceral serosa covers the internal organs

Serous fluid separates the serosae (A serous

membrane, especially one that lines the

pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities,enclosing their contents)


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Figure 1.10a


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Figure 1.10b

If a bullet were to penetrate a lung, which

three anterior thoracic body cavities would

it enter, and which layer of the serous

membrane would it encounter first?


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Other Body Cavities

Oral and digestive mouth and cavities

of the digestive organs

Nasallocated within and posterior to the

nose

Orbital house the eyes

Middle ear contain bones (ossicles) that

transmit sound vibrations

Synovialjoint cavities


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Abdominopelvic Regions

Umbilical

Epigastric

Hypogastric

Right and left iliac

or inguinal

Right and leftlumbar

Right and left

hypochondriac Figure 1.11a


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Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions

Figure 1.11b

Abd i l i Q d t


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Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Right upper (RUQ)

Left upper (LUQ)

Right lower (RLQ)

Left lower (LLQ)

Figure 1.12

Cell ph siolog


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The term cell physiologyoften specifically

applies to the physiologyofmembrane transport, neuron transmissi

on, and (less

frequently) muscle contraction. These cover the digestion of food,

circulation of blood, and contraction of

muscles and, therefore, are important

aspects of human physiology

Quiz 1:

Cell components

Name and describe, the main

structures of animal cell

Cell physiology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membranehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane


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Medical Imaging

Radiography (X-rays) William Roentgens

discovery in 1885

Penetrate tissues todarken photographic film

beneath the body Dense tissue appears

white

Over half of all medicalimaging

Until 1960s, it was theonly method widelyavailable

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U.H.B. Trust/Tony Stone Images/Getty Imagese

(a) X-ray (radiograph)

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.


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Medical Imaging

Radiopaque substances

Injected or swallowed

Fills hollow structures

Blood vessels

Intestinal tract

(b Cerebral angiogram


Custom Medical Stock Photos, Inc.


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Medical Imaging

Computedtomography (CT scan)

Formerly called a CAT

scan

Low-intensity X-rays andcomputer analysis

Slice-type image

Increased sharpness of

image

(c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan


CNR/Phototake

M di l I i N l M di i


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Medical ImagingNuclear Medicine

Positron emission tomography

(PET) scan Assesses metabolic state of tissue

Distinguished tissues most active

at a given moment

Mechanicsinject radioactivelylabeled glucose

Positrons and electrons collide

Gamma rays given off

Detected by sensor

Analyzed by computer

Image color shows tissues using

the most glucose at that moment

Damaged tissues appear dark1-53

(d) Positron emission tomographic

(PET) scan


Tony Stone Images/Getty Images

Medical Imaging


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Medical Imaging Magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI)

Slice-type image Superior quality to CT scan

Best for soft tissue

Mechanics

Alignment and realignmentof hydrogen atoms with

magnetic field and radio

waves

Varying levels of energy

given off used by computerto produce an image

(e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI)


Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY

In which direction would an MRI scanner move

to produce sequential images of the body in the

frontal plane, and in which direction would an

MRI scanner move to produce sequential

images of the body in the sagittal plane?


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Medical Imaging

Sonography Second oldest and

second most widely

used

Mechanics High-frequency sound

waves echo back

from internal organs

Avoids harmful X-rays

Obstetrics

Image not very sharp

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