Hypothesis:Hypothesis:

American Prohibition: “War on Drugs” American Prohibition: “War on Drugs” and Subsequent Incarceration has and Subsequent Incarceration has

Significantly Reduced the Educational Significantly Reduced the Educational Attainment of American Students.Attainment of American Students.

Amy RomanusTexas A&M University-Commerce Graduate School of Sociology

Clarifications

This research will define:American Alcohol Prohibition

As the 1920-1933 Alcohol ProhibitionThis research will define:

American Prohibition: “War on Drugs”Or American Prohibition

As the Current Drug War Prohibition1970’s to date

VariablesIndependent Variable Independent Variable (Causes Change)(Causes Change)

American Prohibition: “War on Drugs” American Prohibition: “War on Drugs” and and

Subsequent Incarceration RatesSubsequent Incarceration Rates

Dependent Variable Dependent Variable (Effect)(Effect)

The Significantly ReducedThe Significantly Reduced Educational Attainment Educational Attainment

of of American Students.American Students.

Measurement of Change

This research will measure: This research will measure: The rate of change in:

The Educational Attainment of the American Student

Before

The Prohibition “War on Drugs” Policies

And.. After

The Prohibition “War on Drugs” Policies have taken effect

Rational

The rationale of this research is that the American prohibition and subsequent incarceration rates effects all Americans. The broader benefit gained from this research is that American prohibition, the drug war and financial aid policies are revisited to evaluate and improve the quality of life in all Americans.

Positioning

This research will add to the body of knowledge of present and historical social policies, social influence and normative social influence.

The work will also support some research and challenge others, and investigate new contexts for existing theories and social policies.

MethodologyMethodology Using Available Data: Secondary and Historical Analysis

This research will utilize

secondary sourcessecondary sources

A method in which a researcher uses data collected by others.

This research will also compile the collected data into a meta-analysis.

EXAMPLES OFEXAMPLES OF

Secondary ResourcesSecondary Resources

And And

Key Points of Literary Key Points of Literary ReviewReview

utilized for this research will be........

In 1968, Congress passed the Higher Education Act (HEA) to expand In 1968, Congress passed the Higher Education Act (HEA) to expand educational opportunities through the creation of federal grant and loan educational opportunities through the creation of federal grant and loan programs. programs.

Federal financial aid programs are the single largest source of student aid Federal financial aid programs are the single largest source of student aid in the U.S., which provide an estimated $40 billion to 7 million students in the U.S., which provide an estimated $40 billion to 7 million students each year.each year.

Secondary source oneSecondary source one

Present and Past Laws, Policies, Government Documents and Reports, and U.S. Census Data.

Secondary Source Two: Reports, Journal Articles, Advocacy Studies

Most states have cut aid to Colleges and Universities over the past year, resulting in faculty layoffs, cancelled classes and large tuition increases.

Federal expenditures for drug enforcement have soared, rising from 2.9 billion in 1976 to 17.1 billion in 1999.

Convictions for drug offences were responsible for half of the increase in the prison population between 1980 and the mid 1990’s.

Source: Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, Seeking Justice: Crime and Punishment in America (New York: Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, 1995), p.21.

Secondary Source Three: current newspapers and magazines Secondary Source Three: current newspapers and magazines

Secondary Source Four: Changes in Political Policies, Laws, Amendments, Secondary Source Four: Changes in Political Policies, Laws, Amendments, Department of Education, Department of Education,

In 1998, Congress passed an amendment authored by Rep. Mark Souder that denies federal financial aid to any student with a drug conviction.

1. The Souder-amendment has a tremendous impact on minorities, and it only punishes working class students, since wealthy students do not rely on financial aid to attend college.

2. This amendment focuses on the college student and punishes twice for the same conduct and it cannot be enforced equally.

3. There are no similar laws denying aid to violent or other criminal offenders.

4. The Souder-amendment does nothing to help those who have drug abuse problems and it ignores the most widely abused drug on college campuses - alcohol.

(Source: United States Congressman U.S. Reps. Mark Souder (R-IN) Website) http://souder.house.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=Home.Home

Secondary Source five: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Monitoring the Future Secondary Source five: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Monitoring the Future and other publications. and other publications.

Source: Education and Incarceration Justice Policy Institute www.justicepolicy.org

Secondary Source Six:Secondary Source Six:

U.S. Department of Labor, Educational and Correctional U.S. Department of Labor, Educational and Correctional Populations, Bureau of JusticePopulations, Bureau of Justice

The Bureau of Justice Statistics reported that in the late twentieth The Bureau of Justice Statistics reported that in the late twentieth century, more than 68% of prison inmates had not received a high school century, more than 68% of prison inmates had not received a high school diploma.diploma.

As the educational prospects of most wealthy Americans improved As the educational prospects of most wealthy Americans improved during the twentieth century, the growth of the prison system masked during the twentieth century, the growth of the prison system masked how millions of Americans with little education are ending up behind how millions of Americans with little education are ending up behind bars.bars. Source: Harlow, Caroline Wolf.(2002)Educational and Correctional Populations. Washington D.C: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs.

Secondary Sources Seven : Secondary Sources Seven : Statistics of Educational and Correctional Populations, Bureau of Statistics of Educational and Correctional Populations, Bureau of

Justice Statistics and various magazine publications. Justice Statistics and various magazine publications.

Drugs are the focal point of Drugs are the focal point of the crime problem in the the crime problem in the United StatesUnited States

Many U.S. states have cut their budgets for higher Many U.S. states have cut their budgets for higher education funds to compensate for rapid growth in education funds to compensate for rapid growth in prison populations and prison construction, fueled prison populations and prison construction, fueled in part by increasing numbers of drug offenders in in part by increasing numbers of drug offenders in state and federal prisons. state and federal prisons.

In both New York and California, prison expenditures In both New York and California, prison expenditures now exceed university financing and more Black now exceed university financing and more Black men are admitted as prisoners than graduate from men are admitted as prisoners than graduate from the state universities.the state universities.

State Department of Correctional Services, data analysis unit, measuring new State Department of Correctional Services, data analysis unit, measuring new court commitments, 1973 to 1997, by race and ethnicity.court commitments, 1973 to 1997, by race and ethnicity.

Gangi, Robert, Vincent Schiraldi and Jason Zeidenberg. (1998) New York Gangi, Robert, Vincent Schiraldi and Jason Zeidenberg. (1998) New York

State of Mind?: Higher Education vs. Prison Funding in the Empire State of Mind?: Higher Education vs. Prison Funding in the Empire State, 1988-1998. Washington DC: The Justice Policy State, 1988-1998. Washington DC: The Justice Policy Institute.Sources:Institute.Sources:Currie,

Mother Jones Special report: Debt to Society. (2001). http://www.motherjones.com retrieved 3/3/2008.

Secondary Source Eight:Scholarly Journal Articles

War on Drugs FactsSource: A 25-Year Quagmire: The War on Drugs and Its Impact on American Society September 22, 2007

• Drug arrests have more than tripled since 1980 to a record 1.8 million by 2005.

• Four of five (81.7%) drug arrests were for possession offenses, and 42.6% were for marijuana charges in 2005.

• Nearly six in 10 persons in state prison for a drug offense have no history of

violence or high-level drug selling. • Only 14% of persons in 2004 who report using drugs in the month before

their arrest had participated in a treatment program, a decline of more than half from participation rates in 1991.

• A shortage of treatment options in many low-income neighborhoods

contributes to drug abuse being treated primarily as a criminal justice problem, rather than a social problem.

Examples of Secondary Analysis Nine:

Historic and Contemporary video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LayaGk0TMDclaw enforcement video

Advantages and Limitations of Secondary Analysis

The advantage of secondary analysis is that it saves time and the expense of data

collection, and makes Historical research Possible

The limitations of secondary analysis is that the Researcher has no control over

possible data bias in data and that data may not be suitable for current research

needs

MethodologyMethodology: : Frequency DistributionFrequency Distribution

In order to organize the raw data of the secondary analysis...

This project will employ frequency distribution.

This project is interested in studying the prohibition: “war on drugs” policies and subsequent incarceration rates and the

effect on college-aged students

Unit of Analysis

My Unit of analysis

is

the Individual

What is the frequency of the student age population that are classified as going to

jail, college, work, or the military?

Frequency Distribution Frequency Distribution ContinuedContinued

Where frequency equals the number of the student-aged population in each category the proportion is f/total N that compares

the number of cases in a category with the total size of the distribution. The

percentage is (100) times f/ total N: frequency of occurrence of a category. The ratio would be f1/f2: compares the

frequencies in two categories.

Double Variable Organization

This research would then employ a double variable organization cross tabulation to show the distribution (frequencies and percents) of the dependent variable of

higher education across the categories of the independent variable of incarceration.

American Prohibition and Subsequent Incarceration American Prohibition and Subsequent Incarceration has Significantly Reduced the Educational Attainment has Significantly Reduced the Educational Attainment

of American Students.of American Students.

The War On DrugsProhibition

If the hypothesis is correct We need to put new policies in place,

End The PROHIBITION “War on Drugs”

and bring to an end The Incarcerated student body count.

Furthermore:We must cease the monopolization of government funds

of a single institution and focus on

The Educational Attainment of Our Bright American Students