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Journal of Management & Muamalah
Jurnal Pengurusan & Muamalah
eISSN 2180–1681
EDITORIAL BOARD/SIDANG EDITOR
Chief Editor/Ketua Editor
WAN NOR HAZWANI WAN RAMLI
Managing Editor/Editor Pengurusan
MAWAR MURNI YUNUS
EDITORS/EDITOR
MAWAR MURNI YUNUS
NURNADDIA NORDIN
NORZALINA ZAINUDIN
NUR SURIANA AWALUDIN
WAN SHAHDILA SHAH SHAHAR
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD/SIDANG PENASIHAT EDITORIAL
PROF. DATO’ DR. AB. HALIM TAMURI
DR. MOHAMAD SYUKRI ABDUL RAHMAN
DR. NOR HAKIMAH HAJI MOHD NOR
DR. MAWAR MURNI YUNUS
MDM. NORAZLINA RIPAIN
Special thanks to all involved in the publication of this journal.
Sidang Editor merakamkan ucapan jutaan terima kasih kepada semua yang terlibat dalam
menjayakan penerbitan jurnal ini.
Views expressed in this journal are not necessarily reflect views of the editor or publisher.
Authors are fully responsible towards their articles.
Artikel yang diterbitkan tidak semestinya mewakili pandangan editor atau penerbit.
Para penulis bertanggungjawab sepenuhnya terhadap artikel dan tulisannya.
Copyright Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor, 2015
Hak Cipta Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor, 2015
Journal of Management & Muamalah Jurnal Pengurusan & Muamalah
Volume/ Jilid
5 November/ November
2015
Number/ Nombor 2 eISSN 2180–1681
No. Articles/ Artikel
Page/ Halaman
1 Impact of Organisational Factors on Budgetary Slack
(Kesan Faktor Organisasi ke atas Regangan Belanjawan)
Noor Raudhiah Abu Bakar
1 – 17
2 Overview of the role of Financial Development as a form of
Absorptive Capacity in the FDI-Growth Nexus
(Tinjauan Peranan Pembangunan Kewangan sebagai Pemangkin
dalam Hubungan Pelaburan Langsung Asing dan Pertumbuhan
Ekonomi)
Nor Hakimah Haji Mohd Nor
18 – 30
3 Penerimaan Media Sosial sebagai Medium Dakwah dalam
Kalangan Mahasiswa KUIS
(Social Media Acceptance as Medium of Dakwah Among KUIS
Students)
Faradillah Iqmar Omar
31 – 42
4 Isu-isu Penulisan Skrip: Masalah yang Memerlukan Penyelesaian
(Issues in Script Writing: Solution-Needed Problems)
Mohd Daly Daud, Nursyamimi Harun & Md. Rozalafri Johori
43 – 54
5 Needs Analysis and Material Development in English for Specific
Purposes in Relation to English for Islamic Studies
(Analisa Keperluan dan Pembangunan Bahan Pembelajaran
Bahasa Inggeris untuk Pengajian Islam)
Rabiathul Adhabiyyah Sayed Abudhahir, Mahanum Mahdun &
‘Aliyatulmuna Md. Nor
55 – 63
6 Personal Data Protection Act 2010: Taking the First Steps towards
Compliance
(Akta Perlindungan Data Peribadi 2010: Mengambil Langkah
Awal ke arah Pematuhan)
Farah Mohd Shahwahid & Surianom Miskam
64 – 75
Journal of Management & Muamalah, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2015
eISSN 2180-1681
1
IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS ON BUDGETARY SLACK
(Kesan Faktor Organisasi ke atas Regangan Belanjawan)
Noor Raudhiah Abu Bakar
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor
Rozita Amiruddin
Sofiah Md Auzair
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This study examines the impact of organisational factors on budgetary slack among managers
in Malaysia. The organisational factors as identified in prior research are budget participation,
budget emphasis, information asymmetry and power distance. Specifically, this paper focuses
on the influence of these factors either individually or interactively on the occurrence of the
budgetary slack. Data are collected using questionnaire from 83 managers randomly selected
from companies listed in Bursa Saham excluding finance, warrant and loan sector. Factor
analysis results show that there are two dimensions of power distance i.e. supervisor style and
management style. Individual relationships were tested using multiple regression and
interaction relationships used moderated regression. Multiple regression results indicate a
negative and significant relationship between management style and budgetary slack.
Moderated regression results show a significant positive relationship between two way
interaction of budget participation and budget emphasis with budgetary slack, and three way
interaction of budget participation, budget emphasis and information asymmetry with
budgetary slack. As a whole, the results imply that high power distance (management style)
decreases the budgetary slack, while high interaction of budget participation, budget
emphasis, and information asymmetry increases the budgetary slack. These results indicate
that management should choose the right combination of budget participation, budget
emphasis, and information asymmetry, and management style to control budgetary slack. The
findings of this study could assist management of companies to understand the important
factors that influence budgetary slack, which in turn may lead to effective management.
Keywords: Power distance; budgetary slack; budget participation; budget emphasis;
information asymmetry
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini mengkaji kesan faktor organisasi ke atas regangan belanjawan di kalangan
pengurus di Malaysia. Faktor organisasi seperti yang telah dikenalpasti dari kajian lepas
adalah penyertaan belanjawan, penekanan belanjawan, asimetri maklumat dan jarak kuasa.
Khususnya, kajian ini fokus kepada pengaruh faktor-faktor ini secara individu atau secara
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interaksi ke atas kehadiran regangan belanjawan. Kutipan data adalah menggunakan borang
soal-selidik dari 83 pengurus yang dilpilih secara rawak dari syarikat yang disenarai di
Bursa Malaysia tidak termasuk kewangan, waran dan sektor pinjaman. Hasil dari analisis
faktor menunjukkan terdapat dua dimensi jarak kuasa iaitu gaya pengurus dan gaya
pengurusan. Hubungan individu diuji menggunakan regrasi berganda dan hubungan
interaksi pula diuji dengan menggunakan regrasi moderat. Hasil analisis regrasi berganda
menunjukkan hubungan negative yang signifikan antara gaya pengurusan dan regangan
belanjawan. Hasil analisa regrasi moderat menunjukkan hubungan positif yang signifikan
antara interaksi penyertaan belanjawan dan penekanan belanjawan dengan regangan
belanjawan dan antara interaksi penyertaan belanjawan, penekanan belanjawan dan asimetri
maklumat dengan regangan belanjawan. Secara keseluruhan, kajian menunjukkan semakin
tinggi jarak kuasa (gaya pengurusan) mengurangkan regangan belanjawan, sementara
semakin tinggi interaksi penyertaan belanjawan, penekanan belanjawan dan asimetri
maklumat meningkatkan regangan belanjawan. Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan pengurusan
perlu memilih kombinasi penyertaan belanjawan, penekanan belanjawan, asimetri maklumat
dan gaya pengurusan untuk mengawal regangan belanjawan. Hasil kajian ini juga dapat
membantu pengurusan syarikat dalam memahami faktor penting yang mempengaruhi
regangan belanjawan dan seterusnya ke arah pengurusan yang efektif.
Kata kunci: Regangan belanjawan; penyertaan belanjawan; penekanan belanjawan;
asimetri maklumat; jarak kuasa
INTRODUCTION
Even though the notion of budgetary slack had been discussed since 1953 by Aygris, the issue
of budgetary slack is still of researchers’ interest and being debated in the literature (e.g.
Church, 2012; Yang et al., 2009; Maiga & Jacobs, 2008). Lau and Eggleton (2003) indicate
that there are still major unresolved issues of budgetary slack, one of which is the issue on the
factors influencing budgetary slack. Previous studies had identify three main factors affecting
budgetary slack i.e. budget participation, budget emphasis and information asymmetry. The
conflicting results on the direction of the relationship between these three factors and
budgetary slack contribute to these unresolved issues.
General notion expressed using budgetary slack as a tool to manipulate the budget in
which the presence of budgetary slack causes the budget target easy to achieve. Cyert and
March (1963) has included a slack as a key component of the manager trying maximized.
They say that when the organization achieves its goals, organizational resources will fill
individual goals. This is consistent with agency theory which states that managers as agents
are act according to its own goals and budgetary slack is one action that allows them to be
rewarded easily. Presence in the form of budgetary slack so stated as undesirable and
unethical (Douglas & Wier 2000) and it should be limited (Dunk 1995; Fisher et al., 2000;
Fisher et al. 2002a; Nouri 1994; Young 1985). In addition, budgetary slack increased
inefficiencies in resource allocation, affect the operating performance (Leibenstein 1966;
Williamson 1964) and affect the reliability of the information (Nouri 1994; Govindarajan
1986). These are the negative effects due to the presence of budgetary slack.
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Despite the common perception, there is also empirical evidence that says otherwise
that is budgetary slack led to a positive effect (Elmassri & Harris, 2011). Budget slack is used
to motivate employees, enable the work to achieve the goals of management and manage
budget risk (Davila & Wouters 2004; Elmassri & Harris, 2011). It encourages innovation and
creativity of employees, absorb stress, resolve conflicts and motivate employees to stay in the
company (Bourgeois 1981; Cyert & March 1963). This shows that budgetary slack increase
the performance of employees and organizations if appropriate circumstances.
Indirectly, this implies that the practice of budgetary slack considered leads to the
undesirable situation and have potential positive impact on the organization. Onsi (1973)
states budget slack is undesirable depending on the factors that affect it. Knowing the factors
will control the behavior of budgetary slack. Previous studies have found that three major
factors affecting the budget is budgetary slack participation (Lukka 1988; Merchant 1985,
Young 1985), the emphasis of the budget (Dunk 1995; Hopwood 1972; Merchant 1985; Otley
1978) and information asymmetry (Fisher et al. 2002p; Fisher et al. 2002b; Lambert 2001).
High degree of participation in the budget process is claimed to provide an opportunity
for employees to create slack in the budget. The higher the degree of participation in the
budget process, the higher the propensity of budgetary slack (Lukka, 1988; Young, 1985). On
the other hand, Merchant (1985) and Lal et al. (1996) found that budget participation is
negatively associated with budgetary slack or budget slack is reduced as staff felt appreciated
when they are allowed to participate in budget process. With regard to the effects of budget
emphasis, Leavins et al. (1995) and Linn et al. (2001) results contradict those of Van der
Stede (2000) whereby they found that budget emphasis was negatively associated with budget
slack. With regard to the effects of information asymmetry on slack, contrary to Jaworski and
Young (1992), Chow et al. (1988) found that information asymmetry is positively associated
with budget slack.
The three main factors determining budgetary slack; budget participation, budget
emphasis and information asymmetry shown to be related to budgetary slack, but decisions
about the relationship turned out to be consistent. Indirectly, this gives room for future
researchers to continue to study the budgetary slack. In addition, this study identified
inconsistency as determining factors not directly affect budgetary slack. There are other
factors that influence the interaction with budgetary slack. Dunk (1993) studied the
relationship between budgetary participation and budgetary slack in the presence of budget
emphasis and information asymmetry. He expects the interaction positive organisational
factors to the budget slack, but failed to establish a relationship. Lau and Eggleton (2003)
continue efforts Dunk (1993) with the same make and successful studies provide empirical
evidence that there is a negative relationship between budget participation, budget emphasis
and information asymmetry budgetary slack.
In Malaysia, studies on budgetary slack still in initial stage. Mohamad Adnan and
Sulaiman (2006, 2007) studies on the effect of religion, organisational and cultural on
budgetary slack among Malaysian organisation. Review by Nik Nazli et al. (2003), a tendency
to do budgetary slack is high for companies in Malaysia compare to companies in the United
Kingdom (UK) and New Zealand. High power distance in Malaysia than in the UK and New
Zealand identified as an explanation of the practice of budgetary slack. Fear of failure and the
need for good image for, corresponding to the characteristics of high society, high
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dependency employees to the superior namely power distance (Hofstede 1991) may be invited
to practice high budgetary slack.
Power distance is one of the nation's cultural dimensions presented by Hofstede (1980).
Ueno and Wu (1993) study on cultural differences and budgetary slack. However, their study
only on two cultural dimensions of individualism / group (individualism / collectivism) and
avoidance of uncertainty (uncertainty avoidance) and the results state that only the cultural
dimension of individualism / group only positively related with budgetary slack. A study by
Lau and Eggleton (2004), however, took individualism / group and power distance (power
distance) as proxy for the country's culture and examine its relationship with the budgetary
slack. However, their study is not able to prove an individual relationship between culture and
budgets slack but found a negative relationship interaction between the culture of the country,
budget emphasis and information asymmetry budgetary slack.
This study is choose four organisationals of budgetary slack budget participation,
budget emphasis, information asymmetry and power distance. Budget participation, budget
emphasis and information asymmetry selected because previous studies found that these three
factors is the main factor leading to budgetary slack. But the previous research on these three
factors has never been consistent. This gives the opportunity to study confirm. Another factor
which is chosen because of the power distance dimension of this culture that make the
difference between Malaysia and other countries as noted in the study by Nik Nazli et al.
(2003).
The study will not only examine the relationship between the organisationals directly
above the budgetary slack, but the interaction between the organisationals of budgetary slack
is also tested. This study continue the efforts of Dunk (1993) and Lau and Eggleton (2003,
2004) who studied the interaction the determining factors of budgetary slack.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. The next section discusses the
literature review and development of research hypothesis. This is followed by sections that
discuss method and present results. Before concluding remarks are made, the limitation and
avenue of further research are presented.
LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
Budgetary slack is defined as intentional underestimation of revenues and productive
capabilities and/or overestimation of costs and resources required to complete a budgeted task
(Dunk & Nouri 1998). Budgetary slack is usually associated with dysfunctional behaviours;
achievement of budget target without much effort, unethical behaviour, ineffective resource
allocation and unreliable information.
However, there are empirical evidences that proved the opposite effect. Budgetary
slacks do motivate employees and lead to achievement of organisation’s goal (Davila &
Wouters 2004). It also encourages employees’ innovation and creativity, absorbed tension and
resolved conflicting goals (Bourgeois 1981; Cyert and March 1963). In addition, Yang et al.
(2009) find the relationship between budget slack and innovation performance to be an
inverse, U-shaped curve which means too little budget slack is as bad for innovation
performance as too much budget slack. However, Onsi (1973) stated that dysfunctional
behaviour of budgetary slack depends on the factors contributing to it and by knowing these
factors, control could be done to reduce the dysfunctional behaviour of budget slack.
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Previous research that linked culture with budgetary slack is Ueno and Sekaran
(1992). The study identifies the role of culture in budgetary control practices in the U.S. and
Japan. These studies assumes that two-dimensional culture which are individualism and
uncertainty avoidance is able to explain and understand any differences that may exist in the
practice of budgetary control for two countries, Japan and the United States. The results show
that the culture of individualism is higher in the U.S. than in Japan where there is greater use
of communication and coordination. This creates more traction in the budget and there is
greater effect on short-term performance assessment than in Japanese companies.
Results of the survey by Ueno and Sekaran (1992) show that the country's culture
plays an important role in the practice of budgetary control in general, and particularly in
budgetary slack. This gives more room for future research taking into account the culture of
the country as one of the main factors. This will also give more exposure to managers
involved in international business to understand so that they can prepare themselves when
they have to operate in different countries. Accordingly, the study by Nik Nazli et al. (2003),
using a sample of Malaysian companies, found that budget participation is high and the
propensity to create budgetary slack is very high compared with the companies in the United
Kingdom and New Zealand. High power distance in Malaysia than in the UK and New
Zealand is identified as an explanation of the practice of stretching the budget. Fear of failure
and the need for good image corresponds with power-distance society of employees
dependent on their superior (Hofstede 1991) contributed to increase budgetary slack.
Based on the discussion above, the expected power distance is one of the main
organisationals of budgetary slack in Malaysia and expected environmental range of this
power has a positive relation with budgetary slack. This study is also expected to provide
additional empirical evidence for the literature on budgetary slack.
Beside power distance, previous research had identified the organisational factors of
budgetary slack, of which, the main factors are budget participation, budget emphasis and
information asymmetry. These three organisational factors receive much conflicting results on
the direction of their relationship with budgetary slack.
The research on budgetary slack’s organisational factors could be traced back to Onsi
(1973). Onsi (1973) provides opportunities to subsequent research to explore more on these
organisational factors. Using experimental method, Young (1985) found that budget
participation is positively associated with budgetary slack, contradicting with Onsi (1985).
Merchant’s (1985) result on budget participation on the other hand, is consistent with Onsi
(1973). However, his result on budget emphasis is negatively associated with budgetary slack
as opposed to Onsi. This demonstrates there are conflicting results on the direction of the
relationship between organisational factors and budgetary slack. Research in 1980’s focus on
the relationship between organisational factors and budgetary slack individually.
Interaction effects of organisational factors started to be incorporated in the next
decade. Proposed by Dunk (1990) as an explanation for inconsistent results of individual
relationship of organisational factors to budgetary slack, his research examined three way
interactions between budget participation, information asymmetry and budget emphasis on
budgetary slack. However, the results are different from the hypothesized positive
relationship, which further widens the controversy on the direction of relationship between
organisational factors and budgetary slack. The effect of two way interactions of
organisational factors (information asymmetry and budget emphasis) was also discussed by
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Dunk and Perera (1997). Although the interaction effects of organisational factors were
introduced, most of the research in this decade still examined the relationship between
organisational factors and budgetary slack individually. Inconsistent results on organisational
factors of budget participation and budget emphasis are exhibited in the research by Leavins
et al (1995) and Lal et al (1996).
In the following decade, new organisational factors such as business strategy and
business achievement (Van der Stede 2000) and reputation and ethic (Douglas 2002) are
introduced. The focus of the research in this decade is more towards three way interaction of
organisational factors, for example (1) interaction effects of budget participation, budget
emphasis and asymmetry information on budgetary slack (Lau & Eggleton 2003) (2)
uncertainty, budget participation and control system (Kren 2003) and (3) budget emphasis,
asymmetry information and culture (Lau & Eggleton 2004). Beside this, individual
relationship between organisational factor and budgetary slack were also examined for
example, budget emphasis (Van der Stede 2000; Linn et al., 2001), asymmetry information
(Douglas & Wier 2000; Fisher et al., 2002a; Fisher et al., 2002b) and budget participation
(Linn et al., 2001).
Research in Malaysia on budgetary slack is still in early stage. The newest studies in
Malaysia is Mohamad Adnan and Sulaiman (2007; 2006) and Nik Nazli et al. (2003).
Mohamad Adnan and Sulaiman (2007; 2006) studies on factors influencing budgetary slack in
Malaysia. The factors include organisational, religious and culture. Nik Nazli et al. which
examined implementation of budget at general. Their study shows budgetary slack in
Malaysia is higher than in New Zealand and USA. Though the reasons for this difference are
not clear, it is possible that cultural factors may account for the difference (Nik Nazli et al.,
2003). Malaysia ranks very high on Power Distance (Hofstede, 1991). According to Hofstede
(1991) in large Power Distance societies, employees tend to be dependent on their superiors
and bosses have the ultimate authority. Thus, the fear of failure and need to ‘look good’ on the
part of employees are paramount. As such, participative budgeting may lead to a higher
propensity to create budget (Nik Nazli, 2000).
The above discussions indicate power distance, budget participation, budget emphasis
and asymmetry information are the main factors contributing to budgetary slack due to
inconsistent results of the direction of the relationship. The effects of interactions between
organisational factors are emphasized in the research as one possible explanation to these
inconsistent results. Thus, it offers an avenue for further research on organisational factors of
budgetary slack within the perspective of interactive effects.
Hypothesis Development
Over the years slack has been viewed as an agency, organizational behaviour and ethical issue
(Hobson et al., 2011; Ozer & Yilmaz, 2011). The premise of agency theory is that agents are
self-interested, risk averse, rational actors who always attempt to exert less effort and project
high capabilities and skill than they actually have. Given compensation or reward as
depending on budget attainment, managers (i.e. agents) will build a slack in the budget as to
ensure the budget targets are achieved. (Lowe & Shaw 1968; Schiff & Lewin 1968, 1970;
Waller 1988)
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Participation in budget gives opportunity for employee to do slack (Young 1985).
Lowe and Shaw (1968) stated that employee do budgetary slack to protect their own interest
and this action is economic rational behaviour. This is also supported by Lukka (1988) which
argued that a high degree of participation gives subordinate managers the opportunity to
contribute directly to the creation of slack and vice versa. This leads to hypothesis as follows:
H1: Budget participation is positively associated with budgetary slack Emphasis on meeting budget target as a criterion for evaluation of subordinates’ performance
(high budget emphasis) may be associated with high job-related tension (Hopwood, 1972). In
situation of high budget emphasis, employee will find a way to protect themselves from risk
of not achieving the budget target (Lukka 1988). Budgetary slack is one of the solutions for
this situation. Onsi (1973) reported a positive relationship between employees’ need to create
slack and emphasis on budget. Camman (1976) results are also consistent with Onsi (1973)
showing that when managers used budget emphasis, the responses of their employees are
defensive. These findings suggest as Merchant (1985) proposed that the budgetary slack is
positively related to budget emphasis. This leads to second hypothesis as follows:
H2: Budget emphasis is positively associated with budgetary slack
High information asymmetry will give opportunity for employee to do a slack without being
detected by the managers. In this situation, the ability of managers to detect slack is low.
Merchant (1985) concluded that the ability of superiors to detect slack may also influence
their employee to create slack. This leads to the third hypothesis as follows:
H3: Information asymmetry is positively associated with budgetary slack
According to Williams and Seaman (2001), high power distance reduces trust on individual.
Low trust will increase control on employees. Employees will have conflict of interest and try
to get good performance evaluation and try to protect themselves by doing budgetary slack.
According to Hofstede (1991) in high power distance society, employees fear of failure and
need to look good to their manager. This leads to fourth hypothesis as follows:
H4: Power Distance is positively associated with budgetary slack Budget participation give opportunities to employee do budgetary slack. Consequently,
subordinate managers may react favourable to budgetary slack or tend to increase the creation
of slack when there is a high job related tension due to high budget emphasis. The creation of
budget slack also increased when there is high budget emphasis coupled with opportunity to
participate in budget. This leads to the fifth hypothesis as follows:
H5: Interaction between budget participation and budget emphasis is
positively associated with budgetary slack
Dunk (1993) shows that participation alone does not affect budgetary slack and Dunk (1993)
suggests there may be other factors associated with participation will lead to budgetary slack.
Budget participation gives opportunity to employee to do slack and the opportunity become
wider with information asymmetry. Budget emphasis gives reason why employee do budget
slack. Thus, the above discussion suggests that high participation with high budget emphasis
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and high asymmetry information is likely to give rise to high budgetary slack. This leads to
the sixth hypothesis as follows:
H6: The interaction between budgetary participation, budget emphasis and
information asymmetry is positively associated with budgetary slack.
Budget participation and information asymmetry give opportunity to employees to do
budgetary slack while budget emphasis and power distance gives reason why employees do a
budgetary slack. Thus, the above discussion suggests that high participation with high budget
emphasis, high asymmetry information and high power distance is likely to give rise to high
budgetary slack. This leads to the seventh hypothesis as follows:
H7: The interaction between budgetary participation, budget emphasis,
information asymmetry and power distance is positively associated with
budgetary slack.
METHOD
Sample Selection
A total of 150 companies were randomly selected from companies listed in Bursa Malaysia on
15 November 20051. Listed companies in Bursa Malaysia is chosen as sampling frame
because of their big size, they employ more workers and have high paid up capital.
Therefore, it is expected that the companies use formal budget and control to guide
operations. From these 150 companies, 450 managers were chosen as sample respondent.
Each company is given three questionnaires together with a cover letter and self-addressed
envelope for the questionnaire to be returned directly to the researchers. First reminder letters
were sent one week after sending the questionnaires followed by second reminder letter two
weeks later. Telephone calls also were used to solicit higher response.
From a total of 450 questionnaires sent to managers, 83 questionnaires were returned, which
yielded a response rate of 18.44 per cent. All questionnaires returned are valid to analyse.
Variables Measurements
A five point likert scale is used to measure all items of the research variables. These items are
anchored by (1) low usage and (5) high usage.
Budgetary Slack
This study uses measurement suggested by Van der Stede (2000), which measures budgetary
slack with five items: (1) succeed in submitting budgets that are easily attainable, (2) budget
targets induce high productivity in the department,(3)budget targets require costs to be
managed carefully in the department, (4) budget targets have not caused employees to be
1 The sampling framework excludes companies from financial, warrant and loan sector. High possibility that this
sector does not practice budgetary slack since this sector is under Banking and Financial Institution Act
(BAVIA)
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particularly concerned with improving efficiency in the department, (5) whether the budget is
very easy to attain, attainable with reasonable effort, attainable with considerable effort,
practically unattainable or impossible to attain. From factor analysis, first and second items
are excluded because factor loading is less than 0.5.
Budget Participation
Budgetary participation is the means by which subordinate managers influence plans and their
means of implementation, thereby sharing in the decision making process with their superiors
on matters that affect their areas of responsibility (Milani, 1975). This study adopts Milani’s
measurement of budget participation on (1) the importance of employees involvement in
setting the budget, (2) the kind of reasoning provided to employees by their superior when the
budget is revised, (3) the frequency of discussion related to budget initiated by superior with
the employees, (4) the influence that employees have on final budget, (5) the importance of
employees contribution to the budget, and (6) the frequency of discussion with employees
related to budget is initiated by superior when budgets are being set. From factor analysis, all
the items are valid.
Budget Emphasis
It refers to tight budget control (Anthony & Govindarajan, 1994) and accordingly when
budget control is tight, performance is measured predominantly on the basis of attaining
budget goals (Van der Stede, 2000). Although most studies adopt the measurement developed
by Hopwood (1972), this study utilizes Van de Stede (2000) since the latter’s measurement is
more specific with regard to the high emphasis of the subordinates to achieve budget target
and consistent with the given definition. Budget is emphasised because of the following: (1)
it is reminder by superiors of the need to meet budget targets, (2) superiors judge performance
predominantly on the basis of attaining budget goals, (3) Control over the department by
superiors is principally through monitoring how well the budget is on target, (4) superiors
achieving the budget is an accurate reflection of whether the employees are succeeding in
their work, (5) not achieving the budget has a strong impact on employees performance as
rated by the superiors, (6) Employees promotion prospects depend on their ability to meet the
budget, and (7) In the eyes of the superiors, not achieving the budget reflects poor
performance. From factor analysis, all the items are valid.
Information Asymmetry
Information asymmetry arises when subordinates (agents) are in possession of information
that affects the decision process between subordinates and superiors (principals). The research
used revised instrument of Jaworski and McInnis (1988) suggested by Ramaswami et. al
(1997). Respondents are asked on the information possessed by them compared to their
principal with regards (1) Employees know more about how to accomplish the work they
normally encounter, (2) Employees are intimately familiar with the day-to-day decisions
related to their work, (3) Employees have developed a better working knowledge of their job,
(4) Employees can assess their performance more adequately after completing the activities,
(5) Employees can specify the most important variables to monitor in their work, (6)
Employees can specify the performance objectives to cover the range of activities they
perform. From factor analysis, all the items are valid.
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Power Distance
Hofstede (1980) defined power distance as the difference between the extent to which the
superior can determine the behaviour of the subordinate and the extent to which the
subordinate can determine the behaviour of the superior. Measurement of power distance uses
three questions used by Hofstede (1980) and two additional questions. The three questions
from Hofstede are: (1) Employees are frequently afraid to express disagreement with their
superior, (2) employees perceive that their superior decision making style is more autocratic
than persuasive, (3) employees prefer autocratic style of decision making from their superior
than the persuasive way. Two additional questions are: (4) employee expects to be consulted
than to be told by the superior, (5) employee’s company hierarchy is seen to be more
exploitive than reflecting natural differences. From factor analysis, the items are divided into
two dimensions. First dimension is manager style which is represented by items (1) and (2).
Second dimension is management style which includes items (4) and (5). Item no (3) is
excluded.
The Cronbach Alphas of the variables under study are (1) budgetary slack 0.74 (2) budget
participation 0.89 (3) budget emphasis 0.95 and (4) information asymmetry 0.92. (5) power
distance (manager style) 0.69 and management style 0.59.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Respondent Profile
Nearly all the respondents are subordinate managers, with mean age of below forty years.
They have been holding their current position on average less than five years, and most of
them (83.1 %) are interested to continue working in the same company in the next five years.
More than half of the respondents have at least diplomas.
Summary descriptive statistics for independent and dependent variables are presented in Table
1.
Table 1: Descriptive statistics of independent and dependent variables
Variables Min Max Mean Median Std dev
budgetary slack
budget participation
budget emphasis
information asymmetry
1.00
1.33
1.00
2.00
5.00
4.50
4.71
4.83
2.65
3.07
2.90
3.60
2.67
3.00
3.00
3.67
0.83
0.79
0.87
0.65
Power Distance-
Manager Style
1.00 5.00 2.60 2.50 0.86
Power Distance-
Management Style
1.00 5.00 2.70 2.50 0.77
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Hypotheses Testing
The results of testing hypotheses 1 to 4 are presented in Table 2. The finding suggests that
hypotheses 1 to 3 are rejected. Budget participation, budget emphasis and information
asymmetry do not have a significant relationship individually with budgetary slack.
Hypothesis 4 expects positive relationship between power distance and budgetary slack.
Result from factor analysis, shows power distance is divided into two dimensions; manager
style and management style. There is no significant relationship for manager style but for
management style, the result shows negative relationship and significant. This result is
opposite of the hypothesis stated before.
Table 2: Multiple Regression for testing Hypotheses 1-4
Variables Coefficient Std.
Error
T-
valu
e
P-
value
Constant b0 4.881 1.587 3.076 0.003
Budget Participation (BP) b1 0.101 0.462 0.218 0.828
Budget Emphasis (BE) b2 0.261 0.387 0.674 0.502
Information Asymmetry (IA) b3 0.555 0.485 1.145 0.256
Power Distance –Manager Style(PD-1) b4a 0.099 0.323 0.306 0.760
Power Distance –Management Style(PD-2) b4b -0.905 0.343 -2.637 0.010
R² = 0.131, Adjusted R² = 0.075, n = 83, F5,83
= 2.324 (p = 0.051)
The regression model used to analyse the data for testing Hypothesis 5 to 7 are:
H5: Y = b0 + b1 BP + b2 BE + b3 BP x BE
H6: Y = b0 + b1 BP + b2 BE + b3 IA + b4 BP x BE + b5BP x IA + b6BE x
IA + b7BP x BE x IA
H7: Y = b0 + b1 BP + b2 BE + b3 IA + b4 PD + b5BP x BE + b6BP x IA +
b7BP x PD + b8BE x IA + b9BE x PD + b10IA x PD +
b11BP x BE x IA + b12BP x BE x PD + b13BP x IA x PD +
b14BE x IA x PD + b15BP x BE x IA x PD
Where Y = budgetary slack; BP = budget participation; BE = budget emphasis; IA=
information asymmetry; PD = power distance
Table 3 shows interaction hypothesis which covered three hypotheses, hypothesis 5, 6
and 7. Table summarizes the results of the interaction between organisational factor and
budgetary slack .
Hypothesis 5 states that the interaction of budget participation and budget emphasis is
positively associated with budgetary slack. Table 3 presents the result of two way interaction
between budget participation and budget emphasis affecting budgetary slack. The results
indicate that coefficient b3 of the two-way interaction is highly significant (est. = 1.247; p <
0.001) and positively related to budgetary slack. The R2 is 16.7%. The result shows that
budget participation and budget emphasis individually do not affect budgetary slack.
However, interaction between them is positively associated with budgetary slack and
hypothesis H5 is supported.
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Table 3: Result of Hypothesis 5, 6 and 7
Hypothesis Interaction T-Value P-Value R² Result
5 Budget
Participation and
Budget Emphasis
3.516 0.001 0.167 Positive
and
Significant.
Accepted
6 Budget
Participation,
Budget Emphasis
and Information
Asymmetry
2.001 0.048 0.219 Positive
and
Significant.
Accepted
7a Budget
Participation,
Budget Emphasis,
Information
Asymmetry and
Power Distance
(Manager Style)
-1.786 0.079 0.328 Negative
and not
significant.
Rejected
7b Budget
Participation,
Budget Emphasis,
Information
Asymmetry and
Power Distance
(Management
Style)
-0.794 0.430 0.325 Negative
and not
significant.
Rejected
Hypothesis 6 states that the interaction of budget participation, budget emphasis and
information asymmetry is positively associated with budgetary slack. Table 3 presents the
result of three way interaction between budget participation, budget emphasis and information
asymmetry affecting budgetary slack. The results indicate that coefficient b7 of the three-way
interaction is highly significant (est. = 1.229; p < 0.048) and positively related to budgetary
slack. The R2 is 21.9%. The result shows that budget participation, budget emphasis and
information asymmetry individually do not affect budgetary slack. However, interaction
between them is positively associated with budgetary slack and hypothesis H6 is supported.
Findings from the study show that when information asymmetry is high with high
budget participation and budget emphasis, the occurrence of budgetary slack increases. The
result is consistent with agency theory whereby agents (managers) are self-interested and will
take any opportunity to secure their interest. With high degree of participation, it increases
employees’ opportunities to create directly the slack in the budget. More opportunities of
creating slack existed when employees have more information compared to their superior.
This situation will allow employees to do budget slack without the risk of being detected by
their superior because in high information asymmetry, superiors’ ability to detect slack is low
(Merchant, 1985; Lal et al., 1996). Accordingly, when emphasis in the budget is high, it
encourages employees to do more slack in budget to secure goal achievement.
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The result is further strengthened by the explanation of sample profile. On average, the
respondents hold their current position less than five years and mostly are interested to
continue to work in the same company in the next five years. Therefore, there is a high
possibility of natural acts of agent among them to secure their interest by creating slack in the
budget.
Hypothesis H7 states that the interaction of budget participation, budget emphasis,
information asymmetry and power distance is positively associated with budgetary slack.
Table 3 present the result of four way interaction between budget participation, budget
emphasis, information asymmetry and power distance (dimension manager style and
management style) affecting budgetary slack. The results indicate that there is no significant
interaction relationship and hypothesis H7a and H7b are not supported.
CONCLUSIONS
The objective of this study is to examine the individual relationship and interaction between
budget participation, budget emphasis, information asymmetry and power distance on
budgetary slack. This study suggests budget participation, budget emphasis and information
asymmetry individually does not affect budgetary slack but two-way interaction between
budget participation and budget emphasis and the three-way interaction between budgetary
participation, budget emphasis and information asymmetry is positively associated with
budgetary slack.
The results of this study show that budgetary slack is contingent upon the interaction
between budget participation, budget emphasis and information asymmetry in a positive
manner. The results provide evidence that managers (i.e. agents) have the tendency to build
slack in their budget whenever opportunities arise to secure their compensation prospects. By
participating in budget process, managers have opportunity to directly build a slack in the
budget. The tendency to build budget slack is greater when their information on subordinate
capabilities exceeds that of their superiors and budget target is the main indicator for
evaluating their performance.
The result also shows that management style and one dimension of power distance
have an impact on budgetary slack. However, this dimension does not have a positive
relationship but it has a negative relationship which indicates that part of power distance will
reduce budgetary slack. This is a new discover for Malaysian managers. This result also
shows that autocratic style will reduce budgetary slack in Malaysia.
This study gives important implications to both theory and practice. Theoretically, the
findings of this study are consistent with agency theory which underlies the conceptual model
of this study. Agency theory states that high budget participation with high information
asymmetry will increase budget slack if budget emphasis is also high. This is because
participation in budget and information asymmetry gives opportunity to the workers to do
budget slack without being detected by their superiors, to make sure they achieve the budget
targets when budget emphasis is high.
This study also gives additional empirical evidence which highlights national culture
factor and power distance as one of the main factors of budgetary slack in Malaysia. There are
two dimensions of power distance in this study; manager style and management style. Only
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management style has a significant negative relationship with budgetary slack. More
autocratic management style will decrease the budgetary slack.
Practically, for management to control budgetary slack, management has to control the
level of participation and emphasize on budget and information asymmetry simultaneously.
Thus, management needs to choose the right combination of organisational factors to control
the budgetary slack in order to gain effective management. Management can also increase
autocratic management style to reduce budgetary slack.
The results of the study may be subject to a number of possible limitations. Firstly,
many companies in Malaysia consider disclosing information as requested in the survey
questionnaire as confidential and thus are unwilling to cooperate. This results in a low
response rate (18.44%). However, the sample size received is considered enough for a
meaningful statistical analysis to be undertaken.
Secondly, although the sample for this study is selected from various industries, there
is no attempt to study the industrial influence on the current findings. If the sample collected
is large enough, consideration of industrial influence would provide a valuable insight.
Thirdly, measurements of management style (power distance) are based on the definition of
power distance only. Cronbach alpha is also low (0.58) and it will reduce the reliability for
this variable.
Finally, the results of this study should be interpreted with care as it is conducted in
one country only, i.e., Malaysia. Different results may be found in different countries with
different political settings and culture.
Future studies may use field study in multinational companies to study the budgetary
slack issue. Studying multinational companies may provide an interesting venue as these
firms possess complex organisation structure and multi-racial staff that operates in different
countries and with different culture.
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Noor Raudhiah Abu Bakar
Department of Accounting
Faculty of Management and Muamalah
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor (KUIS)
raudhiah@kuis.edu.my
Rozita Amiruddin
Sofiah Md Auzair
Pusat Pengajian Perakaunan
Fakulti Pengurusan Perniagaan
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
rozita@ukm.my
sofiah@ukm.my
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OVERVIEW OF THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT AS A FORM OF
ABSORPTIVE CAPACITY IN THE FDI-GROWTH NEXUS
(Tinjauan Peranan Pembangunan Kewangan sebagai Pemangkin dalam Hubungan Pelaburan
Langsung Asing dan Pertumbuhan Ekonomi)
Nor Hakimah Haji Mohd Nor
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor
ABSTRACT
This study provides extensive review of the literature that encompasses two broad underlying
frameworks namely the FDI-growth nexus and the financial development-growth nexus. The
discussion is extended to the literature on the FDI-financial development-growth nexus where
the role of financial development is shown to be crucial in the FDI-growth link. The importance
of absorptive capacity has been recognized by past studies to enhance the relationship of FDI and
economic growth that so far empirically resulted in mixed findings. In serving the absorptive
capacity, higher level of financial development is identified as one of the significant channels
that would fulfill the purpose.
Keywords: Foreign direct investment; financial development; economic growth
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini meninjau peranan kualiti pembangunan kewangan sebagai pemangkin kepada
pelaburan langsung asing (FDI) dalam menggalakkan pertumbuhan ekonomi melalui sorotan
literatur. Tinjauan merangkumi dua kajian besar yang melibatkanhubunganFDI-pertumbuhan
ekonomi danhubungan pembangunan kewangan-pertumbuhan ekonomi. Perbincangan
dilanjutkan kepada pengembangan literaturhubunganFDI-pertumbuhan ekonomi di mana
peranan pembangunan kewangan dibuktikan sebagai pemacu penting dalam pertalian FDI dan
pertumbuhan ekonomi. Keupayaan menyerap telah diiktiraf oleh kajian lepas dalam membantu
meningkatkan kesan hubungan FDI dan pertumbuhan ekonomi, di mana setakat ini hasil kajian
hubungan tersebut tanpa pemangkin secara empirikal mendapati kesan yang bercampur.
Kesimpulannya, sebagai memenuhi fungsi keupayaan menyerap, tahap pembangunan kewangan
yang lebih tinggi dikenal pasti sebagai salah satu saluran penting yang akan memenuhi tujuan
tersebut.
Kata kunci: Pelaburan langsung asing; pembangunan kewangan; pertumbuhan ekonomi
INTRODUCTION
Since the last two decades, many countries have been taking earnest initiatives to promote their
economies as the destination for foreign direct investment. The flow of FDI increased sharply in
the developed and emerging economies that had designated FDI as a major vehicle for economic
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development (UNCTAD, 2010). FDI has been a capital formation of choice and identified as one
of the most important factors that contribute towards economic expansion through its benefits
and externalities. Alfaro et al. (2004, 2009) highlight several benefits of FDI that could promote
economic growth, for examples, knowledge spillover of technology transfers, introduction of
new processes to domestic market, learning-by-observing, training of labor force and managerial
skills.
While there is an extensive body of literature that investigates the relation between FDI
and economic growth, the empirical findings are ambiguous and inconclusive. On the one hand,
there are studies that find a positive relationship between FDI and economic growth (see, for
examples de Mello 1999; Yao & Wei 2007; Elsadig 2012). On the other hand, some studies have
shown that FDI is negatively related to economic growth (see, for examples Konings 2001; Elia
et al. 2009; Doytch & Uctum 2011). There are also studies that find no significant effects of FDI
on economic growth (Beugelsdijk et al. 2008; Temiz & Gokmen 2013; Yalta 2013; among
others).
Drawing on the ambiguous and inconclusive results of the FDI-growth relationship, the
literature has identified absorptive capacity of the host country as the key explanatory variable
for the varied conclusions. Specifically, absorptive capacity is described as a pre-requisite that
enables a host country to successfully incorporate the benefits and positive impacts of FDI
spillovers (Alfaro et al. 2009, Hermes & Lensink 2003).1 According to Crespo and Fontoura
(2007), absorptive capacities of domestic firms and regions are important preconditions for
realizing the benefits of FDI inflows. Since different countries have different levels of
development and local conditions, the impact of FDI in each country would be different. It is
expected that maximum benefits of FDI spillovers could be reaped through higher levels of
absorptive capacity. As stated in Alfaro et al. (2009), the success of domestic firms is determined
to a certain extent, by the local characteristics and the inherent weaknesses of domestic firms
might reduce their ability to absorb new technologies brought about by their foreign
counterparts. Consequently, this would hold back technological innovation and limit its impact
on the overall economy.
The literature of FDI-growth nexus has been extended with the introduction of financial
development as one form of absorptive capacity. Financial development of a country has been
recognized as one form of absorptive capacity since it has the potential to spur economic growth
by resolving various financial market imperfections which in turn allows the benefits of FDI to
be materialized. Levine (2005) provides detailed discussion on the following five major
functions of a financial system: producing information and allocating capital; monitoring firms
and implementing corporate governance; ameliorating risk; pooling of savings; and easing
exchange, all of which contribute to promoting economic growth.
Furthermore, in the realm of the FDI-growth literature, recent empirical studies that
investigate the role of financial development in FDI-growth nexus have collectively indicated
that finance is vital for the growth effects of FDI (see, for examples Hermes & Lensink 2003;
Lee & Chang 2009; Azman-Saini et al. 2010; Choong 2012). Hermes and Lensink (2003) find
that the development of banks and stock market are important preconditions for FDI spillovers to
be positively realized. Lee and Chang (2009) and Azman-Saini et al. (2010) also find that the
impact of FDI spillovers on economic growth requires a well-functioning financial market. The
findings of Azman-Saini et al. (2010) based on 91 countries over the period from 1975 to 2005
1 Cohen and Levinthal describe an absorptive capacity as “…an ability to recognize the value of new information,
assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends” (1990: 128). In addition, Falvey et al. (2007) highlighted that a
country with higher absorptive capacity gained more from trade-related knowledge spillovers. In the study, trade is
measured by the average ratio of imports plus exports to GDP that capture the other benefits of openness.
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show that FDI’s impact on growth is positive only when financial development exceeds a
threshold level. Similarly, in a recent study, Choong (2012) also find that a well-developed
domestic financial market is a precondition for FDI to affect economic growth positively.
Taken together, prior studies have shown that financial development plays an important
role in the FDI-growth nexus and that it serves as one form of absorptive capacity of the host
country. Higher level of financial development suggests that the well-functioning financial
sectors are efficient in mobilizing and allocating capital to its most productive use. Thus,
countries with greater financial development will have better absorptive capacity, that would
enable them to realize more benefits from the FDI spillovers. As highlighted by Lai et al. (2009),
sufficient absorptive capacity is the foundation for FDI technology spillovers. Thus, it is
concluded that the role of financial development is shown to be crucial to enable a country to
make the most of the positive growth effects of FDI.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Foreign direct investment or abbreviated as FDI hereafter, serves as a primary form of
international capital transfer that has prospered tremendously in the past decades in both
developed and developing countries, to acquire cross-border expenditures and to expand the
corporate control of productive assets (Froot 1993). The first years of the 80s saw FDI becoming
the most crucial medium of integrating the world economy through its offerings of international
lending and borrowing. In recent years, FDI inflows have undergone a fast-paced development
and this leads to noteworthy economic success. As established from UNCTAD (2010), the FDI
inflows’ rapid increase is evident through the anticipation that the world inflows would escalate
to more than $1.2 trillion in 2010, further climb up to $1.3–1.5 trillion in 2011, and peak at $1.6–
2 trillion in 2012. The report which also ranks top economies based on the 2009 magnitude of
FDI flows, shows that the United States stays prominent as the world’s leading recipient of FDI,
besides its competitors namely China, France, Hong Kong and the United Kingdom.
The perception of the FDI as the very crucial component of capital flows in the global
economy and a dependable source of external financing is explained by the fact that it is more
stable than other types of investment. According to Chuhan et al. (1996) who study the behavior
of four major components of international capital flow in 15 developing and industrial countries
for the period of 1985-1994, direct investment is discovered as less volatile, owing to its less
drastic responses to disturbances in other capital inflows and in other countries.2 Besides,
through their adoption of the quarterly net flows and a univariate analysis in the study, it has
confirmed that direct investment is far from being ‘hot money’ or the term which denotes the
short term investment which is possibly speculative and which leads to market instability. In
addition, by incorporating FDI in the components of capital flows, it gives equal position to the
compositions of the loans and equity in international capital flows for the country. Lipsey (1999)
also shows that FDI suggests relatively higher stability than other types of international financial
flows. In the study, Lipsey (1999) places in comparison the differences among the types of
2 Four major components of international capital flows that are studied by Chuhan et al. (1996) are direct investment
(DI), short-term investment (STI), portfolio investment (PI) as well as other long-term investment (LTI). As
elaborated by Chuhan et al. (1996), DI contains some capital investment, retained earnings and intra-company debt,
STI captures changes in assets’ investment with one year maturity period, PI includes additional corporate equities
and bonds and LTI contains additional public and private sector debt securities, trade credit, loans, deposits and
other long-term assets. The source of data is Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook of International Monetary
Fund.
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investments based on their direction of flows or volatility which measurement is by the standard
deviations.
In support of the findings obtained by Chuhan et al. (1996) and Lipsey (1999), Bird and
Rajan (2002) whose foundation of research resting on Malaysia’s balance of payment for the
1995-1998 timeframe, it is found empirically that economies which finance their current account
primarily with FDI are seen to be less vulnerable to a financial crisis.3 In favour of a long term
financing, FDI is acknowledged as more stable since it is irreversible in the short term. Although
the application of FDI as the main external financing is still not devoid of risks, its benefit
spillovers which heighten the development of the economy have made FDI superior to other
forms of capital flow. Moreover, Albuquerque (2003) offers empirical evidence that FDI also
carries a risk-sharing advantage over other capital flows. It is caused by the assumptions of the
flawed enforcement of financial contract and the inalienability of FDI that contributes to lower
levels of default premium and sensitivity to changes in the country’s financing constraints. By
taking an example from various international capital flows based on the said assumptions, with
samples of 111 countries for the period of 1975-1997, Albuquerque (2003) also urges
financially constrained countries to borrow relatively more via FDI.
FDI-Growth Nexus
The ultimate objective of FDI as the interjection of capital in economy is to accelerate the
growth rates, where in theory, FDI is expected to bring about a positive effect on the country’s
economic growth. Burgeoning empirical studies that have extensively investigated the FDI-
growth nexus, however have produced results that are contradictory. In spite of the fact that
some of them empirically find that FDI does have a positive contribution to growth (see, for
examples de Mello 1999; Vu & Noy 2009; Elsadig 2012), other empirical studies on the other
hand, have found otherwise, that is negatively related to growth (see, for examples Li & Liu
2005; Elia et al. 2009; Doytch & Uctum 2011). In addition, some other studies also find that the
significant impact of FDI on economic growth is non-existent (Beugelsdijk et al. 2008; Temiz &
Gokmen 2013; Yalta 2013) and that FDI only promotes growth given some conditions only
(Blomstrom et al. 1992; Balasubramanyam et al. 1996).
It is theoretically known that the major contribution of foreign investment to the host
country possibly stems from its various external effects or spillovers. Some studies have
managed to prove that FDI would contribute positively through its spillovers. For example
Blomstrom (1986) whose study sheds light on foreign investment and productive efficiency,
empirically finds that foreign investment’s multiple positive effects have proven to be an
important determinant in the industry’s structural efficiency. In addition, Blomstrom (1986) also
finds that the most important source of spillover efficiency is manifested in the competitive
pressure exerted by foreign firms. This study has shown that the role of FDI in the world
economy is significantly greater where recipient countries can obtain not only the funds for
investment but to the point that they can also enjoy the benefits through efficient technologies
and know-how. OECD (2003) reports that positive spillover effects of FDI can also become
advantageous to the country through the companies’ development and restructuring, the
enhancement of international trade and smart integration into the world economy, as well as an
3 Bird and Rajan (2002) also suggest that a country is better off if the capital flows are formed not entirely with FDI
but also with other forms of capital flows since a country that finances its current account deficits almost entirely by
FDI may remain vulnerable to capital reversals, as evident in Malaysia, which was affected by the crisis in Thailand
due to this condition. However, the relationship of FDI and other capital flows is other empirical issues shall not be
discussed in detail since it is not a focus in this study.
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increase in the competition and human capital development. A more recent study by Anwar and
Nguyen (2011) finds that an indirect effect or the spillover effect of FDI can be generated
through the links formed between domestic and foreign firms. Having said that, the FDI
spillover may lead to technology and knowledge transfer that increases the competition in the
domestic market, and ultimately contributes towards better resource allocation.
Theoretically, technological knowledge is widely recognized as a major FDI spillover
that contributes positively to the economic growth. According to Aghion and Howitt (1998),
under the growth theory, technological knowledge is important as a channel to maintain
economic growth in the long run since capital accumulation is subject to the effects of
diminishing marginal returns which would in time, cause the growth rate to cease. Some other
studies also find that FDI generates externalities in the form of technology transfer and
contributes to economic development (see, for examples Liu 2002, 2008; Sadik & Bolbol 2001;
Chakraborty & Nunnenkamp 2008; among others).
Furthermore, Liu (2002) who examines 29 industries of manufacturing over the period of
1993-1998 in China, suggests that FDI generates externalities in the form of technology transfer.
In the study, Liu (2002) finds that FDI in the manufacturing industry is significantly and
positively related to the productivity as well as the rate of productivity growth of its components
industries. In addition, Liu (2008) that extends the study of Liu (2002) provides more evidence
on FDI and technology spillovers by examining a large panel data of 17,675 manufacturing firms
over the period of 1995-1999. Liu (2008) proposes that FDI spillovers could decrease the short-
term level of productivity but increase the long-term productivity growth rate of local firms. In
the long run, technology spillovers serve as a source of knowledge that can make productivity
growth rate sustainable, as well as functioning as an ultimate engine of economic growth.4
In addition, Sadik and Bolbol (2001) present other evidence where the study finds that
FDI has been found to be an added advantage of generating technological spillovers for the
positive growth in the countries of the Arab world.5 It is also identified that by facilitating the
technology transfer in a global economy, it can hone the technology edge of other countries
involved in the various international endeavours. Similarly, Chakraborty and Nunnenkamp
(2008) who examine the effect of FDI in the Indian post-reform within a panel co-integration
framework, find that FDI stock and output are positively related through cross-sector spillovers
from the service sector to the manufacturing sector.
However, some other studies also find the FDI spillovers can be branched into positive
and negative spillovers, where some studies contend on their impact towards the host countries.
For example although Damijan et al. (2003) find that FDI is an important channel where
technology can be transferred to developing countries, they also find that there is no, or even
negative, horizontal knowledge spillovers from foreign-owned firm to domestic firms. Damijan
et al. (2003) investigate the effects of FDI’s direct technology transfer, FDI spillovers of intra-
industry knowledge, firm’s R&D accumulation and spillovers via trade for local firms’ total
factor productivity growth by examining firm-level data for eight transition countries for the
period 1994 to 1998. A more recent study by Hanousek et al. (2011) points that the forward
4 On the other hand, the negative effect of spillovers that is found in the short-term rate of productivity growth
indicates that technology transfer or externalities does not exist automatically and require costly learning process
(Liu 2008).
5 Sadik and Bolbol (2001) study the FDI’s role and its importance in the economic performance of the Arab
countries over the period of 1980-1999 by using the OLS. It captures the impact of FDI on the Arab’s technological
development and total factor productivity.
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spillover effects is negative and significant however the backward spillover effects are found
positive and significant.6 Hanousek et al. (2011) dispute the previous literature findings on direct
and indirect impacts of FDI in the emerging European market by using a survey and meta-
analysis.7 In addition, Hanousek et al. (2011) also find that the impact of productivity spillovers
in cross-sectional studies is greater than in panel studies since unobserved heterogeneity is not
properly addressed, further resulting in biased estimates.
Extensive literature that has explored the impact of FDI on economic growth has
produced incompatible results. Although FDI inflows are discovered as an engine of economic
growth, where their benefits of knowledge and technology spillovers could contribute to the
economic growth of the recipient countries, the empirical findings on the growth effects of FDI
are still inconclusive and remain ambiguous. Conversely, FDI is found to exert positive growth
effects on the recipient countries. For example, De Mello (1999) empirically finds that FDI
inflows positively affect an output growth in all panels, with and without country-specific factors
(i.e. institutions, trade regime, political risk, policy, etc). Yao and Wei (2007) provides empirical
evidence that FDI positively contributes to economic growth where it has been identified as a
powerful driver of economic growth for a newly industrializing economy to keep abreast with
the world’s most advanced country as a mover of production efficiency and a shifter of
production frontier. A more recent study by Ouyang and Fu (2012) discovers a positive effect of
FDI on growth where inter-regional spillovers studied from the coastal FDI is found to be
positively and significantly related to economic growth in inland regions.
On the other hand, other studies find that FDI is negatively related to growth. As Görg
and Greenaway (2004) review most of the previous empirical literature which investigates the
FDI-growth nexus, they discover that a great deal of the work does not find positive spillover
and thus conclude that the effects of FDI on growth are mostly negative. As shown by an earlier
study by Aitken and Harrison (1999), the study empirically finds that FDI has a negative
consequence on the productivity of domestically owned plants.
Elia et al. (2009) finds that the impact of outward FDI is negative to the home country
when foreign affiliates come from high income countries. Doytch and Uctum (2011) that
investigate the effects of manufacturing and service FDI on their own sector growth, the
spillover to other sectors and the overall economy in the host country, find that the impact of
total FDI on the whole growth in the service-based economies is also negative. Furthermore, as
also found by other studies, FDI has no significant effect on economic growth. Herzer et al.
(2008) that examine the link of FDI-growth for 28 developing countries find no existence of
positive unidirectional long-term effect of FDI to GDP in any country. Carkovic and Levine
(2002) who empirically revisits the relationship of FDI and economic growth find that the
exogenous component of FDI does not give any positive impact to economic growth. The other
study by Beugelsdijk et al. (2008) also finds no significant effect in developing countries, either
from horizontal (market seeking) or vertical (efficiency seeking) FDI even if there are
empirically positive and significant growth effects established in developed countries in both
types of FDI.
6 Forward spillover refers to how local firms benefit from intermediate inputs from foreign firms and backward
spillover refers to how foreign firms may profit from the improvement of domestic firms. 7 The sample in the meta-analysis consists of 21 papers, 10 of which are published in academic journals, 6 are
contributions to an edited volume and 5 are working papers.
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FDI-Growth and Absorptive Capacity
Generally, previous literature has recognized the fact that the impact of FDI on economic growth
is ascertained by certain local characteristics of the host countries. More specifically, it refers to
an absorptive capacity that is recognized by past studies as a key explanation for the inconclusive
and ambiguous findings in the FDI-growth nexus. As highlighted by Alfaro et al. (2009),
absorptive capacity is described as a precondition that aids a country to garner the diverse
benefits and positive impacts of FDI spillovers. Thus, the country’s local conditions matter as
they can restrict the extent to which FDI benefits materialize.8
In a study by Cohen and Levinthal, an absorptive capacity is defined as “…an ability of a
firm to recognize the value of new, external information, assimilate it and apply it to commercial
ends” (1990: 128). Cohen and Levintal (1990) also conclude that since absorptive capacity is
intangible, its benefits are indirect and it appears as part of the firm’s innovative capabilities.
Thus, abundant past studies dwelling into FDI spillovers have made a serious effort in
considering the element of absorptive capacity as the main channel towards investigating the
effects of the FDI-growth nexus. Collectively, past studies empirically find that with a
precondition of absorptive capacity determined by multiple factors, it contributes to a positive
relationship of FDI and economic growth (Blomstrom et al. 1992; Borensztein et al. 1998;
Branstetter 2006; Sinani & Meyer 2004).
Furthermore, recent empirical literature has brought forth the assertion that financial
development is a key explanation for the inconclusive and ambiguous findings in the FDI-growth
nexus where financial development is found to serve as a precondition in enabling the positive
growth effects of FDI to be realized. Financial development is recognized as an important
absorptive capacity due to its major functions in the country’s financial system that includes both
banking and stock market sectors. Alfaro et al. (2009) provide evidence that financial markets
act as a channel in facilitating the positive growth effects of FDI to be realized where the study
finds that countries with well-developed financial markets gains significantly from FDI through
total factor productivity improvements.
Financial Development-Growth Nexus
In the finance-growth nexus literature, a large body of research has shown that financial
development exerts positive impact on economic growth. The theoretical foundation of the
relationship between financial development and economic growth has been discussed over the
decades since the earlier works by Schumpeter (1911) and later by McKinnon (1973) and Shaw
(1973). These classical views have recognized financial sector development as a major catalyst
that contributes positively to economic growth. Well-functioning financial sectors have been
shown to enhance economic growth by lowering transaction costs, reducing market frictions and
ensuring that capital flows are steered towards the most productive use possible.
Levine (1997) provides a theoretical review which proves that financial development
plays an important role to the country’s economic growth. Levine (1997) highlights five
functions of financial system i.e. facilitate risk management, allocate resources, exert corporate
control, mobilize savings and ease trading of goods and services which consequently channels
capital accumulation as well as technological innovation to growth. The more efficient the
functions the more developed financial development will be which impliedly ameliorate market
8 Alfaro et al. (2009) mainly find that the improvement in total factor productivity plays an important role in
benefiting from FDI spillovers and capital accumulation in both physical and by contrast, human however does not.
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frictions of information and transaction costs. Levine (2005) further discusses the five major
functions of financial system in detail which provides different implications in every dimension
due to the possible improvements of the functions that consequently enhance economic growth.
Bertocco (2008) theoretically stresses on the positive linkage between financial
development and economic growth by way of re-assessing some crucial elements derived from
Schumpeter’s theoretical framework which includes innovation and credit. Collectively, past
studies have also empirically proven that there exist positive strong and robust relationship
between financial development and economic growth (see, for examples King & Levine
1993a,b; Levine & Zervos 1996, 1998; Arestis et al. 2001; Beck & Levine 2004; Kendall 2012;
Law et al. 2013). More recent studies also show that finance is of utmost importance for growth
(see, for examples Ergungor 2008; Hung 2009; Hasan et al. 2009; Jalil et al. 2010; Kendall 2012;
Law et al. 2013; among others). These studies collectively find that financial development has a
positive link with economic growth. As an instance, Ergungor (2008) and Hung (2009) provide
evidence that there is a contingent relationship between the two. In addition, Hung (2009) also
discovers that the effect of financial development on economic growth is determined by the
magnitude levels of investment loans and consumption loans. Hasan et al. (2009) find that the
development of the financial markets is associated with more robust economic growth. Another
research by Jalil et al. (2010) re-examines the finance-growth nexus in China and it is discovered
that the growth of the Chinese economies is driven by its financial development.
Overall, past literature has shown that financial development clearly functions as a key
engine to economic growth. The substantial role of financial development is recognized in the
promotion of growth through its various major functions. Financial management is important for
growth, as a well-functioning financial system highlights the consequent low levels of
asymmetric information and transaction cost which ultimately promote the flows of capital to be
directed to the most productive use and to affect economic growth in a positive manner.
FDI-Financial Development-Growth Nexus
Studies on FDI-growth nexus are extended by introducing financial development as an
absorptive capacity or a channel of the link. Financial development appears to be the key
explanation for the inconclusive findings of the relationship between FDI and growth. In other
words, financial development performs as a precondition to the country in facilitating the
positive growth effects of FDI spillovers. Extensive studies that empirically investigates the role
of financial development in FDI-growth nexus collectively finds a positive relationship between
FDI and growth with the existence of well-functioning financial system in a country (see, for
examples Hermes & Lensink 2003; Alfaro et al. 2004, 2010; Azman-Saini et al 2010; Choong
2012; among others). Hermes and Lensink (2003), Alfaro et al. (2010, 2004), Ang (2009), Lee
and Chang (2009) and Azman-Saini et al. (2010) empirically find that the level of the financial
development contributes to the FDI-growth nexus where the higher level of financial
development influences the stronger relationship of FDI and economic growth. These studies
provide strong evidence that a well-functioning financial development causes the link of FDI-
growth to be positive through the higher capability of the country in materializing the positive
effects of FDI spillovers.
Hermes and Lensik (2003) conclude that FDI of LDCs positively contributes to growth
only when their domestic financial systems are improved. Hermes and Lensink (2003)
empirically analyze the cross section of the data set of 67 of less developed countries (LDCs),
from the Latin American and Asian continents, for the period of 1970 to 1995 using the
regressions of growth equation. Alfaro et al. (2004) show consistent evidence similar to that of
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Hermes and Lensik (2003), where the level of local financial markets is important in realizing
the positive effects of FDI-growth link. The study empirically examine the link of FDI and
economic growth with financial markets as a channel using cross-country data for the period of
1975-95 for 20 OECD countries and 51 non-OECD countries for the first data set of credit
market indicators and 20 OECD countries and 29 non-OECD countries for the second data set of
equity market indicators. Consistent with Alfaro et al. (2004), Alfaro et al. (2010) improve their
work by providing new evidence on the importance of the well-developed markets in the FDI-
growth nexus. Alfaro et al. (2010) adopt a different approach to examine the role of local
financial markets in mediating FDI effects on output growth, by means of applying a calibration
exercise and sensitivity analysis. The findings of the study reveal that an increase in FDI leads to
higher growth rates in financially developed countries as compared to their poorer counterparts.
Meanwhile Choong et al. (2005) also suggest when a recipient country has a well-
developed and well-functioning financial sector FDI is more likely to enhance its economic
growth in a more efficient manner. It is indirectly suggest that the process of technological
spillovers may be more efficient in the presence of well-functioning financial systems. Choong
et al. (2005) examine the role of financial system in transferring the technological diffusion
embodied in FDI inflows in the Malaysian economy for the period of 1970-2001 by applying
bound test or unrestricted error correction model (UECM). Other empirical studies by Lee and
Chang (2009) and Azman-Saini et al. (2010) also consistently establish the same finding of the
positive link of FDI-growth with the pre-condition that the financial development has reached a
certain level. Study by Azman-Saini et al. (2010) which includes cross-country observation for
91 countries for the period of 1975-2005, employed private sector credit as a threshold variable
in the regressions, whereas Lee and Chang (2009) use a set of 37 countries using annual data of
1970-2002 and apply a panel-based ADF unit root tests as well as Pedroni’s panel cointegration
tests. A more recent study by Choong (2012) discovers new evidence on the FDI-growth nexus
that confirms yet again the domestic financial development as a pre-requisite for the realization
of the positive growth effects of FDI. Choong (2012) examines the relationship of FDI, financial
development and economic growth in a panel of 95 developed and developing countries over the
period from 1983 to 2006 using dynamic panel GMM estimation.
CONCLUSION
Overall, the existing empirical literature shows that a well-functioning financial development
causes the link of FDI-growth to be positive as it enabling a country in materializing the positive
effects of FDI spillovers. While extensive literature that has investigated the impact of FDI on
economic growth has produced mixed results, recent literature has identified an absorptive
capacity as a key explanation for the ambiguous and inconclusive findings of the FDI-growth
nexus where financial development is found to serve as one form of absorptive capacity that
enhances the positive growth effects of FDI. The financial development is thus recognized as a
new form of absorptive capacity in enabling a country to realize the positive growth effects of
FDI, and thus is expected to enhance understanding of the FDI-financial development-growth
framework.
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Nor Hakimah Haji Mohd Nor
Faculty of Management and Muamalah
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor
norhakimah@kuis.edu.my
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PENERIMAAN MEDIA SOSIAL SEBAGAI MEDIUM DAKWAH DALAM
KALANGAN MAHASISWA KUIS
(Social Media Acceptance as Medium of Dakwah among KUIS Students)
Faradillah Iqmar Omar
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor
ABSTRAK
Ledakan teknologi komunikasi pada masa kini membawa fenomena baru dalam bentuk
komunikasi manusia apabila fokus kini tertumpu kepada penggunaan media sosial dalam
pelbagai aspek kehidupan. Malah, penggunaan media sosial telah menjadi aktiviti yang
popular di laman sosial (Socialnomics.net. 2012). Justeru, penggunaan media sosial ini
meliputi tuntutan pelaksanaan dakwah yang harus menggunakan pelbagai metod mengikut
kesesuaian zaman. Kebanjiran media sosial seperti Facebook dan Twitter dilihat memberi
peluang yang meluas terhadap penyebaran mesej dakwah kerana sifatnya yang pantas dan
lebih global. Ini jelas apabila terdapat pendakwah-pendakwah tersohor turut menjadikan
media sosial sebagai wadah penting penyebaran mesej dakwah mereka. Selain itu, berdakwah
merupakan satu tuntutan dan tanggungjawab yang besar yang perlu dilaksanakan oleh umat
Islam dengan menitikberatkan konsep amar ma’ruf nahi mungkar (Zulkiple, 2001). Justeru,
objektif kajian ini adalah untuk melihat hubungan antara media sosial dan penyebaran mesej
dakwah dalam kalangan mahasiswa/i di Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor
(KUIS). Selain itu, kajian ini juga ingin mengenal pasti implikasi penyebaran mesej dakwah
serta memfokuskan perbincangan berkaitan penerimagunaan mesej-mesej dakwah di
rangkaian media sosial terhadap mahasiswa/i dengan berasaskan pendekatan teori Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM). Kajian ini dijalankan dengan mengaplikasikan kaedah kuantitatif
iaitu borang kaji selidik dan memperoleh hasil dapatan kajian daripada responden yang terdiri
daripada pelajar jurusan Asasi, Komunikasi dan pelajar jurusan Al-Quran dan As-Sunnah
dengan Komunikasi di KUIS. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa terdapatnya hubungan yang
signifikan antara penggunaan media sosial dan penyebaran dakwah Islamiah dalam kalangan
mahasiswa, impak yang positif diterima oleh mahasiswa melalui penggunaan media sosial
serta pengaruh dan manfaat yang positif terhadap penyebaran dakwah dalam kalangan
mahasiswa.
Kata Kunci: Media sosial; implikasi; mesej dakwah; Amar ma’ruf nahi mungkar; Technology
Acceptance Model
ABSTRACT
Explosion of Information and Communication Technology nowadays bring new phenomenon
in the form of human communication, whenever the focus now concentrated to social media
usage in various aspects of life. In fact, social media usage had become activity that is
popular in social website. Thus, this social media usage covers the implementation of da’wah
that should use various methods according to time suitability. Social media like Facebook and
Twitter are giving an opportunity towards da'wah message to be spread out faster and more
global. In fact, there are famous preachers who also use social media as their medium to
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spreat a message of da'wah. Apart from that, da’wah is very important and regard as a huge
responsibility that need to be carried out by Muslims by emphasizing the concept of amar
ma'ruf amar nahi mungkar. The objective of the study is to examine the relationship between
social media and the spreading of da'wah message among students in Selangor International
Islamic University College (KUIS). This study also is to identify the implication of spreading
the message of da'wah and concentrate relevant discussion towards the acceptance of da’wah
in social media network based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) theory approach.
This study carried out by applying quantitative method namely survey and the gathered the
result from respondents consisting of Asasi students, Communication and Al-Quran and As-
Sunnah field student in KUIS. The result showed the significant relationship between social
media usage and the spreading of da’wah message among students, also the positive impact
that is accepted by student through usage of social media, influence and benefit that are
positive towards da’wah preaching among students.
Keywords: Social media; implication; da’wah messag; amar maaruf nahi mungkar;
Technology Acceptance Model
PENGENALAN
Berkomunikasi sangat dituntut dalam Islam dengan berpandukan kepada ajaran al-Quran dan
as-Sunnah yang merupakan rujukan tertinggi. Pelbagai kaedah dan medium telah digunakan
sejak zaman Rasulullah SAW dalam menyampaikan mesej terutamanya mesej dakwah
Islamiah. Namun, sesuai dengan peredaran zaman masa kini, Noor Shakirah (2006)
menjelaskan bahawa media menjadi nadi kepada maklumat, kejayaan sesuatu usaha dalam
masyarakat bergantung kepada usaha sejauh mana mereka menguasai medium pada
zamannya. Dakwah dalam Islam menjadi kewajipan untuk dilaksanakan sama ada secara
individu atau secara kolektif. Menurut Zulkiple (2001), setiap umat Islam adalah komunikator
Islam, iaitu berperanan sebagai seorang dae’i dan diletakkan tanggungjawab di peringkat
wajib menyampaikan mesej mengikut kadar keupayaan mereka. Justeru, komunikator Islam
perlu membawa mesej kebaikan dan mencegah kemungkaran kepada khalayak. Jelasnya,
dakwah merupakan seruan kepada seluruh manusia terhadap sesuatu perkara dan
menggalakkan mereka bagi mendapatkan sesuatu hasil. Firman Allah SWT dalam surah
Yunus, ayat 25 yang bermaksud:
“Allah menyeru (manusia) kepada tempat selamat (syurga).”
Daripada ayat tersebut dapat dilihat bahawa Allah menyeru manusia supaya patuh dan taat
kepadaNya agar memperoleh tempat yang selamat iaitu syurga. Oleh itu, dengan cara
berdakwah dapat mengajak kepada seluruh manusia agar berbuat baik dan mematuhi segala
perintah Allah SWT. Sehubungan itu, dalam usaha menyampaikan dakwah perlu bergantung
kepada medium yang tertentu mengikut peredaran zaman. Pada masa ledakan teknologi
terkini memperlihatkan penggunaan media sosial yang sangat dekat dengan pengguna dan
audiens alam maya. Sebagai sebuah negara yang sedang membangun, Malaysia juga tidak
ketinggalan dalam penggunaan media sosial bagi tujuan dakwah kepada masyarakat.
Kemunculan media sosial seperti facebook, blog, twitter mahupun instagram telah
mewujudkan satu peluang baru dalam kalangan pendakwah disebabkan sifatnya yang
menarik, pantas dan sangat interaktif. Dengan ciri-ciri tersebut, media sosial dilihat mampu
memberi impak yang maksima terhadap aktiviti dakwah seterusnya mempengaruhi minat
masyarakat agar lebih dekat dengan mesej dakwah Islamiah.
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Objektif Kajian
Berpandukan teori Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) yang diperkenalkan oleh Davis
(1989), kajian ini menyelidik penggunaan media sosial dan penerimaannya dalam kalangan
mahasiswa terhadap mesej-mesej dakwah Islamiah. Terdahulu, teori ini secara khusus
menerangkan penerimaan penggunaan teknologi seperti Internet dan memberi impak secara
tidak langsung kepada kepercayaan dan tanggapan pengguna.
Secara spesifik, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mencapai objektif berikut:
1) Mengenalpasti tujuan menggunakan media sosial dalam kalangan mahasiswa
2) Melihat hubungan antara media sosial dan penerimaan mesej dakwah dalam kalangan
mahasiswa
3) Mengenalpasti tanggapan mahasiswa terhadap media sosial sebagai medium dakwah
Islamiah
Sorotan literatur
Mutakhir ini, terdapat beberapa kajian berkenaan dengan penerimaan Internet, blog mahupun
media sosial dan maklumat berkaitan Islam dijalankan di Malaysia dengan menggunakan
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Musa et.al 2011; Shobi et.al 2011, Ab. Hamid et.al
2014). Internet telah menjadi medium penting pada hari ini dan sedikit sebanyak teknologi
Internet ini mula menguasai serta mempengaruhi tingkah laku masyarakat moden. Justeru,
tanggapan dan penerimaan masyarakat terhadap media-media sosial sebagai medium
penyebaran mesej dakwah adalah sesuatu yang perlu dikaji bagi mengetahui implikasinya
dalam kehidupan.
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Musa et.al (2012) menjelaskan bahawa Davis (1989) mencadangkan dua konstruk berkenaan
kepercayaan dalaman sebagai penentu utama dalam TAM. Salah satu daripada konstruk
kepercayaan dalaman ini adalah tanggapan kebergunaan (Perceived Usefulness – PU).
Konstruk kepercayaan kedua ialah tanggapan mudah diguna (Perceived Ease of Use –
PEOU). Oleh yang demikian, model TAM ini digunakan oleh pengkaji sebagai kerangka asas
kepada kajian ini.
Dalam kajian ini, pengkaji akan melihat hubungan antara faktor mudah diguna dengan
penerimaan mesej dakwah di media sosial dalam kalangan mahasiswa. Selain itu, tingkah
laku pengguna juga turut dikenalpasti berdasarkan impak yang diterima daripada mesej
dakwah tersebut dan seterusnya melihat akan penggunaan sebenar media sosial dalam
kehidupan mereka.
Rajah 1: Model Asas Penerimaan Teknologi (TAM) oleh Davis (1989)
Media sosial dan dakwah
Media merupakan alat yang berpengaruh bagi aktiviti komunikasi. Setiap individu
memerlukan media sebagai perantara untuk berkomunikasi dan mendapatkan maklumat tidak
kira sama ada melalui media cetak atau media elektronik. Kini, dengan perkembangan pesat
Keinginan
Bertingkah laku
Penggunaan
Sebenar
Tanggapan Kebergunaan
Tanggapan Mudah Diguna
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teknologi komunikasi maklumat berjaya menjurus kepada penggunaan saluran Internet
dengan lebih meluas dalam komunikasi seharian khususnya dalam aspek penglibatan
pengguna dalam berinteraksi melalui dalam talian dan dikenali sebagai komunikasi siber.
Menurut Wakefield dan Rice (2008) komunikasi siber memberi peluang kepada pengguna
Internet di dalam proses pembelajaran, pekerjaan, maklumat, data, berkongsi pandangan dan
sebagainya. Justeru, sejajar dengan definisi tersebut adalah perlu bagi para dae’I untuk
berkongsi maklumat dan pandangan menerusi media sosial. Menurut Muhammad Shahir
(2013), para dae’i khususnya dan umat Islam tidak seharusnya menghadkan kepada hanya
sesuatu media tertentu saja yang boleh digunakan dan dipakai dalam menyampaikan dakwah
Islamiah di seluruh dunia ini. Malahan, Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM) juga
dalam aktiviti dakwahnya telah menggunakan teknologi terkini termasuklah penggunaan
internet. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa kemajuan media yang lebih canggih dapat diterima
umum selagi ia tidak melanggar etika penggunaan media itu sendiri.
Oleh yang demikian, wujud pula pelbagai jenis media sosial hasil daripada penciptaan
komunikasi siber menerusi internet dan inovasi teknologi baru. Dengan kepelbagaian fungsi
media sosial tersebut, mesej dakwah boleh disampaikan dengan lebih menarik dan interaktif.
Kewujudan media sosial ibarat cendawan yang tumbuh selepas hujan boleh dijadikan medan
berdakwah bagi para pendakwah untuk lebih dekat dan mesra dengan masyarakat. Facebook,
YouTube, Twitter, Instagram dan sebagainya adalah antara media sosial yang hangat pada
masa kini. Buktinya, sejak kemunculannya pada tahun 2004, Facebook secara pantasnya telah
menjadi alat asas untuk interaksi sosial, identiti peribadi dan juga pembinaan rangkaian di
kalangan pelajar. Sehubungan itu, menurut Liu (2008) sejak tahun 2000 terdapat beratus-ratus
laman web rangkaian sosial dilancarkan sama ada yang berteraskan sudut professional seperti
Linkedln, dan juga bukan professional seperti MySpace dan juga blog. Ini menunjukkan satu
perkembangan yang sangat maju dalam inovasi teknologi baru apabila mendapat sambutan
yang hangat daripada pengguna internet khususnya media sosial.
Zulkifli (2008) menyatakan bahawa media sosial kini merupakan fenomena kepada
masyarakat dunia dan dilaporkan terdapat lebih 500 juta pengguna Facebook dan lebih 100
juta pengguna Twitter di seluruh dunia. Manakala, di Malaysia direkodkan melebihi 12 juta
rakyat mempunyai akaun Facebook. Dengan berasaskan jumlah pengguna yang begitu ramai
merentasi sempadan global, dapat dilihat potensi dan impak yang besar penggunaan media
sosial dalam aktiviti dakwah untuk manfaat masyarakat. Dakwah merupakan satu kewajipan
ke atas setiap individu dan menjadi tonggak utama kepada agama dalam usaha mengangkat
martabat Islam hingga ke puncaknya. Sejajar dengan itu, ruang dan peluang yang terdapat
dalam media sosial ini sewajarnya digunakan untuk mempromosi kefahaman Islam dan
perkara-perkara yang bermanfaat.
Pada hari ini, beberapa dae'i yang terkenal itu telah menggunakan media sosial dalam dakwah
mereka. Untuk menyebut beberapa , seperti Ustaz Azhar Idrus melalui Facebook dan Youtube
dan Ustaz Don Daniyal Don Biyajid mempunyai laman peminat Facebook untuk berinteraksi
dan berkongsi pengetahuan dengan peminatnya serta masyarakat secara keseluruhannya.
Malah, beliau juga telah program TV beliau sendiri yang bertajuk 30 Memproses Pengeluaran
Ustaz Don di TV Alhijrah. Ini menunjukkan bahawa selain daripada program TV atau mana-
mana jenis media yang akan digunakan tetapi masih dia menggunakan media sosial sebagai
medium tambahan untuk misinya dakwah. Selain itu, Prof Dr Muhaya Mohamad adalah
motivasi yang Islam dan Profesor Oftalmologi terkenal. Beliau mempunyai blog sendiri
(drmuhaya.blogspot.com), Facebook dan Twitter untuk berkomunikasi dengan masyarakat. Di
Facebook , dia berkongsi banyak perkara bermanfaat dan maklumat mengenai aspek-aspek
perubatan dan juga mesej Islam yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan sehari-hari.
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Peranan dan kelebihan media sosial
Populariti laman sosial seperti Facebook, Twiter dan sebagainya menyebabkan timbulnya
usaha untuk membangunkan jaringan sosial tempatan yang sesuai dengan kandungan dan
pengguna di Malaysia (Siti Eizaleila dan Azizah, 2010). Ini memberi satu alternatif baru
dalam interaksi dan komunikasi melalui ruang maya. Secara amnya, kewujudan laman web
rangkaian sosial telah digunakan oleh semua peringkat lapisan masyarakat tidak kira sama ada
golongan pelajar, surirumah, para pekerja sektor awam mahupun swasta. Oleh itu,
kemunculan media baru khususnya media sosial pada masa kini dilihat sebagai satu wadah
penting untuk berdakwah dalam kalangan rakyat Malaysia. Menurut Sohirin (2008), usaha
dakwah melalui Internet perlu diberi keutamaan berbanding penggunaan media tradisional. Ini
kerana penyampaian mesej dakwah itu boleh merentasi sempadan seterusnya mampu
mensasar kepada bukan sahaja orang Islam malah segenap lapisan bangsa. Melalui
penggunaan media, pelbagai keperluan semasa umat Islam dapat dicurahkan oleh umat Islam
itu sendiri mengikut citarasa kontemporari yang sesuai dengan ajaran Islam dan yang sentiasa
menjadi pilihan alternatif umat Islam sekarang. Penggunaan media dalam Islam seharusnya
lebih menekankan konsep tauhid dan menjadikan Islam sebagai acuan hidup mereka.
Rosmawati (2011) menjelaskan antara kelebihan laman web sosial yang
menjadikannya sebagai pilihan pengguna internet hari ini adalah disebabkan penawarannya
mencipta personal maya dalam setiap profil pengguna serta sebagai bentuk komunikasi
dengan pelbagai aktiviti. Ini membolehkan pengguna bergerak secara aktif dalam komunikasi
maya dan berkongsi idea secara individu. Selain itu, para pengguna bebas bersuara dan
melontarkan pandangan melalui tulisan-tulisan mereka di laman-laman sosial. Selain daripada
itu, menurut Siti Eizaleila dan Azizah (2010), laman jaringan sosial yang muncul
kebanyakkannya menawarkan fungsi yang sama iaitu sebagai tempat untuk bertemu sahabat
baharu, mengekalkan persahabatAn, berkongsi maklumat dan idea untuk tujuan peribadi
mahupun tujuan perniagaan serta menyatukan orang ramai. Ini jelas menunjukkan kelebihan
media sosial yang boleh digunakan oleh para pendakwah dalam menyebarkan mesej Islam
kepada seluruh masyarakat di Malaysia mahupun merentasi sempadan dunia. Sehubungan itu,
Rosmawati (2011) juga berpendapat bahawa peranan penggunaan laman web sosial untuk
menembusi benteng sasaran dakwah remaja yang gemarkan gajet teknologi pelengkap
interaksi sosial mereka seperti melalui Facebook, Twitter mahupun Myspace dilihat sebagai
faktor kepada pengimplementasian dakwah alaf baharu.
Justeru, dakwah pada hari ini memerlukan pendekatan yang lebih interaktif sesuai
dengan peredaran dunia teknologi yang lebih maju. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam menjalankan
usaha dakwah yang lebih dinamis dan optimis, para pendakwah tidak perlu sehingga
menafikan pendekatan dakwah klasik berdasarkan amalan Rasulullah SAW. Namun,
pendekatan dakwah itu perlu sejajar dengan bentuk penerimaan masyarakat hari ini yang
memerlukan mekanisme baru dalam penerimaan maklumat. Daripada sudut yang lain,
peranan media sosial sebagai jentera perubahan dan pencipta permainan baru boleh digunakan
untuk kebaikan masyarakat dan keluarga. Oleh itu, laporan menurut BERNAMA (2011),
Menteri Penerangan, Komunikasi dan Kebudayaan Malaysia iaitu Datuk Seri Dr. Rais Yatim
menyatakan bahawa penggunaan media sosial patut digalakkan tetapi perlu mempunyai
konvensyen mereka sendiri mengenai apa yang boleh dibuat dan apa yang tidak boleh dibuat.
Di sini jelas menunjukkan bahawa para pendakwah dan pengguna media khususnya perlu
tahu tentang etika penggunaan internet serta bijak dalam membincangkan isu-isu keagamaan
dengan cara yang lebih kreatif serta mengikut landasan yang ditetapkan syarak. Sebagai
contoh, laman web Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM) sendiri menggunakan web
sosial mereka dengan pelbagai aplikasi yang berguna kepada masyarakat serta memberi ruang
dan peluang kepada masyarakat untuk berkongsi pendapat dan menjawab pelbagai
kemusykilan agama. Selain itu, kelebihan media sosial yang tidak dapat dinafikan adalah
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sifatnya yang menarik, pantas dan mudah serta hanya mengambil masa beberapa saat sahaja
untuk pendakwah menyampaikan mesej dakwah Islamiah kepada masyarakat. Ia juga
mengamalkan interaksi dua hala antara pendakwah dan masyarakat apabila saling berbincang
di forum-forum mahupun memberi maklumbalas secara bertulis di pelbagai sudut media
sosial.
METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Sampel dan Kaedah Kutipan Data
Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif iaitu tinjauan yang berasaskan instrument yang
dikemukakan melalui boring soal selidik. Menurut Babbie (2001), penggunaan kaedah
tinjauan adalah satu cara pengumpulan data yang dianggap terbaik dalam sesuatu kajian sains
sosial kerana kaedah ini berupaya memberikan penjelasan yang tepat untuk mewakili satu
populasi yang besar. Subjek kajian terdiri daripada mahasiswa Kolej Universiti Islam
Antarabangsa Selangor (KUIS) yang terdiri daripada kelompok pengguna yang mempunyai
latar belakang pendidikan agama dan menggunakan media sosial bagi mendapatkan mesej-
mesej berkaitan dakwah Islamiah. Sebanyak 100 borang soal selidik telah diedarkan kepada
mahasiswa namun hanya 99 sahaja yang boleh digunakan dalam kajian ini. Selain itu,
pemilihan kawasan juga adalah berdasarkan ciri kemodenan wilayah yang bertepatan ciri-ciri
lokasi pengguna Internet, khususnya penggunaan media sosial dan kedudukan kawasan
tersebut yang juga berada berdekatan dengan Bangi, Nilai dan Kajang yang merupakan antara
bandar-bandar moden yang mencapai penggunaan Internet yang luas. Selain itu, aspek-aspek
lain seperti bangsa, pendidikan, sosial dan pendedahan Internet juga perlu diambilkira.
Soal selidik kajian
Dalam kajian ini, soal selidik diedarkan secara terus kepada pelajar secara rawak dan soal
selidik yang dihasilkan terdiri daripada 3 bahagian iaitu Bahagian A mengenai profil
demografi, Bahagian B bertanyakan tentang penggunaan media sosial, Bahagian C pula
adalah berkenaan dengan penerimaan dan implikasi mesej dakwah Islamiah dan Bahagian D
melihat tentang penggunaan sebenar media sosial dalam kalangan mahasiswa. Statistik
deskriptif digunakan untuk memperihalkan data-data asas responden kajian, iaitu yang
berkenaan dengan profil responden. Keputusan atau hasil daripada soal selidik ini dianalisis
dengan menggunakan Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) versi 20.0.
DAPATAN DAN PERBINCANGAN
Realibiliti analisis
Penyelidik menggunakan penilaian Cronbach’s alpha untuk melihat konsistensi antara item.
Merujuk kepada jadual 1 di bawah, nilai alfa adalah lebih dari 0.7 iaitu 0.833 dan sesuatu
instrumen kajian dianggap mempunyai nilai reliabiliti yang mencukupi apabila mempunyai
sama atau melebihi 0.70. Oleh itu dapat disimpulkan bahawa semua ukuran ini mempunyai
ketekalan dalaman yang tinggi.
Jadual 1: Nilai Reliabiliti
Cronbach's Alpha
N of Items
.833 31
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Hasil kajian
Responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini berjumlah 99 orang, iaitu 14.1% merupakan
responden dari kalangan mahasiswa lelaki (n=14) sementara 85.9% adalah responden
mahasiswi wanita (n=85) dengan majoriti berumur 22 – 24 tahun (n=45, 45.5%). Daripada
jumlah responden tersebut, 23.2 % merupakan mahasiswa berpendidikan peringkat Asasi,
14.1% peringkat Diploma dan 62.6% peringkat Sarjana Muda. Antara bidang kajian mereka
adalah Asasi Bahasa Arab, Diploma Komunikasi, Sarjana Muda Al-Quran & As-Sunnah
dengan Komunikasi, dan kursus Sarjana Muda dari Fakulti Akademi Islam.
Penggunaan media sosial
Penggunaan media sosial diambil kira berdasarkan tempoh penggunaan, pilihan serta tujuan
melayari media sosial.
Jadual 2: Tempoh Penggunaan Media Sosial (n=99)
Kekerapan Peratusan
Valid
< 1 tahun 1 1.0
1-3 tahun 16 16.2
> 3 tahun 82 82.8
Total 99 100.0
Jadual 2 menjelaskan bahawa responden berpengalaman menggunakan Internet adalah
melebihi dari 3 tahun (82.8%). Ini menunjukkan responden sememangnya bergantung dengan
media sosial dan menerima teknologi baru ini dalam kehidupan.
Jadual 3: Kecenderungan pilihan Media Sosial (n=99)
Kekerapan Peratusan
Valid
Facebook 60 60.6
Youtube 7 7.1
Twitter 10 10.1
Instagram 11 11.1
Lain-lain 11 11.1
Total 99 100.0
Jadual 2 menunjukkan majoriti responden lebih cenderung menggunakan media sosial
Facebook dalam mencari maklumat (60.6%). Selain itu, responden juga turut melayari media
sosial yang lain seperti Instagram (11.11%), lain-lain (11.11%), Twitter (10.1%) dan Youtube
(7.07%).
Korelasi penerimaan media sosial sebagai medium dakwah
Jadual 4 menunjukkan terdapat hubungan yang sangat signifikan (0.001) antara kelebihan
media sosial yang mesra pengguna dengan penerimaan terhadap responden. Ini menunjukkan
secara amnya responden dapat menerima kewujudan media sosial atas faktor mesra pengguna
dalam kehidupan mereka. Mesra pengguna di sini melibatkan faktor kandungan yang mudah
di dalam media sosial, kemahiran smeakin meningkat apabila melayari media sosial, sifatnya
yang fleksibel dan tidak kompleks serta menjimatkan masa dan kos. Faktor mesra pengguna
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inilah yang menjadi pemangkin kepada penerimaan media sosial sebagai medium dakwah
Islamiah.
Jadual 4: Faktor Mesra Pengguna (n=99)
MesraPengguna Penerimaan
Mesra Pengguna Pearson Correlation 1 .323**
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 99 99
Penerimaan Pearson Correlation .323** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
N 99 99
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Penggunaan Media Sosial (Mesra Pengguna)
Graf 1: Penggunaan media sosial – mesra pengguna
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
kandungan yang mudah kemahiran meningkat fleksibel kompleks menjimatkan masa dan
kos
Sangat tidak setuju
Tidak setuju
Tidak pasti
Setuju
Sangat setuju
Analisis Graf 1 menerangkan dengan jelas majoriti responden setuju bahawa media sosial
sememangnya mesra pengguna dengan kandungannya yang mudah diaplikasikan (63.6%).
Selain itu, 59.6% daripda responden juga setuju bahawa kemahiran akan meningkat dengan
penggunaan media social yang mesra pengguna. Responden juga bersetuju (58.6%) bahawa
media social ini sememangnya menyediakan aplikasi yang fleksibel dan pelbagai mengikut
kejendak pengguna. Justeru, 33.3% daripada responden tidak setuju dengan kenyataan tentang
media sosial yang dilihat adalah kompleks dan susah digunakan. Ini jelas menunjukkan
bahawa media sosial adalah mesra pengguna dan digemari oleh responden. Oleh yang
demikian, responden berpendapat bahawa penggunaan media sosial adalah kos efektif dan
menjimatkan masa dengan jumlah 52.5% yang bersetuju. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa
internet dan media sosial adalah penting dalam hidup mereka.
Implikasi Mesej Dakwah melalui Media Sosial
Kajian ini juga melihat tentang implikasi mesej dakwah yang diperolehi daripada media sosial
dalam kalangan responden. Ia menjurus kepada perubahan atau tindakan yang dilakukan oleh
responden hasil daripada mesej dakwah tersebut.
Jadual 5 menunjukkan 62.6% responden bersetuju dengan kenyataan bahawa mesej
dakwah melalui media sosial mampu memberi kesan dijiwa mereka. Manakala terdapat 3%
daripada responden berfikiran sebaliknya. Ini menunjukkan bahawa terdapat sebilangan kecil
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responden yang tidak dapat menerima mesej dakwah melalui media sosial dan tidak terkesan
melaluinya.
Jadual 5: Memberi kesan dijiwa
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Tidak setuju 3 3.0 3.0 3.0
Tidak Pasti 10 10.1 10.1 13.1
Setuju 62 62.6 62.6 75.8
Sangat Setuju 24 24.2 24.2 100.0
Total 99 100.0 100.0
Jadual 6: Berkongsi Status
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Sangat Tidak
Setuju 1 1.0 1.0 1.0
Tidak setuju 2 2.0 2.0 3.0
Tidak Pasti 5 5.1 5.1 8.1
Setuju 51 51.5 51.5 59.6
Sangat Setuju 40 40.4 40.4 100.0
Total 99 100.0 100.0
Jadual 6 menjelaskan bahawa 51.5% responden bersetuju untuk berkongsi status berkenaan
mesej dakwah di media sosial atau di akaun sosial milik mereka. Ini menunjukkan bahawa
mereka dapat menerima kegunaan media sosial sebagai medium untuk berkongsi maklumat
mengenai mesej dakwah. Namun, masih terdapat 1.0% daripada responden yang sangat tidak
setuju untuk berbuat demikian.
Jadual 7: Memberi komen dan pandangan
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Sangat Tidak
Setuju 1 1.0 1.0 1.0
Tidak setuju 4 4.0 4.0 5.1
Tidak Pasti 26 26.3 26.3 31.3
Setuju 50 50.5 50.5 81.8
Sangat Setuju 18 18.2 18.2 100.0
Total 99 100.0 100.0
Jadual 7 menunjukkan separuh daripada responden iaitu 50.5% yang bersetuju untuk memberi
komen atau respons terhadap status yang berunsurkan dakwah di media sosial. Hanya 1.0%
yang sangat tidak setuju dan 4.0% tidak setuju. Ini menunjukkan terdapat segelintir daripada
responden yang tidak akan memberi sebarang komen dan pandangan berkenaan mesej
dakwah di media sosial.
Jadual 8 menjelaskan bahawa 44.4% responden sangat bersetuju agar media sosial
dijadikan medan perbincangan isu agama, ini termsuk juga mesej-mesej dakwah yang
disebarkan. 42.4% responden pula bersetuju, 9.1% tidak pasti, 3.0% tidak bersetuju dan 1.0%
sangat tidak setuju berkenaan akan hal ini. Walau bagaimanapun, responden juga berpendapat
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bahawa media sosial dapat diterima sebagai medium penyebaran mesej dakwah namun
iabergantung juga kepada tahap kesahan atau kesahihan mesej dakwah tersebu. Ini bergantung
kepada penerimaan dan tahap kepercayaan individu terhadap sesuatu mesej yang diterima di
media sosial. Responden masih mengambil kira faktor kesahihan sesuatu mesej sebelum
menyebar dan berkongsi dengan rakan-rakan mahupun kenalan di akaun sosial mereka.
Jadual 8: Medan perbincangan isu agama
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Sangat Tidak
Setuju 1 1.0 1.0 1.0
Tidak setuju 3 3.0 3.0 4.0
Tidak Pasti 9 9.1 9.1 13.1
Setuju 42 42.4 42.4 55.6
Sangat Setuju 44 44.4 44.4 100.0
Total 99 100.0 100.0
Penggunaan Sebenar Media Sosial
Graf 2: Penggunaan Sebenar Media Sosial (mengikut tujuan)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Hiburan Populariti Interaksi Masa
lapang
Berkenalan
selebriti
Diskusi isu Mencari
maklumat
Sangat tidaksetujuTidak setuju
Tidak pasti
Setuju
Sangat setuju
Analisa Graf 2 menunjukkan tentang penggunaan sebenar media social dalam kalangan
repsonden (n=99). Majoriti responden 41.4% berpendapat mereka sangat tidak setuju dengan
tujuan menggunakan media social untuk hiburan dan 56.6% juga responden sangat tidak
setuju menggunakan media social untuk tujuan mencipta populariti. Walau bagaimanapun,
terdapat juga sejumlah kecil yang setuju (3.0%) berpendapat sebaliknya. Selain itu, 55.6%
responden adalah setuju menggunakan media sosial untuk tujuan berinteraksi. Ini disebabkan
aplikasi yang terdapat dalam media social sememangnya menjadi medan interkasi merentasi
sempanan geografi. 54.5% juga daripada responden menggunakan media sosial untuk mengisi
masa lapang mereka, namun 25.3% adalah sangat tidak setuju menggunakan media social
sebagai medan perkenalan dengan selebriti ternama. Justeru, 60.6% responden setuju bahawa
dengan media social, mereka dapt berdiskusi pelbagai isu secara atas talian. Sejajar itu, 45.5%
responden setuju menyatakan bahawa mereka menggunakan media social adalah untuk
mencari maklumat yang berkaitan.
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CADANGAN DAN KESIMPULAN
Hasil kajian yang telah dilakukan ke atas seramai 99 responden yang terdiri daripada pelajar
KUIS menunjukkan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan dalam penerimaan media
sosial dengan faktor mesra pengguna sebagai medium dakwah. Selain itu responden juga
memiliki asas pengetahuan agama yang baik dan cenderung untuk berkongsi mesej dakwah
yang diperolehi dengan mereka yang lain melalui media sosial. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa
mereka dapat menerima kewujudan media sosial atas tujuan penyebaran dakwah bergantung
kepada keyakinan terhadap kesahihan mesej dakwah tersebut. Untuk kajian lanjut, sampel
kajian boleh diperluaskan ke lain-lain institusi pendidikan dan masyarakat awam untuk
melihat faktor-faktor penerimaan penggunaan media sosial sebagai medium dakwah. Selain
itu, pengkaji juga berpendapat bahawa kajian berbentuk kualitatif seperti kumpulan fokus
boleh dijalankan pada masa hadapan untuk mendapatkan hasil kajian yang lebih
memberangsangkan. Ini memandangkan terdapat kekangan masa untuk mendapatkan lebih
ramai responden serta jumlah borang soal selidik yang rosak dan tidak boleh digunakan.
Oleh yang demikian, pengkaji melihat komunikasi dan interaksi pada masa ini tidak
hanya terhad kepada interaksi secara bersemuka, tetapi komunikasi kini terjalin dalam
interaksi ruang maya melalui laman web sosial. Media sosial kini mampu dijadikan medan
penyebaran mesej dakwah kerana ia dapat menjangkau khalayak dengan syarat mereka
mempunyai akses kepada internet. Justeru, pendakwah perlu mempunyai kemahiran serta
pengetahuan bagi memaksimumkan keberkesanan dakwah yang dilaksanakan. Pendakwah
hari ini juga perlu menjadi lebih kreatif dan fleksibel dalam mendekatkan diri dengan
masyarakat agar mesej dakwah tersebut dapat diterima. Oleh itu, penggunaan media dalam
Islam seharusnya lebih menekankan konsep tauhid dan menjadikan Islam sebagai acuan hidup
masyarakat. Hasil daripada kajian ini dapat menyumbang kepada pembentukan mahasiswa/i
bermaklumat dan celik menggunakan teknologi komunikasi untuk tujuan kebaikan serta
mempertingkatkan manfaat mesej dakwah dalam kehidupan. Daripada sudut yang lain,
internet dan media sosial sangat berguna dalam kalangan mahasiswa/i dalam memberi ruang
kepada mereka bersuara melahirkan pendapat serta menjadikan mereka lebih berani
memperjuangkan kepentingan mereka di masa hadapan selari dengan tuntutan syarak.
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Mohd Shobi Ishak, Musa Abu Hassan, Siti Zobidah Omar & Jusang Bolong. (2011).
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Omar. (2011). Tahap Penerimaan Maklumat Berkaitan Islam di Iternet Dari
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Cabaran Media di Malaysia, (pnyt.) Mohamad Md Yusoff et al. Pulau Pinang: Pusat
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Faradillah Iqmar Omar
Jabatan Komunikasi,
Fakulti Pengurusan dan Muamalah,
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor, Malaysia
faradillah@kuis.edu.my
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ISU-ISU PENULISAN SKRIP: MASALAH YANG MEMERLUKAN PENYELESAIAN
(Issues in Script Writing: Solution-Needed Problems)
Mohd Daly Daud, Nursyamimi Harun, & Md. Rozalafri Johori
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor
ABSTRAK
Bidang penulisan skrip semakin berkembang selaras kemunculan stesen-stesen televisyen (TV)
yang baru lantas menyuburkan lagi minat penulis-penulis untuk berkecimpung dalam dunia
penulisan skrip. Namun, pelbagai isu masih mengganggu bidang kreatif ini lalu mengundang
pelbagai polemik yang membelenggunya sehingga kini tanpa sebarang penyelesaian. Justeru,
kajian ini cuba mengetengahkan semula isu-isu yang membelenggu penulis-penulis skrip
tempatan dalam menghasilkan karya mereka dengan melakukan kajian secara kualitatif dengan
kaedah temuramah secara mendalam dengan seorang informan yang telah berkecimpung dalam
bidang ini lebih 30 tahun. Dapatan kajian yang dibincangkan dalam kertas kerja ini diharap dapat
membongkar persoalan berkaitan penulisan skrip yang mana memberi manfaat kepada penulis
skrip dalam mempersiapkan diri untuk menjadi seorang penulis yang baik. Diharap dengan
pendedahan ini, penulis skrip seharusnya berupaya untuk menutup ruang yang membolehkan
pihak lain mempertikaikan kredibiliti skrip yang dihasilkan.
Kata Kunci: Penulisan skrip; isu skrip; skrip TV
ABSTRACT
Script writing is flourishing in line with the emergence of new television (TV) stations that
inculcate writers’ interest to get involved in script writing. However, there have been issues
which beset this creative field, thus inviting various polemics that continue to impede this field
without solutions. Therefore, this study attempted to bring forth the issues that beset local script
writers in producing their creative works through an in-depth interview with an informant who
had been into scriptwriting for more than thirty (30) years. Hopefully, the findings of this study,
discussed in this working paper, will address the issues on script writing. This will benefit script
writers in preparing themselves towards becoming competent script writers. This discussion
shall help script writers to bridge the gaps and able to enhance the credibility of the produced
scripts.
Keywords: Script writing; script issues; TV scripts
PENDAHULUAN
Apabila kita berbicara mengenai karya, baik dari segi fiksyen atau pun bukan fiksyen, secara
tidak langsung perhatian kita akan tertumpu kepada proses penulisan skrip. Skrip dianggap nadi
kepada karya-karya penerbitan televisyen (TV). Kesempurnaan karya menggambarkan penulisan
skrip yang sempurna. Segala apa yang dipersembahkan dalam skrip wajar dihadamkan dengan
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baik oleh pengarah bagi mengelakkan penonton dilanda kebosanan dengan isi cerita yang
disampaikan.
Bukan mudah untuk menulis skrip. Sebagai seorang penulis skrip, mereka perlu bijak
meletakkan dirinya sebagai penyelidik yang mengkagumkan. Skrip yang ditulis perlu disokong
dengan fakta penyelidikan agar penceritaannya mampu meyakinkan penonton. Penulis skrip
juga perlu bertanggungjawab bagi memastikan setiap skrip yang dihasilkan benar-benar mampu
menambat hati semua pihak sama ada stesen penyiaran, pihak penerbitan mahu pun penonton.
Mereka juga harus ingat bahawa bidang ini mampu menjadi satu industri dan perkara ini tidak
harus dipandang ringan.
Namun, bukan semua orang boleh menjadi penulis skrip meskipun mereka bergaul atau
mempunyai hubungan dengan mereka yang terlibat dalam bidang pengarahan, penerbitan
rancangan-rancangan televisyen, filem dan video. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Asiah Sarji et al.,
(1997) mendapati memang ramai penulis skrip di Malaysia yang berasal atau melalui proses ini
sebelum menjadi penulis skrip. Malah pengalaman ini memenuhi tempoh lebih 50 tahun yang
lalu. Pengalaman selalunya mengajar seseorang untuk menjadi penulis skrip termasuk
Allahyarham P. Ramlee dan Badol.
Takrif dan konsep dalam penulisan skrip
Menurut Asiah Sarji (1997), takrif umum skrip ialah idea yang dikembangkan menjadi isu dan
persoalan atau siri-siri kejadian yang saling berkaitan dan menyumbang. Isu dan siri-siri kejadian
ini diadun secara sistematik bersama-sama unsur-unsur seni dan teknikal yang lain bagi
memenuhi matlamat satu-satu keperluan yang dicetuskan, dirangka dan diputuskan dari idea.
Arthur Asa Berger (1990) pula mentakrifkan skrip sebagai blue print atau rangka yang
menafsirkan reka bentuk visual dan audio dalam sesuatu persembahan cerita.
Penulisan skrip pula adalah satu proses. Proses di sini bermaksud aktiviti yang perlu
dilalui oleh seseorang penulis skrip sehingga sesebuah skrip itu siap dipersembahkan atau
diserahkan kepada mana-mana pihak. Selagi ada kerja-kerja pembetulan yang dibuat, kerja-kerja
penulisan belum tamat, ia dianggap sebagai proses menamatkan penulisan. (Asiah Sarji, 1997).
Sebelum memulakan sesuatu penerbitan, seseorang pengarah atau penerbit memerlukan arahan
atau skrip yang menerangkan secara terperinci mengenai sesuatu bahan yang diperlukan dan
individu yang terbabit dalam proses penerbitan itu. Dengan adanya skrip, ia secara tidak
langsung membolehkan penulisnya menyusun sesuatu jalan cerita dengan lebih teraturdan
membolehkan penerbit, pengarah dan krew penerbitan mempertimbangkan aspek-aspek berikut;
(i) sudut kamera, (ii) audio, (iii) kesan khas dan (iv) masa.
Justeru, apabila tiba masa untuk penggambaran atau proses penyuntingan, penerbit atau
pengarah boleh terus memberi tumpuan kepada kualiti syot yang diambil daripada menghabiskan
masa memikirkan tentang perincian dalam penerbitan. Skrip juga membolehkan produksi berada
dalam keadaan yang lebih terkawal dan teratur. Menurut Zaini Kosnin (2009) konsep adalah
Garis Cerita. Ada juga orang menyebutnya Storyline Concept. Ia adalah satu garisan yang
digunakan untuk menentukan sesebuah cerita. Biasanya, ia mesti mempunyai pengenalan, isi dan
penutup. Jelas di sini bahawa struktur penceritaan amat penting bagi memastikan skrip yang
dihasilkan tidak bercelaru. Ini kerana, skrip yang baik dan ditulis dengan jelas mampu
berkomunikasi dengan penulis dan juga penonton. Skrip juga seharusnya menyediakan peluang
yang cukup kepada pembaca untuk membayangkan segala kemungkinan yang berlaku.
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Paling penting sekali, sebagai seorang penulis skrip, kita perlu memahami bahawa kita
menulis untuk divisualkan. Bukan untuk menulis cerita untuk dibaca. Oleh yang demikian,
bayangan visual di dalam fikiran kita amat penting ketika menulis dan apa yang penting, kita
tahu bahawa gambaran itu, boleh divisualkan.
METODOLOGI KAJIAN
Kajian ini dilakukan melalui temubual secara mendalam dengan informan iaitu seorang penulis
skrip yang juga seorang penerbit yang mempunyai pengalaman menerbitkan rancangan-
rancangan di RTM dan TV3. Beliau telah mempunyai pengalaman selama 30 tahun dalam
bidang ini dan turut mendjadi tenaga pengajar sambilan dalam bidang penerbitan video dan
penulisan skrip di Fakulti Pengajian Media, Fakulti Seni Persembahan Universiti Teknologi
MARA(UiTM), Filem dan TV di Kolej Universiti Lim Kok Wing, Akademi Seni Kebangsaan,
Universiti Multi Media (MMU), Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM), Kolej
Yayasan Melaka (KYM), Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor (KUIS) dan Institut
Penyiaran Tun Abdul Razak (IPTAR). Informan turut terbabit dalam mengendalikan pelbagai
kursus lanjutan penerbitan program TV di kalangan penggiat industri penyiaran di peringkat
Asia Pasifik. Temubual dengan informan diajalankan secara interpersonal dan dilakukan selama
1 jam. Pemilihan informan pula adalah secara bertujuan kerana kajian ini memerlukan maklumat
secara khusus tentang permasalahan penulisan skrip di Malaysia. Soalan-soalan temubual
dikemukakan secara tidak berstruktur supaya temubual dapat dilakukan dengan santai dan
jawapan dapat diterima dengan mendalam secara semulajadi dan efektif. Cara ini juga mudah
untuk meneroka maklumat baru kerana ia kurang kawalan dan bersifat anjal yang memudahkan
informan memberitahu isu-isu yang membelenggu bidang penulisan skrip ini.
Keseluruhan audio sesi temubual dirakam dan kemudian ditranskripkan perkataan demi
perkataan bagi mendapatkan data yang lebih tepat dan terperinci untuk di analisis. Semua
transkrip yang telah disemak melalui proses pengekodan secara deduktif iaitu dengan membaca
teks, kemudian memberi kod kepada teks sehingga mendapat tema yang tepat. Proses pengkodan
telah dijalankan sehingga membentuk tema-tema yang mewakili konstruk-konstruk kategori
yang mewakili isu-isu dalam penulisan skrip di Malaysia.
HASIL KAJIAN DAN PERBINCANGAN
Setelah dianalisis, skrip yang baik dan ditulis dengan jelas mampu berkomunikasi dengan
penulis dan juga penonton. Skrip juga seharusnya menyediakan peluang yang cukup kepada
pembaca untuk membayangkan segala kemungkinan yang berlaku. Melalui kaedah transgulasi
dengan pemerhatian dan sorotan literatur disenaraikan juga isu-isu penulisan skrip yang tidak
disentuh oleh informan. Oleh itu, antara isu-isu yang telah dikenalpasti;
Penulis Skrip Kurang Membuat Penyelidikan
Negara kita masih lagi kekurangan skrip yang berkualiti. Ini diakui sendiri oleh penulis
berpengalaman Martias Ali apabila menyatakan bahawa kita sebenarnya memang ketandusan
dari aspek cabang cerita yang ingin dikembangkan. Ramai penonton memberikan komen negatif
pada skrip drama atau filem tempatan. Penonton berhak bersuara tetapi apakah penonton ini
dapat berikan idea yang lebih bagus. Selalunya skrip kurang kualiti kerana kurang penyelidikan
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dibuat oleh penulis skrip. Idea yang ada hanya luaran tanpa mengetahui masalah dan perasaan
dalaman pada watak utama itu sendiri. Seperti cerita posmen, ia lebih meyakinkan jika posmen
yang berkongsi idea. Begitu juga, nelayan mempunyai banyak pengalaman sendiri yang mungkin
kisahnya dapat menarik perhatian penonton (Harian Metro: 18 Oktober, 2011).
Hakikat ini juga bukan sahaja berlaku pada skrip karya fiksyen, skrip bukan fiksyen turut
mengalami masalah yang sama. Masalah kurang kajian atau penyelidikan terhadap sesuatu topik
yang cuba ditonjolkan penulis skrip adalah sesuatu yang serius. Penulis skrip tidak boleh
membuat kesimpulan berdasarkan pengamatannya sahaja. Mereka perlu mendepani masalah ini
dengan mengalaminya sendiri. Inilah pentingnya penyelidikan. Malangnya tidak ramai penulis
skrip hari ini yang turun ke lapangan membuat penyelidikan berkaitan topik yang ditulis.
Duduk di hadapan komputer melayari internet dengan membuat tinjauan di lokasi adalah dua
perkara berbeza. Fakta yang terdapat di internet mungkin tidak dikemas kini. Jika turun ke
lokasi, penulis skrip pastinya dapat menghayati fakta serta merasai pengalaman dan suasana
sebenar subjek yang dijadikan bahan penceritaan. Dalam temubual bersama informan, beliau
menyatakan, “Lemahnya program fiksyen dan bukan fiksyen di negara kita adalah kerana
kurangnya penyelidikan. Bagi diri saya sekali saya berkarya, kena bagi yang berkualitilah, tidak
boleh berkarya seadanya, dia tak boleh ada terma oklah aku buatlah, itu tak boleh.”
Kajian Asiah Sarji et al., (1996) menyatakan hampir separuh daripada penulis skrip di
negara ini menyatakan penyelidikan tidak perlu dan mereka tidak mempunyai masa yang cukup
untuk membuat penyelidikan bagi menyiapkan skrip. Separuh lagi yang membuat penyelidikan
mengakui penyelidikan dibuat jika keadaan memerlukan, namun tidak begitu mendalam dan
tidak seteliti seperti diharapkan kerana kesuntukan masa.
Keadaan ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa penulis skrip di negara ini masih ketandusan atau
masih lagi tercari-cari idea dalam menyiapkan skrip untuk persembahan di media elektronik.
Bagaimana ingin mendapat naskhah skrip yang berkualiti jika proses awal penulisan skrip ini
diabaikan? Tiada gunanya untuk kita cuba berfikir atau menggambarkan secara visual (think
visually) jika ideanya masih tidak jelas atau kabur. Informan turut menyatakan padangannya
berhubung perkara ini, “Seorang penulis skrip, dia perlu ada kemahiran menghuraikan visual.
Bila pelajar masuk universiti, mereka diajar untuk menghuraikan visual, mereka perlu tahu
jenis-jenis shot, shot ini bagaimana, pergerakan kamera, dia punya instruction untuk
memasukkan effect, fade in lagu, fade up music background mereka perlu tahu. Jadi, bila dia
buat skrip tu, dia boleh baca apa yg pengarah nak. Bila dia boleh baca apa pengarah nak, dia
boleh visualize di kepala dia dalam bentuk lakon layar maka maka 80% - 90% matlamat filem
tu atau program TV akan tercapai.”
Penguasaan Bahasa yang Lemah
Dari sudut penguasaan bahasa pula, Musa et. al., (2010) menyatakan bahasa yang dituturkan
lambang budaya yang kita miliki. Budaya itu simbol falsafah dan pemikiran masyarakat. Oleh
itu, kesinambungan budaya tradisi dapat dilanjutkan jika TV menyajikan rencangan berasaskan
Bahasa Melayu. Falsafah sesuatu bangsa akan terserlah dari cara mereka berbahasa. Dalam
konteks ini, bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa rasmi negara wajar mendapat tempat dalam
penyiaran rancangan TV.
Namun realitinya hari ini, bahasa yang digunakan dalam skrip sering menerima kritikan
masyarakat. Penggunaan bahasa Melayu yang bercampur aduk dengan bahasa Inggeris jelas
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memualkan. Namun, ia terus mendapat tempat dalam karya fiksyen tempatan kerana ia dianggap
trend hari ini dalam berkomunikasi sama ada formal mahupun tidak formal.
Dato’ Adilah Shek Omar, Pengarah Institut Penyiaran dan Penerangan Tun Abdul Razak
(IPPTAR) berkata tidak ada komitmen terhadap bahasa Melayu oleh mereka yang sepatunya
memartabatkannya. Beliau berkata masih banyak kesilapan tatabahasa dan ejaan di dalam media
cetak dan penyiaran. Ini tidak sepatutnya berlaku kerana Bahasa Melayu mudah untuk dipelajari
dan di fahami. Beliau berkata masyarakat juga kerap kali menggunakan bahasa rojak bukan saja
dalam pertuturan seharian tetapi juga dalam acara rasmi. Ini kerana terdapat warga media yang
berpendapat bahawa bahasa adalah hanya untuk menyampaikan sesuatu mesej, asalkan dapat
difahami sudah cukup (Laman Web Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2011).
Hal ini pernah dibangkitkan oleh Senator Datuk Rizuan Abd. Hamid di Dewan Negara
ketika itu. Senator Datuk Rizuan Abd. Hamid berkata, usaha mendaulatkan bahasa Melayu akan
gagal jika penggunaan bahasa rojak dibenarkan terutamanya yang bercampur-aduk dengan
perkataan Inggeris. “Dalam pembentangan Rancangan Malaysia Kesembilan (RMK-9), kita guna
bahasa Inggeris yang dimelayukan. Yang menyebut dianggap bertaraf tinggi, yang dengar pula
kadang-kadang tak faham pun,” katanya. Beliau yang membahaskan usul RMK-9 di Persidangan
Dewan Negara berkata, media juga perlu memainkan peranan dalam mengurangkan penggunaan
bahasa rojak dan menyedarkan masyarakat pentingnya penggunaan bahasa Melayu yang betul.
Senator Dr. Mohd Puad Zarkashi yang bersetuju dengan Rizuan berkata, isu bahasa rojak telah
banyak dibualkan tetapi seolah-olah tiada pendekatan untuk menyekatnya. “Contohnya dalam
drama televisyen, bahasa yang digunakan bercampur-aduk, kadang-kadang tak seronok apabila
kita tonton dan meluat” (Laman Web Rasmi Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2009).
Isu “bahasa rojak” ini turut mendapat perhatian pencinta bahasa. Bahasa rojak menjadi
satu tanda baharu bagi kewujudan fenomena Bahasa kacukan (Awang Sariyan, 2006).
Sesetengah orang berpendapat, fenomena bahasa rojak atau bahasa yang bercampur aduk tidak
lebih daripada bersifat fesyen semasa semata-mata. Isu tersebut telah menjadi isu yang hangat
diperkatakan. Selain isu nasib bahasa Melayu yang semakin terpinggir atau tidak diberikan
keutamaan pada tempat dan haknya yang wajar, Awang Sariyan juga melihat gejala bahasa rojak
dan kata serapan. Pada masa sekarang, bahasa Melayu telah menerima sekian banyak istilah dan
kata daripada bahasa Barat, terutamanya daripada bahasa Inggeris. Menurutnya, tidak ada
salahnya kita mengambil kata daripada bahasa asing untuk tujuan memperkaya ilmu,
kebudayaan dan pemikiran bangsa, namun, pengaruh bahasa asing itu tentulah perlu diserap dan
diambil secara sistematik dan sedapatnya ditapis melalui sistem bahasa Melayu (Mohamad
Azlan Mis, 2011).
Informan turut menentang penggunaan dialog drama yang mencampur adukkan bahasa
Inggeris dan bahasa Melayu, “Walaupun kita ingin menyatakan itulah norma biasa masyarakat di
ibu kota yang bercakap orang putih bercampur-campur tapi kita kena lihat juga apa matlamat
asal media elektronik apabila menghasilkan program-program drama yang bukan fiksen yang
macam tu dia mesti bertanggungjawab. Percampuran antara bahasa Melayu dan bahasa Inggeris
itu sangat jelas dalam drama-drama yang diterbitkan oleh TV swasta. Saya bercakap tentang
TV3, malah ASTRO pun begitu. Contoh dialog: “I think, I will decide later. Eh you, macam
mana pandangan you?”. Inilah perkara yang pada saya suatu suasana yang tidak sihat. Tak boleh
la. Malah, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka apabila melihat ada stesen TV yang hasil drama-drama
sebegini, dia seharusnya membantah dan dia seharusnya memberi surat amaran kepada stesen
TV tersebut, sebab Dewan Bahasa merupakan satu agensi yang harus memartabatkan bahasa.”
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Justeru, bagaimana kita ingin mengangkat martabat Bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa
kebangsaan jika karyawan kita sendiri menganak tirikannya. Slogan `Bahasa Jiwa Bangsa’
wajar menjadi santapan jika kita benar-benar berhasrat untuk mendaulatkan Bahasa Melayu
sebagai bahasa kebangsaan negara ini. Tiada gunanya slogan tersebut jika ia tidak dihayati.
Peranan ini terletak bukan sahaja di bahu penulis skrip malah turut mencakupi semua lapisan
masyarakat di negara ini.
Tiada Jati Diri
Media elektronik seperti TV merupakan antara agen sosialisasi yang penting (Leavy & Trier-
Bieniek, 2014) dalam membantu pembentukan identiti bangsa yang merupakan cabaran masa
kini dan akan datang (Bolong, 1998). Kepesatan teknologi komunikasi baru memungkinkan
pembentukan budaya bangsa terjejas, malah kewujudannya yang tidak dapat disekat itu
membolehkan imperialisme budaya berlaku. Imperialisme budaya dapat dikaitkan dengan
kandungan program yang disiarkan melalui televisyen (Bolong, 1998). Drama rantaian Barat
yang terkenal pada tahun 1990-an seperti 21 Jump Street dan L.A. Laws telah dikritik kerana isi
kandungannya yang memaparkan unsur seks dan homoseksualiti secara terang-terangan.
Kebimbangan dan kekhuatiran terhadap kesan daripada program televisyen Barat, terutamanya
drama rantaian, menyebabkan pihak kerajaan pada era 1980-an dan 1990-an menggalakkan
usaha penerbitan rancangan televisyen tempatan yang merangkumi drama rantaian, dokumentari,
dan pertandingan muzik untuk menangkis pengaruh Barat (Karthigesu, 1994). Malangnya, jalan
cerita yang klise dan pendekatan yang digunakan gagal menarik perhatian penonton tempatan
dan sekaligus membuatkan penonton terus menonton drama rantaian dari barat.
Di Malaysia, bidang perfileman ataupun drama berhadapan dengan masalah besar ekoran
tidak mempunyai jatidiri kerana lebih meluaskan pengaruh budaya luar terutama dari barat.
Sebahagian besar para penerbit tempatan pula gemar mengangkat imej filem atau drama yang
negatif serta tidak menguntungkan agama, bangsa dan negara. Kebanyakan drama atau filem
Malaysia dihasilkan mengikut kemahuan penerbit bukan Melayu yang lebih mementingkan
keuntungan. Kesannya, karya-karya ini tidak menaikkan imej Melayu, menyebarkan nilai Islam,
menguatkan iman serta merapatkan perpaduan Melayu dan ummah (Ummu Hani Abu Hassan,
2011).
Mansor Puteh (2009) dalam kajiannya mengatakan bahawa pada dekad 1970-an, pihak
stesen televisyen swasta dan Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) ghairah menyiarkan karya yang
dipengaruhi nilai Hong Kong. Hal ini menggalakkan ramai orang yang tidak berkelayakan untuk
mejadi pengarah, penulis skrip dan penerbit. Manakala kebanyakan pengkarya Melayu pula
adalah ahli perniagaan menjadikan banyak drama yang disiarkan di televisyen tidak berkualiti.
Kini, keghairahan stesen televisyen adalah memaparkan drama yang berbentuk hiburan dan
fantasi. Penolakan kehadiran pakar yang terdidik dalam bidang ini oleh FINAS, RTM dan
kerajaan menyebabkan elemen positif tidak dapat diresapkan ke dalam industri filem dan drama
televisyen. Malahan, drama dakwah ada yang memaparkan imej lelaki Melayu yang berjubah
sebagai perogol atau perkara lain yang mencemarkan Islam.
Jati diri dapat didefinisikan sebagai sifat atau ciri yang unik dan istimewa (dari segi adat,
bahasa, budaya, agama dan sebagainya) yang menjadi teras dan lambang keperibadian seseorang
individu, sesuatu bangsa dan sebagainya, atau disebut jua identiti (Kamus Dewan, 2007).
Informan turut melahirkan kekesalannya apabila dihadapkan dengan isu jati diri ini,
“Saya pernah komen FINAS fasal dua atau tiga dokumentari yang buat cerita pasal orang Islam,
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orang Melayu tetapi ciri-ciri keislaman itu, ciri- ciri kemelayuan itu tidak dijadikan elemen yang
dominan dalam penceritaan talent. Contohnya, ada satu treatment yang mencadangkan babak
pertama satu keluarga orang Islam di Sabah di Kota Belud, pergi ke kubur dan membaca Yassin
sebab adat orang Bajau di Kota Belud sentiasa mengingati nenek moyang dan mereka akan
sentiasa ke kubur untuk berdoa dan membaca Yassin, tetapi babak tersebut ditolak oleh
konsultan yang bukan orang Melayu orang Islam ke belakang, dia kata no, that’s not an
important scene. So berlakulah sedikit pergelutan idea di situ, jadi kalau FINAS tidak peka pada
perkara ini ,saya rasa jati diri akan hilang sebab the purpose of dokumentari yang diterbitkan dari
FINAS ialah untuk mengangkat budaya-budaya Melayu sebab nama pun FINAS.”
Selain daripada itu, drama tempatan sering memaparkan cara hidup barat berbanding cara
hidup masyarakat tempatan. Ini menjadikan drama tempatan tidak mempunyai kelainan atau
keunikan yang tersendiri yang mampu menandingi drama terbitan luar. Perkara ini dapat dilihat
dengan kejayaan drama Korea yang mana menitikberatkan nilai-nilai jati diri dan kekeluargaan
dalam setiap drama. Nor Hashimah dan Zaharani (2011) dalam kajian bertajuk Hallyu Di
Malaysia: Kajian Sosiobudaya menyatakan bahawa jati diri dan kebudayaan kebangsaan tetap
menjadi faktor penarik utama dalam usaha mengkomoditikan budaya. Penggunaan bahasa
Korea sepenuhnya tidak menjadi penghalang untuk menembusi pasaran antarabangsa, jalan
cerita, tema dan nilai positif yang ditonjolkan adalah jauh lebih penting.
Latiffah et. al (2009) mengatakan yang tema, plot, jalan cerita dan mutu lakonan yang
akan menjadi tarikan utama para remaja utuk menonton sesebuah cerita. Masyarakat
antarabangsa akan menilai sesuatu yang lain daripada yang mereka miliki dan mempunyai jati
diri bangsa tersebut sebagai daya penarik. Masyarakat Jepun yang pernah menjajah Korea sendiri
tertarik dengan drama Korea kerana mereka berpendapat terdapat nilai kekeluargaan,
kemanusiaan dalam drama Korea. Nilai-nilai ini telah lama hilang dalam drama Jepun dan Cina.
Drama Jepun lebih banyak menayangkan drama jenayah, seks, robot dan kerakusan perniagaan
serta individualistik. Tetapi drama Korea adalah sebaliknya (Shim, 2006).
Menurut Hatta Azad Khan (2012), pembuat filem sepatutnya menggalas tanggungjawab
sosial untuk meningkatkan pemikiran audiens melalui karya. Filem harus mewakili bangsa
negara dan peningkatannya perlu seiring dengan peningkatan hidup manusia. Malangnya,
kebanyakan produser lebih mementingkan filem yang menghiburkan dan memberi keuntungan
berlipat ganda. Perancangan menyeluruh dilakukan demi meningkatkan kualiti filem Malaysia.
Penggiat perlu jujur tidak hanya bercakap tetapi tidak melaksanakannya, semua pihak perlu
memainkan peranan (Siti Nursyahidah, 2012). Informan turut menegaskan bahawa content
provider tidak mempunyai sensitiviti atau kesedaran untuk memartabatkan nilai-nilai
kemelayuan, agama dan sebagainya yang menyebabkan semangat jati diri itu hilang. Penerbit
hari ini lebih gemar menerbitkan rancangan berbentuk santai berbanding isu-isu berat seperti
agama, jati diri dan sebagainya.
Malaysia merupakan sebuah negara yang menarik dengan kepelbagaian yang unik.
Penulis skrip seharusnya menjadikan keunikkan ini sebagai satu kelebihan dalam penghasilan
skrip yang bermutu dan menarik. Negara-negara seperti Iran, Thailand dan lain-lain mampu
menghasilkan sebuah karya yang bermutu malah sering memenangi anugerah diperingkat
antarabangsa, kekurangan dana mahupun peralatan tidak menjadi penghalang kepada
penghasilan sebuah karya yang bermutu. Pokoknya apa yang hendak ditonjolkan mestilah
mempunyai keunikan, identiti dan jati diri yang membezakan produk tempatan dengan yang lain.
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Bayaran Diterima Rendah
Selain itu, faktor pembayaran skrip dengan harga yang rendah juga antara penyebab skrip yang
ditulis tidak berkualiti. Bayaran yang diterima oleh penulis skrip hari ini juga amat rendah dan
tidak setimpal dengan usaha yang telah dicurahkan. Industri penerbitan drama televisyen
tempatan tidak mampu menghasilkan drama yang berkualiti disebabkan pembayaran program
yang masih tidak berubah sejak 17 tahun yang lepas (Latif, 2012).
Katanya, selain bayaran yang terlalu murah, monopoli yang ditunjukkan oleh stesen
televisyen tempatan juga amat teruk ketika ini. Media Prima misalnya telah memonopoli empat
buah stesen televisyen di bawahnya. Bayaran yang diberikan kepada hasil seni kita teramat
mendukacitakan tetapi penggiat seni tiada pilihan untuk menjual hasil produk mereka.
Bayangkan Media Prima sahaja ada empat stesen televisyen dan semua menetapkan harga yang
sama dan murah. Macam mana kami semua nak hidup? (Utusan Malaysia: 23 September, 2012).
Informan turut melahirkan kekesalannya apabila dihadapkan dengan isu pembayaran
skrip ini, “Masalahnya sekarang, siapa yang memperjuangkan duit (bayaran) untuk penulis
skrip? Adakah kerajaan? Tidak. Adakah persatuan? Tidak konsisten. Siapa lagi? Ada penulis
skrip yang cuba untuk memperjuangkannya, yang cuba bertegang urat untuk mempertahankan
rate dia, okay byebyelah. Producer kata byebyelah sebab saya masih ada ramai lagi penulis skrip
yang berminat nak menulis skrip untuk drama saya. Take it or leave it. Ini adalah tanda-tanda
kemusnahan kepada karya berkualitilah.”
Skrip Terlalu Sarat
Dalam penghasilan skrip dokumentari pula, skrip yang ditulis penulis skrip tempatan didapati
begitu padat dan sarat dengan kata-kata. Asiah Sarji et.al., (2009) menyatakan secara umumnya
karya filem dokumentari tempatan menggunakan terlalu banyak kata-kata sehingga
pergerakannya didapati berlumba-lumba dengan pergerakan visual. Satu kelemahan yang lama
bertapak di Malaysia. Selain itu, pemilihan kata dan istilah masih belum cukup dilakukan secara
lebih kreatif dalam mana sesuatu kata yang dipilih sepatutnya mempunyai kemampuan
menjelaskan makna yang melampaui kepentingan audio dan visual yang dipapar. Kata-kata yang
dipilih perlu mampu melambangkan makna yang melampaui makna visual.
Informan turut menyatakan bahawa, ada penulis skrip tempatan yang salah faham
terhadap perkara ini. Asalkan ia fakta, maka ia akan dimasukkan semuanya ke dalam skrip
tersebut dan menjadikan kandungan sesuatu skrip itu padat dan tidak menghiburkan. Jika
dirujuk kepada dokumentari luar seperti National Geographic dan Discovery Channel misalnya,
penulis skrip mereka menekankan fakta dan bagaimana skrip itu dimainkan untuk
menterjemahkan visual.
Bakat Baru yang Tidak Terlatih
Dengan bertambahnya saluran televisyen di negara ini, secara tidak langsung membawa
perubahan besar kepada permintaan skrip untuk rancangan baru yang diterbitkan. Ia bagi mengisi
ruangan slot yang diperuntukkan untuk sesuatu rancangan. Tidak kurang juga ia dijadikan medan
untuk melahirkan bakat-bakat baru dan membawa pemikiran-pemikiran baru dalam bidang
penulisan skrip. Namun kehadiran penulis-penulis baru ini mengundang kritikan apabila hasil
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karya mereka dipertikaikan dan idea yang dizahirkan dikatakan dangkal dan tidak
memberangsangkan.
Antara masalah yang dihadapi oleh kebanyakan penulis skrip dan hasil penulisan mereka
adalah seperti berikut; (1) Skrip dan cerita sangat stereotaip, (2) Perkembangan watak lemah dan
terpusat, (3) Suka meletak-letakkan sub-plot di dalam cerita yang menyebabkan tidak
terdapatnya kesinambungan, (4) Dialog yang terbentuk tidak sesuai dengan perwatakan, hambar
dan tidak kemas, (5) Lemah dalam membuat plotting cerita sehingga menjadikannya meleret-
leret (dragging) dan sering berlaku plot menyeleweng dari jalan cerita asal, (6) Kerap berlaku
sesuatu perkara/isu yang berulang-ulang menyebabkan cerita tidak berkembang dengan licin, (7)
Ada kalanya cerita tidak logic (Asiah et. al., 1997).
Penulis skrip berpengalaman selama 20 tahun, Martias Mohd Ali, berkata kehadiran
ramai penulis skrip baru sama seperti penulis blog memberikan perkembangan positif pada
penghasilan karya tempatan tetapi ia dibimbangi hasilnya menjadi sampah. “Kehadiran mereka
diperlukan kerana wujud permintaan stesen TV tetapi apakah kriteria mereka sehingga mudah
diistilah penulis skrip. Ada kalangan mereka mengaku penulis skrip selepas karya dihasilkan
disiarkan di TV atau layar perak. Namun, realiti mereka tidak mahu belajar cara menulis skrip
dengan betul. Mereka juga tidak mahu mengikuti kursus kerana beranggapan tawaran skrip baru
sudah ada dalam tangan,” katanya (Harian Metro: 21 Julai, 2012).
Justeru, tidak hairanlah jika rancangan-rancangan yang disajikan di televisyen kurang
mendapat sambutan kerana jalan penceritaan sendiri didapati yang kurang menarik perhatian
penonton. Tidak dinafikan bahawa semua bidang memerlukan latihan dan bimbingan daripada
mereka yang lebih berpengetahuan dan berpengalaman. Begitu juga halnya dengan penulis skrip
tempatan. Mereka didapati kurang pendedahan dari segi latihan dan bimbingan daripada mereka
yang terlatih dalam bidang ini. Malah ramai dalam kalangan mereka yang tidak mengikut format
skrip yang betul ketika menulis skrip. Hasilnya, skrip yang dizahirkan tidak mencapai standard
sebagaimana yang dikehendaki. Yang menjadi sasaran kritikan awal pastinya penulis skrip itu
sendiri.
Walaupun pelbagai usaha dilakukan oleh FINAS dan Persatuan Penulis Skrin Malaysia
(SWAM), namun kualiti penghasilan skrip masih di tahap yang rendah. Menurut Ummu Hani
Abu Hassan (2011) berdasarkan rekod yang dikeluarkan oleh Persatuan Penulis Skrin Malaysia
(SWAM), industri drama televisyen Malaysia menghadapi masalah mendapatkan skrip yang
berkualiti. Kelemahan skrip juga adalah pada dialog yang dipertuturkan oleh pelakon. Presiden
SWAM, Ahmad Ismail (2009) mengatakan drama tempatan dinilai cetek dan tidak lagi
mementingkan aspek bahasa sastera yang indah. Ini memberi kesan untuk melebarkan drama
tempatan ke luar negara. Menurut beliau lagi, ramai penulis skrip bebas yang tidak mengikut
format skrip yang betul. Masalah pembayaran penerbit kepada penulis skrip juga masih belum
dapat diatasi.
Penulis Skrip Kurang Membaca
Disamping itu, penulis skrip fiksyen juga dikatakan kurang membaca. Kajian yang dilakukan
oleh Asiah Sarji et al., (1999) mendedahkan dalam rumusannya bahawa tahap pendedahan
kepada pembacaan serius dan novel yang bermutu sama ada berkaitan dengan filem atau tidak
adalah rendah. FINAS dengan kerjasama persatuan-persatuan filem perlu merangka satu usaha
untuk menyediakan kemudahan yang memberangsangkan dan yang lebih menarik untuk
menggalakkan aktiviti pembacaan di kalangan karyawan filem.
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KESIMPULAN
Negara kita memerlukan ramai penulis skrip berbakat untuk menceritakan gedung khazanah
bangsa yang hanya baru sedikit dirungkaikan. Ia merupakan tanggungjawab besar yang harus
dipikul oleh semua pihak termasuk universiti, agensi-agensi berkaitan dan tidak terkecuali
persatuan-persatuan yang memperjuangkan hak penulis skrip.
Berdasarkan kepada isu-isu yang diutarakan di atas, maka jalan penyelesaian terhadapnya
perlu dicari bagi meningkatkan kembali kualiti penulisan skrip di negara ini. Tiada jalan pintas
untuk mengatasinya melainkan terpaksa bermula di peringkat awal lagi.
Penulis skrip yang berjaya adalah penulis skrip yang banyak membaca. Seorang penulis
skrip yang baik haruslah menanamkan sifat suka membaca bagi memperkayakan lagi
pengetahuannya dalam apa jua bidang yang ditulisnya. Setiap penulis juga perlu rajin membuat
penyelidikan berkaitan subjek yang ingin ditulis disamping turut membuat tinjauan lokasi
(reccee) bagi memastikan fakta berkaitan subjek adalah benar. Perkara ini harus diberi perhatian
oleh semua penulis kerana tanpa fakta yang lengkap, skrip yang ditulis akan hambar.
Penulis skrip juga perlu mendapat latihan dan bimbingan yang betul dalam penulisan
skrip. Format penulisan skrip harus diselaraskan agar ia tidak mengelirukan penulis skrip. Lain
guru, lain pula caranya. Justeru, tenaga pengajar seharusnya mencari titik pertemuan bagi
memudahkan sesi bimbingan atau pengajaran kepada penulis skrip ini. Jika ia mampu dilakukan,
tidak mustahil negara kita akan mempunyai format penulisan skrip yang seragam hasil gabungan
idea tenaga-tenaga pengajar yang berpengalaman.
Penganjuran bengkel-bengkel penulisan skrip yang perlu kerap diadakan memandangkan
bidang ini memerlukan kepakaran yang khusus bagi melahirkan penulis skrip yang berkualiti.
Selain daripada itu, penulis skrip juga disarankan untuk mendapatkan bimbingan daripada guru
bahasa berhubung penggunaan bahasa yang betul dalam tulisan mereka. Di sini, Dewan Bahasa
dan Pustaka (DBP) wajar memainkan peranan dalam memberi tunjuk ajar kepada penulis skrip
cara penggunaan bahasa Melayu yang betul dalam penulisan dan penyampaian. Sudah tiba
masanya DBP memberi perhatian sewajarnya terhadap isu penyalahgunaan bahasa di media
siaran ini jika tidak mahu isu berkaitan bahasa terus menjadi bualan umum.
Bagi memperkasakan jati diri bangsa, maka disarankan agar pihak kerajaan melalui
agensinya seperti Perbadanan Filem Nasional Malaysia (FINAS), Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
dan Radio dan Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) memperbanyakkan pertandingan penulisan skrip
berunsur sejarah dan kenegaraan bagi membentuk kembali jati diri bangsa yang teruk tercalar
akibat peniruan budaya dan penyiaran rancangan import ini. Masyarakat Malaysia merupakan
masyarakat yang berpegang teguh kepada budaya dan adat resam tradisi, maka sewajarnyalah
rancangan-rancangan tempatan yang sarat dengan kesopanan budaya timur menjadi tontonan
rakyatnya.
Terdapat sebilangan penulis skrip yang mengeluh kerana bayaran yang diterima sebagai
penulis skrip tidak setimpal dengan usaha yang mereka curahkan. Justeru, satu jalan
penyelesaian harus dirancang bagi mengembalikan semula hak penulis skrip ini. Dicadangkan,
satu kadar bayaran yang seragam perlu diwujudkan bagi menangani permasalahan ini. Semua
pihak, baik dari stesen penyiaran mahu pun penerbit dan wakil penulis skrip perlu duduk semeja
bagi membincangkan masalah ini dan seterusnya mengeluarkan garis panduan pembayaran
standard bagi semua kategori penulisan skrip yang terdapat di negara ini. Langkah ini dirasakan
mampu mengatasi masalah yang membelenggu nasib sebilangan penulis skrip di negara ini.
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Disamping itu, penulis skrip sedia ada, perlu saling bantu membantu disamping saling
hormat menghormati di antara satu sama lain bagi merealisasikan hasrat murni ini. Memetik
coretan Mansor Ahmad Saman (1995:11)
“Penulis, pada hakikatnya ialah seorang “guru”, seorang tukang cerita
yang ingin menyampaikan maklumat, keterangan, pengetahuan dan
pengajaran kepada pembacanya. Dan sebagai guru yang baik, dia haruslah
mengambil iktibar dari pengalaman pensejarahan dan tamadun manusia
dan menyampaikan penulisannya dalam bentuk cerita yang menarik dan
memukau.”
Tepuk dada, tanyalah selera…
RUJUKAN
Asiah Sarji, Faridah Ibrahim, & Mazni Buyung. (1997). Keadaan dan Permasalahan Penulis
dan Penulisan Skrip. Kuala Lumpur: Finas.
Asiah Sarji, Faridah Ibrahim, & Mazni Buyung. (1999). Pola Pengamalan Profesionalisme
Dalam Industri Filem Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Finas.
Asiah Sarji, Faridah Ibrahim, & Shamsubaridah Ramlee. (2009). Industri Dokumentari di
Malaysia: Isu dan Hala Tuju. Kuala Lumpur: Finas.
Bolong, J. B. (1998). Perubahan Kognitif Dan Tingkat Interaksi Penonton Dengan Drama
Melayu Di Televisyen: Analisis Drama 'Juta Wan Segera'. Selangor: UPM.
Kamal Halili Hassan. (1990). Penulis dan Undang-Undang. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Kamus Dewan Edisi Keempat. (2007). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Karthigesu, R. (1994). Sejarah Perkembangan Televisyen Di Malaysia (1963-1983). Kuala
Lumpur : Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka.
Latiffah Pawanteh, Samsudin A. Rahim, & Fauziah Ahmad. (2009). Media Consumption Among
Young Adults: A Look At Labels And Norms In Everyday Life. Malaysian Journal of
Communication, Vol 25: 21-31
Leavy, P., & Trier-Bieniek, A. (2014). Introduction To Gender & Pop Culture. In P. Leavy, & A.
Trier-Bieniek, Gender & Pop Culture (Pp. 1-25). Netherlands: Sensepublishers.
Mansor Ahmad Saman. (1995). Penulisan dan Media: Satu Kumpulan Rencana. Kuala Lumpur:
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Mansor Puteh. (2009). Filem Melayu Dilema Dua Era. Dewan Budaya, Mac 2009, Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Musa Abu Hassan, Narimah Ismail, & Jusang Bolong. (2010). Kesinambungan Budaya Melalui
Televisyen: Antara Khayalan dan Kenyataan. Cabaran Komunikasi Masa Kini (2010)
Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia
Ummu Hani Abu Hassan. (2011). Drama Dakwah di Malaysia: Kajian Tentang Proses
Penulisan Skrip. (Disertasi Sarjana, Jabatan Dakwah dan Pembangunan Insan, Akademi
Pengajian Islam Universiti Malaya).
http://www.ukm.my/news/index.php/ms/component/content/article/712-the-use-of-national-
language-should-be-paramount.html Retrieved: April 28. 2014
http://dbp.gov.my/lamandbp/main.php?Content=articles&ArticleID=798: kemaskini 21Jan 2009
Retrieved : 30 April, 2014
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Mohamad Azlan Mis. (2011). Bahasa Rojak Dalam Kalangan Penduduk Di Sarawak
http://jurnalbahasa.dbp.my/wordpress/?p=987 Retrieved: 20 April, 2014.
Abu Bakar, S. N. (2012). Filem: Antara kualiti dan kuantiti, mana lebih utama? Retrieved May 1,
2014, from Sinar Harian: http://www.sinarharian.com.my/hiburan/filem-antara-kualiti-
dan-kuantiti-mana-lebih-utama-1.70407
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2013, From Hiburan: http://www.utusan.com.my
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from Harian Metro:
http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/INTERAKSI_Ideabarupenulisanskripberku
aliti//Article/article_print Retrieved: Mei 1, 2014.
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Metro:
http://www.hmetro.com.my/myMetro/articles/Komersial_logikatausampah//Article/index
_html
Mohd. Rasdan Ahmad (2012) Nak buka stesen TV sendiri Retrieved:
April 23, 2014 (http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/Hiburan/20120923/hi_12/Nak-buka-
stesen-TV-sendiri#ixzz31TPh1QaH
Mohyin, Z. (2012). Baik Buruk Televisyen. Retrieved: January 4, 2013, From UtusanMalaysia :
http://www.utusan.com.my
Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin & Zaharani Ahmad. (2011). Hallyu di Malaysia: kajian sosiobudaya.
Jurnal Komunikasi, 27 (2). pp. 203-219. ISSN 0128-1496
Siti Nursyahahidah Abu Bakar. (2012). Filem: Antara Kualiti dan Kuantiti. Mana Lebih Utama?
Berita Harian.
Shim, Doboo. (2006). Hybridity and the rise of Korean popular culture in Asia. Media, Culture
and Society 28(1), 27-44.
Mohd Daly Daud
Nursyamimi Harun
Md. Rozalafri Johori
Jabatan Komunikasi,
Fakulti Pengurusan dan Muamalah,
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor, Malaysia
mohddaly@kuis.edu.my
nursyamimi@kuis.edu.my
rozalafri@kuis.edu.my
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NEEDS ANALYSIS AND MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLISH FOR
SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN RELATION TO ENGLISH FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES
(Analisa Keperluan dan Pembangunan Bahan Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggeris untuk
Pengajian Islam)
Rabiathul Adhabiyyah Sayed Abudhahir, Mahanum Mahdun,
& ‘Aliyatulmuna Md. Nor
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor
ABSTRACT
English for Islamic Studies or EIS is a new branch in English for Specific Purposes (ESP).
At the moment there is no specific tailor-made syllabus and materials designed specifically
in this field. The focus of this paper is on the importance of needs analysis and how it helps
in the process of materials designs. It also provides input to produce materials for English
for Islamic Studies. Articles on Needs Analysis, material designs and Islamic Studies were
reviewed to find out the best method in designing the best tailor-made syllabus and
materials to be used in EIS. This paper explains the different approaches in needs analysis
and also various types and categories of materials used in related studies. The paper aims
to provide readers with new information in designing materials for any Language for
Specific Purposes programs.
Keywords: LSP; ESP; EIS; Needs Analysis; materials; materials development;
methodology; Islamic Studies
ABSTRAK
Bahasa Inggeris bagi Pengajian Islam adalah cabang baharu di dalam dunia
Bahasa Inggeris bagi Tujuan Khusus. Pada masa sekarang tiada lagi silibus dan
buku teks yang dihasilkan mengikut keperluan pelajar-pelajar Pengajian Islam.
Oleh kerana itulah kajian ini dijalankan untuk mengenalpasti bagaimana analisa
kehendak ataupun ‘Needs Analysis’ boleh membantu dalam penghasilan silibus dan
bahan ilmiah yang bersesuaian dengan kehendak pelajar-pelajar ini. Fokus pada
penulisan ini adalah kepada konsep-konsep yang berbeza yang menjadi tunjang
kepada penghasilan boring soal selidik kehendak ataupun ‘Needs Analysis
questionnaire’.
Kata Kunci: Analisa keperluan; bahan pembelajaran; pembangunan bahan
pembelajaran; metodologi; Pengajian Islam
INTRODUCTION
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has long being discussed by many well-known
scholars in the world such as Tom Hutchinson, Alan Waters, Pauline C. Robinson, Tony
Dudley-Evans and Maggie Jo St. John to name a few. ESP started because of the demand
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for a new brave world in the English language learning (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).
People wanted to learn English not for pleasure or for the prestige of knowing the
language, but to learn English to open doors to the international currencies of technology
and commerce. Currently, ESP is also stated as one of the major activities around the
world (Robinson, 1991).
ESP should reflect the fact that many ESP teachings, especially where it is linked to
a particular profession or discipline, makes use of a methodology that is different from the
methodology used in the teaching of General English (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998).
ESP is classified into two sections. First, English for Academic Purposes (EAP), where we
have English for Academic Medical Purposes, English for Academic Science and
Technology Purposes and many more. Second is English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)
like English for Business Purposes, English for Medical Purposes and others.
There are five different stages in an ESP course preparation. The main purpose of
ESP is to fulfil the needs of the learners as well as the sponsors. So the first stage in ESP is
Needs Analysis which is done to identify the specific needs of the students as well as the
sponsors of the program. The next stage in ESP is course and syllabus design. Having
gathered all the information from the needs analysis process, instructors will then be able
to design a course based on the needs stated by the learners and the sponsors.
The third stage requires the instructors to find or to produce their own materials to
be used throughout the course. After producing the materials, the teaching-learning
process, which is stage four, will take place. The fifth stage in ESP is assessment and
evaluation. Here, the instructors will have to design a test paper to assess the student’s
ability. Assessment can be done before the course, during the course and also at the end of
the course. On the other hand, evaluation is a process through which the students and also
the sponsors would be able to know the outcome of the course and also the effectiveness of
the materials. In theory, these processes might look as if it is done on a linear basis but in
reality these process work recursively.
This article will focus mainly on needs analysis and materials development for
English for Islamic Studies (EIS). The reason in choosing Islamic Studies is mainly
because, the need in them to know English in order for them to use the knowledge in them
to spread Islam to the world. Currently there is no specific syllabus or materials that can be
used as a guide in the teaching of EIS. In fact the term EIS is also still very new to the
world of Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). Materials designed for EIS should be
carefully designed so that it has an impact on the students and it can create interest in them
to learn English as these students are often labelled as under achieving students when it
comes to their English Language proficiency.
A study carried out by K. R. Narayanaswamy in 1978 entitled ESP for Islamic
School-Leavers for students in Nigeria. The course was offered to the students in April
1976 to June 1978 but the study was only published in 1982. In this study the author
explains about the level of English of various students from certain Arab schools in Nigeria
in entering pre-degree classes at Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria. Sadly this so called
ESP course was missing many important elements. The most important element that was
missing, and should be the starting point in any Language for Specific Purposes course was
Needs Analysis as agreed by many LSP scholars, (Richterich & Chancerel, 1977; Munby,
1978; Allwright, 1982; Richterich, 1983; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Nunan, 1988;
Robinson, 1991; Richards et al., 1992; Holliday & Cook, 1982; Dudley Evans & St. John,
1998; Jordan, 2011). Needs Analysis was not done on these students to know what do they
really want to know or learn hence this course was focusing solely on reading and
grammar teachings which looks almost alike General English or GE.
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NEEDS ANALYSIS
In English for Specific Purposes or ESP, the most important stage is the needs analysis
stage. Students will be given a needs analysis form that covers Target Situation Analysis
(TSA), Present Situation Analysis (PSA) and Learning Situation Analysis. The function of
TSA is to collect data about the learners and not from the learners and on the other hand
PSA is more on learner-centered approach and it collects data from the learners by using
methods such as questionnaires and doing interviews on the participant.
There are many methods and approaches that are used in coming up with the best
Needs Analysis form, from TSA, PSA, LSA approaches to necessities, lacks and wants and
many others. Each approach will be discussed individually. Target Situation Analysis as
suggested by Munby (1978) is known to be the best known framework where he focuses
on students’ needs at the end of the language course and at the target-level performance.
Munby is said to be more concern on communicative syllabus design and his procedures
are very detailed.
The Communication Need Processor (CNP) as suggested by Munby too focuses on
variables that affect communication needs by organising them as parameters in a dynamic
relationship to each other and as a result, it can generate a profile of students language
needs, communicative competence specification and the most importantly it would be able
to produce a sequenced syllabus. Munby’s attempt of an approach that is systematic and
comprehensive has made the approach or instrument in gathering data more flexible,
complex and also time consuming (West, 1994).
Though Munby’s model looked very convincing, Hutchinson and Waters argued
that Munby’s model focuses was more on learners hence it neglects the role of society and
they claim that needs should be determined by a negotiation between society and
individual stake-holders (1987). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) on the other hand proposed
Learning-Centred Approach. There was a distinction between learner-cantered and
learning centred. In learner-centred the learners determined the learning process and on the
other hand learning-centred is a process that involves learning as a tool of negotiation
between individuals and societies.
Target needs were defined by them as Necessities, Wants and Lacks. Necessities is
to look at what learners or students should know in order to be able to function well and
communicate efficiently in the target situation, meanwhile Lacks on the other hand looks
more at the gap between what the students or learners already know and which part are
they lacking of and need more focusing on. Hence the gap that is discovered can be the
basis of the language syllabus and is referred by Jordan (2011) as deficiency analysis.
Learners’ wants are the most important input in the Needs Analysis and cannot be
ignored in any ESP courses (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Learners’ Wants is considered
very important because it will determine their determination and whether or not they
participate effectively in the class or throughout the learning process (Mcdonough, 1984;
Nunan, 1988). By neglecting their needs and wants might hinder them from learning and it
will cause demotivation among students. Students’ motivation towards the course also
depends on whether or not their wants are taken into account in the development of
syllabus and materials.
Nunan (1988) on the other hand suggested two models in approaching Needs
Analysis. They are Strategy Analysis which the focus of the analysis is on the
methodology applied to effectively implemented language program and Means Analysis’
function is to adjust language courses to local situations. Needs analysis is also defined as
the method of establishing the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of a course (Dudley Evans & St. John,
1998). Their approach of Needs is to look at Objective Needs and Subjective Needs.
Objective Needs is gathered by deriving facts from outsiders and Subjective Needs is
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collecting facts from cognitive and affective factors by the insiders of a community.
Critical Needs Analysis was also stated as the most recent approach in the Needs Analysis
method (Dudley Evans & St. John, 1998) where it looks at descriptive method that
provides a list of learners’ needs from Students, ESP teachers, Head of Departments and
Policymakers’ point of view. The transformative method provides indication for changes in
the content, materials and teaching method (Pennycook, 1989; Benesch, 1996).
Needs analysis is also defined as a process of determining the needs of a group of
learners that requires a language and arranging the needs according to priorities where it
uses both subjective and objective information (Richards et al., 1992).When we talk about
Needs Analysis there are few things that should be focused on such as, whose needs are we
looking at? When it comes to whose needs, it is suggested that the sponsors, subject
specialists, the language course designer, the teachers and the students’ needs are all the
important factors that needs to be considered in designing any LSP courses or materials
(Jordan, 2011).
Few scholars agree that as the starting point of any LSP courses, Needs Analysis
should be able to provide input for syllabuses designing, materials and the kind of teaching
and learning that takes place in a classroom (Higgins, 1966: Richterich in Trim in et al.,
1973/80; Strevens, 1977; Coffey, 1984). Present Situation Analysis was proposed by
Richterich and Chancerel (1997/80) to provide students state of language development at
the beginning of the language course. Students, teaching establishment and user institution
should provide the source of information by using surveys, questionnaires and interviews
and it will later be analysed for the levels of ability, resources and views on language
learning. In PSA, a learner is connected or is interrelated with society and culture.
Strategies Analysis that starts with students’ perceptions of their needs in their own
terms was proposed by Allwright (1982). Strategies Analysis was categorised into three
subsections such as Needs that looks at the skills which a student sees as being the most
relevant or important point for him or herself, Wants on the other hand looks at the needs
on which the student puts a high priority to it and to be learnt in a limited time. Lastly
Lacks, refer to as the differences between the students present competence and desired
ones.
The main concern in Strategy Analysis is to help students to identify skill areas and
their preferred strategies of achieving the skills needed. Holliday and Cooke (1982)
proposed a term called Means Analysis. Mean analysis involves the study of local situation
for example teachers, teaching methods, students, facilities and many more. Means
analysis is done to see how long a course should be implemented. Means analysis starts
with a positive premise which determines what might be achieved with certain given
factors (Jordan, 2011).
A learning centered-approach was later coined by Holliday (1994). In Holliday’s
learning centred-approach, it acknowledges the social context of education that offers more
freedom to teachers. The main reasons behind this approach are to avoid or prevent
awkwardness caused by imported teaching methods that may be culturally inappropriate
for the students (Jordan, 2011).
Needs analysis requires a method that would be able to identify which subject to be studied
and what language level needed. Instructors should also be sensitive to which study
situations and related study skills are relevant for their students. The method used also,
should be able to assess students’ current abilities in English and study skills in order to
determine the students’ gap and their needs in coming up with the best syllabus, materials
or methodology used in all the LSP courses.
In a nutshell, needs analysis is an incorporation of different approaches in needs
analysis such as wants, lacks, target situation analysis, present situation analysis,
deficiency analysis, strategy analysis, means analysis, language audit and constraints,
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demands, necessities, likes, deficiencies, aims purposes and goals as stated earlier by other
scholars
Materials Development in ESP
Materials development in ESP courses is very crucial and it shows the effort and creativity
of the course designers as well as the teachers. Authentic materials that are used in the real
world are the best materials that should be used in any English for Academic Purposes
(EAP) or English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) courses. This would give the students a
look on the real world that they will be entering once they have graduated. It will also
attract them in learning English as learning English for second language learners has
always been a problem due to lack of vocabulary and lack of confidence to name a few.
Let us look at what materials really mean. Materials can be defined as anything or
any source that can be used to assists the students in the process of language learning. It
can be textbooks, workbooks, Audio video, photocopied hand outs, paper cutting or
anything that informs the language being learned (Tomlinson, 2008). Materials too can
also be in the form of instructional, experiential, elicitative or exploratory (Tomlison,
2001).
In this current IT or gadget centric age, M-learning or mobile learning (Laborda,
2011) is starting to make way. Materials designers are aware of the needs of many ESP
participants be it students or adult learners who are always on the move and the time they
have to sit in one place and holding an old school material to read in order to get input or to
do assignments or homework is actually non achievable already. So currently they are
looking on means and ways that mobile phones could be used as a replacement to paper
based materials so students or adult learners will have their reading time while they are on
the move.
Many ESP practitioners are thinking of the best materials that can suit their
students or learners in this growing world today. What might be fun last year would no
longer able to interest the student this year. Technology is developing rapidly hence
educators, trainers and ESP practitioners should catch up and move according to the trend
and not against the trend. Most importantly the rules of developing materials should be put
as the main priority in designing and developing ESP materials.
Materials in ESP are tailored to meet the needs and interest of a specific group of
learners. Taking into account the issue of centrality of the learner’s needs analysis is said to
be the main features that many authors in the field of materials design agree of (Sysoyer,
2000). In defining learner’s needs in material design, authors should consider the language
knowledge that the learners’ require for their proficiency development, the language and
content knowledge that needs to be added or reincorporated to the learners’ knowledge and
not forgetting the learners’ desire of language and content. All these elements are
important as it will make or break any ESP courses.
When teaching ESP courses, course designers as well as materials designers should
be able to reach to different target audience. This is because having different target
audience can lead to having a variety of materials because the need to cater to their
different needs. For example materials for English for Tourism and English for Aviation
would be totally different. This does not only happened when it comes to developing
materials but same goes to methods and teaching approaches such as lexical, task based,
communicative and problem solving.
Three main characteristics or factors that need to be considered or look into
seriously when designing ESP materials are, first, criteria of implementing or modifying
materials, subjective criteria on what teachers and students want from that material and
lastly objective criteria, which is what the material really offers (Hutchinson & Waters,
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1987). This is really important because then only the author would be able to produce a
good set of materials that will make the learners as well as the teachers teaching the
specific course at ease throughout the whole process of language and knowledge learning.
In the process of designing ESP materials, there are also many suggestions on the
factors that shaped a good set of ESP materials. Among them, are for authors to look at
topics or speciality. Learners’ situation, general and specific proficiency of the language at
entry and exit levels, students previous educational and cultural experience. Authors
should also look at types of skills to be developed and expected outcomes of the learning
goals.
Current trend shows that many authors in field of ESP are trying to make their
materials as interesting and as easy accessible as possible. Tomlinson has described
positive trends in materials development as those that lead to self ‘discovering the
language, using corpuses for their development use extensive reading, personalize the
process and experience spoken grammar in use (Tomlinson, 2008). While developing
materials authors should not forget the aspects of linguistic that are important and well
connected to ESP such as lexical items, language forms topics for conversations while
trying to integrate all the four skills in English with authentic texts.
Authentic materials and ESP courses can never be separated. Students or learners
should be provided with authentic materials that reflect their real world and in this case, the
Islamic Studies field. Materials used should be able to link and relate to the students
background knowledge as well as their language ability. A main concern is on the issue of
the language and content focused are drawn from the input in order to fulfil any tasks given
to them (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).
This is the gap that all ESP courses are trying to fill. Materials used should benefit
students or learners so that when they go out to the real world they will be not only able to
function well in the real world but also they should be able to use English in their working
life. Harding suggested three recommendations to consider while coming up with a set of
materials:
Use context, texts, and situations from the students’ subject area – Whether they
are real or stimulated they will naturally involve the language the students need.
Exploit authentic materials that students use in their specialism or vocation – Do
not be put off by the fact that it may not look like ‘normal English’.
Make the tasks authentic as well as the tasks – Get the students doing things with
the materials that they actually need to di their wok
(Harding, 2007, p. 10 – 11)
In the context of Islamic studies, the materials used for these students are supposed to
be integrated with the text that they use in the real world. It could be a text or sermons that
preachers or Imams used while preaching. It could also be a dialogue or questions and
answers sessions or discussions between preachers in Islam. The main aim is that texts
used should reflect their real life and also should relate to their background knowledge. A
material designer should be aware that the goal is not to teach these students the content of
Islamic Studies in English but how to use English properly in related to their field of study
so that they would be able to communicate whatever they have learnt in the university to
the community.
If the target audience is a set of ‘Dakwah’ students, then the material designers should
use texts used by the preachers in the real world as for example a sermon text can be used
as a reading comprehension text to teach these students Islamic terms and jargons in
English. Of course as Harding said it would not look like normal English at first but the
goal is to make them comfortable with the whole idea of learning English in their context
and in this case The Islamic Studies context. Once they are comfortable then the learning
process will be smooth. To get students’ attention in learning English in their context is not
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easy hence students should find the materials challenging, interesting and usable in order to
attract their attention and also to motivate the students or learners to learn. This is one of
the principles of social constructivist approach to language learning as suggested by
Wilson and Yang (2007).
Swales (1990) suggested that when materials are not available, adaptation and
simplifications by eliminating dense contents are desirable to make text more semi
authentic. These changes can be done by slightly modifying the style, register and
vocabulary. This has given many materials designers, rooms and space in coming up with
authentic materials. Most of the time sponsors would like to see authentic materials that
their staffs relate it straight away with their working life.
Then again there are also many problems in getting authentic materials and one of it is
when an ESP practitioner has to deal with documents or recording of something that has a
certain level of privacy. In a study done among German bankers that was working in
German Central Bank (the Bundesbank) in Frankfurt, in the year 2000, the author claimed
that it was a problem to get authentic materials such as videos of meetings, authentic
internal memos, faxes, business letters or email messages used at the Bundesbank. All
these documents were labelled as documents that are highly private and confidential in
Bundesbank (Edwards, 2000). This is why Swales suggested adapting and simplifying
materials so that if it is not fully authentic it is at least semi authentic.
It is necessary to find interfaces in materials production, adaptation and evaluation
between teachers in their own classroom and materials designers for commercial purposes
taking into consideration the students present situation and their target situation in using
those materials (Tomlinson, 2001). But then McGrath (2002) argues whether or not the
commercial materials used will fit and be enough in numbers and quality to cope with
students’ needs, proficiency and learning styles and also as Frendo (2007) said whether or
not it achieve the degree of authenticity.
These two arguments are logical in terms of the quality of materials develop and the
usability of the materials. Materials designers should work hand in hand with the teachers
in the process of developing materials and teachers should be given the freedom to enhance
the materials given to them according to their students’ level of proficiency and
background knowledge in them. When teachers and materials designers work closely with
each other not only the materials will have a certain level of quality in it but also the issue
raised by McGrath and Frendo will no longer be worrying as teachers have the freedom in
adjusting and playing around with the materials provided to them but not changing them
100% though commercial materials are used extensively.
Another issue in any ESP courses is that teachers usually have little knowledge on the
content or specialised area of the students in this case Islamic Studies and students have
little knowledge on the English Language. The gap has been there and teachers usually will
try to minimize the gap by trying to mimic experiences in the specialize field (Laborda,
2011). Students most of the time comes in into an ESP classroom with not only the target
on learning the language but they often want a good mixture of the both world, English and
content related to their field of study. If the teacher is able to mix these two elements
successfully, students will come in with the feeling of motivated and at ease with both the
materials and the method used.
When deciding on materials or items to be put into materials, authors and designers
should take into account the language and register to be used. This input can be gathered
from the analysis of Target Situation Analysis and the students’ needs too. It is an issue
raised at all ESP courses on what kind of language that is most suitable to be used in the
materials and also in the classrooms.
Materials designers can choose to use traditional materials which comprises of the printed
ones such as magazines, manuals brochures, and bulletins or current materials that are
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rising nowadays such as videos, listening files, websites, podcasts and many more. Again
the issue of ready-made materials would not be easily done if the designers choose to use
the traditional or the printed version of materials in comparison of videos, audios and
internet based materials. Designers as well as the teachers will have to put more effort and
dedicate their time in designing authentic materials if they choose to use printed traditional
materials.
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion materials development in ESP is very crucial. It should take into
consideration what the learners’ needs and also the sponsors’ needs. Materials designers or
authors should be able to connect, link and integrate the language elements as well as the
specialized field that they are catering for.
This can be done if the designers and authors begin the whole process of
developing materials with Needs Analysis. It is the most important part in the
establishment of any ESP courses. Students or learners’ as well as sponsors’ needs will be
answered in the Needs Analysis forms given to them. If there is a gap between the
respondents, the ESP practitioner or the syllabus designers will have to look at the middle
point or the ‘happy mean’ to satisfy both parties.
Another factor in developing materials is the level of authenticity of the material
itself. Designers should consider using real life, authentic materials that reflect the target
audience specialization. This will help students who are weak in the English Language to
at least comprehend reading text for example due to the background knowledge that they
have. ESP is not merely teaching grammar, reading, listening and speaking without any
context in it. All these four skills are important for the learners or the students but it should
be integrated with their field of study so that the background knowledge that they have will
help them in understanding terms and jargons easily. By using real life materials, students
too will be happy and will feel at ease when they are learning because they are familiar and
comfortable with the materials used in the classrooms.
REFERENCES
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Holliday, A. (1994b). Appropriate methodology and social context. Cambridge:
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Jordan, R. R. (2011). English for academic purposes. United Kingdom: University Press,
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University Press.
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Tomlinson, B. (2001). Materials development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Rabiathul Adhabiyyah Sayed Abudhahir
Mahanum Mahdun
‘Aliyatulmuna Md. Nor
Department of English,
Faculty of Management and Muamalah,
International Islamic University College Selangor, Malaysia
rabiahsayed@kuis.edu.my
mahanum@kuis.edu.my
aliyatulmuna@kuis.edu.my
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PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION ACT 2010: TAKING THE FIRST STEPS
TOWARDS COMPLIANCE
(Akta Perlindungan Data Peribadi 2010: Mengambil Langkah Awal ke arah Pematuhan)
Farah Mohd Shahwahid & Surianom Miskam
Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor
ABSTRACT
With the coming into force of the Personal Data Protection Act 2010 (PDPA 2010) on 15
November 2013, business entities (data users) are now obligated to comply with the principles
of data protection enshrined in the Act. The aim of PDPA 2010 is to ensure that personal data
of consumers (data subjects) that are collected, stored and used by the data user is being
handled in the correct manner. The Act contains seven principles of data collection in line
with data protection legislations worldwide. This study aims to discover whether the
provisions of PDPA have been complied with by the data users. This will be done by looking
at the provisions from the Act regarding the principles of data protection as well as the duties
for compliance to the legislation. Furthermore, the privacy policy from selected data user
business entities from selected industries are examined. The study also seeks to discover what
are the barriers that need to be overcome in implementing PDPA 2010 successfully.
Keywords: Personal Data Protection Act 2010; personal data; data user; data subject;
compliance
ABSTRAK
Dengan berkuat kuasanya Akta Perlindungan Data Peribadi 2010 pada 15 November 2013,
semua entity perniagaan (pengguna data) diwajibkan mematuhi prinsip-prinsip berkaitan
perlindungan data yang terkandung dalam Akta tersebut. Objektif utama Akta ini adalah
untuk memastikan bahawa segala data peribadi orang awam (subjek data) yang dikumpul,
disimpan dan digunakan oleh pengguna data dalam aktiviti komersial dikendalikan mengikut
prosedur yang ditetapkan. 7 prinsip perlindungan data peribadi yang digubal selari dengan
perundangan perlindungan data yang digunapakai di seluruh dunia. Kajian ini akan melihat
kepada pematuhan pengguna data kepada peruntukan-peruntukan yang terkandung dalam
Akta ini dengan melihat kepada peruntukan-peruntukan berkaitan dalam Akta berkenaan
prinsip-prinsip perlindungan data dan tanggungjawab pengguna data terhadap pematuhan
Akta ini. Di samping itu, polisi privasi data peribadi beberapa entiti perniagaan yang
tertakluk kepada Akta ini akan dikaji untuk melihat sejauhmana mereka mematuhi kehendak
Akta ini. Kajian juga cuba mengenalpasti apakah halangan yang perlu di atasi untuk
memastikan Akta ini dapat dikuatkuasakan dengan berkesan.
Kata kunci: Akta Perlindungan Data Peribadi 2010; data peribadi; pengguna data; subjek
data; pematuhan undang-undang
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1. INTRODUCTION
Information is a valuable commodity these days. Information is also seen as a
controversial tool of modern life. With vast quantities of information belonging or regarding
to individuals being held by various business entities, many issues arise as to the mechanism
in handling all this personal information. Matters pertaining to who holds this information,
how they hold it, and in what circumstances they use it and/or pass it on to others, has been
the subject of detailed legislation and regulation for many years.
The Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing
of Personal Data (Convention 108), adopted by the Council of Europe in 1981 was the first
legal instrument to guarantee the protection of personal data, as a separate right granted to an
individual. This convention obliges the signatories to enact legislation concerning the
automatic processing of personal data. At the same time, the Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) issued guidelines to its members, which urged them to
introduce measures to protect personal information. The European Commission realised that
diverging data protection legislation amongst EU member states impeded the free flow of data
within the EU. In 1995, the EU Data Protection Directive was enacted setting out the data
protection principles that EU member states must incorporate into their national data
protection laws.
In 1973, Sweden became the first country to adopt personal data protection legislation
with the passing of the Data Act. That legislation became the first national law that
implemented what we now recognize as the basic principles of data protection. Four decades
later, almost 100 other countries have followed suit.
2. PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION IN MALAYSIA
As far as Malaysia is concerned, with the passing of Personal Data Protection Act
2010 (PDPA) on June 2010 Malaysia becomes the first ASEAN nation to introduce such laws
into the region, and after a long wait, this law has now became enforceable on the 15th
November 2013. The coming into effect of the law is almost one year after the Act was
scheduled to take effect on January 1, 2013, but delayed due to legal formalities. The bill was
first drafted in 2001 and was originally expected to be implemented early 2010. It was
initially scheduled to be passed August 16 2013, with businesses using personal data required
to register themselves with the Personal Data Protection Department of Malaysia by
November 15, 2013. (The Malay Mail Online, 15 November 2013)
The PDPA was formed primarily to regulate the processing of personal data collected
for commercial purposes and all other matters connected or incidental to consumers’ personal
data. The PDPA also aims to safeguard consumers’ rights regarding their personal data. The
Act requires companies and organisations that handle consumers’ personal data in commercial
transactions (data users) to notify them and obtain their consent for any collecting and
processing of their personal information.
The PDPA is applicable to a data user which is defined in section 4 of the Act as a
person who either alone or jointly or in common with other persons processes any personal
data or has control over or authorizes the processing of any personal data, but does not include
a data processor. In short, a data user is a person who processes or controls or authorizes the
processing of personal data. Abu Bakar Munir (2012) adds that a data user must be a legal
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person. The term legal person would cover individuals, companies and other corporate and
unincorporated entities.
The PDPA is only applicable for data or information that falls under ‘personal data’.
Section 4 of the act defines personal data as any information in respect of a commercial
transaction, which (a) is being processed wholly or partly by means of equipment operating
automatically in response to instructions given for that purpose; (b) is recorded with the
intention that it should wholly or partly be processed by means of such equipment; or (c) is
recorded as part of a relevant filing system or with the intention that it should from part of a
relevant filing system, that relates directly or indirectly to a data subject, who is identified or
identifiable from that information.
The Act also provides the definition for data subject under section 4 as an individual
who is the subject of the personal data. This means that data subject is the owner of the
personal data that is being processed by the data user. Referring to the definitions, for a
particular data or information to qualify as personal data under the PDPA, it must be shown
that the data subject can be identified or is identifiable from the data in question. In simpler
words, the data that was processed by the data user can be traced back to a particular
individual, i.e. the data subject. Among data or information that would qualify as personal
data would include the name, identification numbers, addresses, telephone numbers, bank
account numbers and even place of work or place of birth. Sometimes, one data alone does
not make an individual identifiable, but a series or a combination of data does so.
Abu Bakar Munir (2012) further explains this by saying that an identifiable person
appears to be the one whose separate identity is ascertainable but who is not known in person.
He or she may be traceable by virtue of certain factors. It is suggested that a person is
identifiable where there is sufficient information either to contact him or to recognize him by
picking him out in some way from others. Furthermore, a person is identifiable if his identity
can be ascertained from the information held plus the results of reasonable enquiries which
are made either by the data user or another.
The PDPA is applicable to any person who processes data either by automatic means
or manually. Processing is defined in section 4 to include the ‘collecting, recording, holding,
or storing the personal data or carrying out any operation or set of operations on the personal
data, including the organization, adaptation or alteration or personal data, the retrieval,
consultation or use of personal data, the disclosure of personal data by transmission, transfer,
dissemination or otherwise making available, or the alignment, combination, correction,
erasure or destruction of personal data. The definition was deliberately framed broadly to
include all possible activities of a data user. Automatic means of processing data would
include the recording and storing of personal data in a computer or online database, as well as
the use or disclosure of personal data on the data user’s email, mailing list or website.
Examples of manual processing of personal data would include the collecting of consumers’
business cards or application forms, keeping consumers personal information in logbooks or
filing cabinets and erasing or shredding documents containing the personal information of
consumers.
2.1 The provisions of the PDPA 2010
Compliance to the PDPA is by following the seven data protection principles which
are expressly and clearly stated in the provisions of the Act. Section 5(1) lists down the data
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protection principles while section 5(2) of the Act mentions that contravention of the data
protection principles shall be punishable by fine, imprisonment or even both.
The first principle of data protection is the General Principle section 6 which provides
that no personal data about a data subject is to be processed unless the data subject has
consented to the processing. It also states that a data user shall not process any sensitive
personal data of a data subject unless it is in accordance with section 40 of the same Act.
Section 6(3) further states that any personal data shall not be processed unless the personal
data is processed for a lawful purpose directly related to the activity of the data user, the
processing of the personal data is necessary for, or directly related to that purpose, and the
personal data is adequate but not excessive in relation to that purpose.
Section 7(1) discusses the second data protection principle which is the notice and
choice principle. The provision requires the data user to inform the data subject by giving a
notice in writing that
(a) That personal data of the subject is being processed by or on behalf of the data
user, and shall provide a description of the personal data to that data subject;
(b) The purposes for which the personal data is being or is to be collected and further
processed;
(c) Of any information available to the data user as to the source of that personal data;
(d) Of the data subject’s right to access to and to request correction of the personal
data user with any inquiries or complaints in respect of the personal data;
(e) Of the class of third parties to whom the data user discloses or may disclose the
personal data;
(f) Of the choices and means the data user offers the data subject for limiting the
processing of personal data, including personal data relating to other persons who
may be identified from that personal data;
(g) Whether it is obligatory or voluntary for the data subject to supply the personal
data; and
(h) Where it is obligatory for the data subject to supply the personal data, the
consequences for the data subject if he fails to supply the personal data.
This principle requires a company to have a privacy policy statement, which contains
all the matters stated above. All of the requirements must be complied with, not a selected
few. This provision also requires that the written notice shall be in both Bahasa Melayu and
English. If the data users wish, they can also provide the privacy policy in other languages as
well. The data user must also ensure that consumers are provided with the means to choose
the privacy policy.
Section 8 of the PDPA prohibits the disclosure of personal data for other purposes
without the consent of the data subject. The prohibition covers two aspects, which are firstly,
the purpose for the disclosure and secondly to whom is the disclosure of personal data made
to. For the first part of the prohibition, data users are only allowed to disclose the personal
data for the purpose or directly related purpose that the data was collected for in the first
place. However, the PDPA does provide certain exceptions where personal data may be
disclosed without the consent of the data subject. These exceptions are laid down in section
39 which includes that the disclosure is necessary for the purpose of preventing or detecting a
crime, or for investigation purposes or where disclosure of personal data is required or
authorized by or under any law or court order (section 39 (b); the data user has acted in the
reasonable belief that he had a right to disclose the personal data to the other person or had
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acted in the reasonable belief that he would have had the consent of the data subject if the data
subject had known of the disclosure and the circumstances of such disclosure (section 39 (c)
and (d)); and lastly the disclosure was justified as being in the public interest.
For the second part, data users are only allowed to disclose the personal data to any
third party or class of third parties that are stated in the written notice provided to the data
subject. This is to ensure that the data subject has been made aware of the existence of the
third party/parties and the consent of the data subject was obtained before the personal data
can be processed by such third party/parties.
Section 9 of PDPA governs the security principle which requires a data user to take
practical steps to protect the personal data being processed from any loss, misuse,
modification, unauthorized or accidental access or disclosure, alteration or destruction. To
comply with this principle, protection must be given in regard to the nature of the personal
data, the place or location the data is stored, the security measures which are incorporated to
the equipment where the data is stored, the measures taken to ensure the integrity of the
personnel having access to the data as well as the measures taken to ensure secure transfer of
the data. In cases where data processing is done on behalf of the data user by a data processor,
Section 9(2) requires the data user to take steps to ensure that the data processor provides
sufficient guarantees in respect of security measures governing the processing of personal
data, and takes reasonable steps to ensure compliance to aforementioned measures. In
complying with the security principles, the measures taken by the data user would differ and
depend on the industry the data user conducts its commercial activities as well as the type of
personal data that is being processed. For certain industries which deal with sensitive,
confidential and valuable personal data on a daily basis, such as the banking, insurance, health
and communication industries, data users are expected to take high level security measures to
safeguard the personal data in order for them to fulfill the requirements of section 9.
Examples would include personal details concerning banking transactions, insurance policies,
health records and medical history of patients and the telephone numbers and addresses of
clients of the data users.
This principle clearly states ‘practical steps’. The data user must only take measures
that commensurate with the risks represented by the processing of, or the nature of the data
together with the cost of implementing such security measures. Data users must strike a
balance between the seriousness of the consequences of failure in security and the price of
putting into place the security measures.
The retention principle endowed in section 10 of the PDPA requires that personal data
is not retained or kept by the data user for a period longer than necessary for the fulfillment of
the purpose it was processed. It is the responsibility of the data user to destroy or permanently
delete the personal data. The words ‘shall not be kept’ in that section seem to indicate that it is
mandatory for the data user to dispose the data when it is no longer needed for its purpose.
The Act is silent on the period for deletion or how for the data user to determine when to
dispose of the data.
Section 11 explains the data integrity principle, a crucial element in personal data
protection law. This provision requires the data user to take reasonable steps to ensure that the
personal data is accurate, complete, not misleading and kept up to date having regard to the
purpose, including any directly related purpose for which the personal data was collected and
later processed. This requirement shows the importance of the data user ensuring that no
personal data are inaccurate, incomplete or obsolete.
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Any data subject must be given the right of access to the personal data held and
processed by the data user. If the personal data is inaccurate, the data subject must be able to
correct the data to give effect section 12.
2.2 Rights of Individuals (Data Subjects)
In relation to the processing of personal data of individuals, certain statutory rights are
provided under the PDPA. The six rights are the right to be informed, right of access to
personal data, right to correct personal data, right to withdraw consent, right to prevent
processing which is likely to cause damage or distress and right to prevent processing for the
purpose of direct marketing.
The right of access to personal data gives effect to the access principle. The provisions
governing this right are Section 30-33. Section 30 (1) provides that an individual is entitled to
be informed if his personal data is being processed by or on behalf of the data user. Section
30(2) says that upon payment of a prescribed fee, a requestor may make a data access request
in writing to the data user for information of the data subject’s personal data that is being
processed by the data user and for that information to be communicated to him in an
intelligible form. However, section 32 the n lays down the circumstances where a data user
may refuse to comply with that request.
The right to correct personal data is also provided in the Act under sections 34-47.
Section 34 (1) says that where a requestor of a data access request or the data subject himself
considers that personal data being held by the data user is inaccurate, the requester or the data
subject, may make a data correction request in writing to the data user for necessary
amendments to be made to the personal data. However, section 36 states that in certain
circumstances, the data user may refuse to comply with a data correction request. To prevent
such refusal, it is advised that the person seeking the data correction to supply the necessary
evidence to prove the inaccuracy of the personal data.
The right to withdraw consent for processing data is guaranteed under section 38
which expressly states that the data user shall cease the processing of personal data, upon
receiving a notice in writing for him to do so.
Section 42 then further goes on to explain another right of a data subject which is the
right to prevent processing of any personal data that is likely to cause damage or distress to
the data subject or to any other person. This provision also gives a right to the data subject to
prevent the data user from collecting, holding, processing or using his personal data. For this
provision to be applicable, the data subject must prove that the collecting, holding, processing
or use of that personal data causes or is likely to cause damage or distress, and the damage or
distress caused must be substantial and unwarranted. As the words ‘substantial’ and
‘unwarranted’ is not defined in the Act, it can be interpreted to suit the particular type of
personal data or industry in that particular situation.
Another right accorded by the PDPA is the right to decide whether or not they wish to
have their personal information used for direct marketing purposes. Section 43(1) states that a
data subject, may, by submitting a notice in writing to the data user, require the data user to
cease or not proceed with the processing of his personal data for direct marketing purposes.
Direct marketing is defined in the PDPA to mean the communication by whatever means of
any advertising or marketing material which is directed to particular individuals. This right
can be exercised by the data subject at any time, even if they have initially consented to the
use of their personal data, this consent can be later on revoked. Businesses that operate a
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direct marketing approach should pay extra attention to this clause as it cannot be assumed
that once consent has been given by a data subject, that the consent will be continuous. Once
consent has been revoked, no direct marketing material of any form should be sent to the data
subject anymore. This would include but not limited to letters, brochures and catalogues both
in paper and paperless form. This provision is unique in the sense that it is applicable to not
only prevent the sending and receiving of marketing communication but also can be used to
stop the profiling, screening or data mining activities involving the data subject’s personal
data.
2.3 Penalty for Non-Compliance
Failure to comply with the provisions of this legislation is a punishable criminal
offence. Section 135 states that prosecution under the PDPA must be instituted by, or with the
written consent of the public prosecutor. Section 135 gives the authority to Sessions Court to
try any offence under the PDPA and to impose punishment for any such offences under the
PDPA. Non-compliance of the PDPA is punishable by a fine or to imprisonment or to both.
This punishment is clearly stated under section 5(2) of the PDPA which states that subject to
the exemptions under section 45 and 46, a data user who contravenes the personal data
protection principles commits an offence and shall, upon conviction, be liable to a fine not
exceeding RM300,000 or to imprisonment not exceeding two years, or both.
Other offences under the PDPA by those who qualify to be data users include the
processing of personal data without having a certificate of registration (section 16) and the
continuing to process personal data after the revocation of registration as data user (section
18). Another offence under the legislation is stated under section 130 which provides that a
person commits an offence when he, either knowingly or recklessly, without the consent of
the data user, collects, discloses, or procures the disclosure of data to another person. These
offences upon conviction carries the punishment of fine not exceeding RM500,000 or to an
imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, or both.
Section 38 provides that data users who fail to cease the processing of personal data
upon receiving notice from the data subject withdrawing consent to the processing of his
personal data, commits an offence, and upon conviction is liable to a fine not exceeding
RM100,000 or imprisonment up to one year, or both.
Another offence under PDPA is stated under section 40, the processing of sensitive
information contravening the conditions stated in the Act. This offence, upon conviction is
liable to punishment of fine not exceeding RM200, 000 or to imprisonment for a term not
exceeding two years, or both.
Offences of data user’s refusal to comply with a data correction request by the data
subject, non-compliance with any code of practice applicable to a data user (Section 29), and
a data user’s continuous processing of personal data after withdrawal of consent from data
subject (Section 38) are all punishable by a fine not exceeding RM100, 000 or imprisonment
not more than 1 year, or both.
2.4 Privacy Policy: Compliance by Business Entities
The enforcement of PDPA on the 15 November 2013 also introduced some subsidiary
legislations including the Personal Data Protection (Class of Data Users) Order 2013 (PDPO
2013). This new regulations require certain class of data users to register with the Personal
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Data Protection Commissioner. These selected data users are from the following 11
industries:
1. Communications
2. Banking and financial institution
3. Insurance
4. Health
5. Tourism and hospitalities
6. Transportation
7. Education
8. Direct selling
9. Services
10. Real estate
11. Utilities
The law requires that business entities and service providers under these categories to
comply within three months from the date of the coming into effect of the legislation. By
looking at the list, this would include data users like banks, financial institutions,
telecommunication firms, insurance companies, private hospitals, private schools, colleges
and universities, commercial airlines, law firms, real estate agencies, and utilities’ providers
such as Tenaga National Berhad, ASTRO and SYABAS. Besides registration, enforcement of
PDPA would require compliance to the personal data principles. The initial step to be taken
by data users is by having a privacy policy in place, where the data user guarantees to take
steps to comply with the seven data protection principles.
Referring to the websites of some selected data users, the privacy policy of these
selected data users were analysed to see if they complied with the requirements of PDPA. The
findings are summarized as follows:
2.4.1 Maybank (Malayan Banking Berhad)
The privacy notice of Malayan Banking Berhad is accessible through its website
www.Maybank2u.com. It is available in both English and Bahasa Melayu. The notice
explains that it collects, uses, maintains and discloses customers’ personal data in respect of
commercial transactions and that it takes steps to safeguards the personal data collected from
their customers. The notice also lists down, non-exhaustively, the types of personal data
collected from the customers. The privacy notice contains provisions regarding all seven
principles of data protection. There are provisions explaining the use the personal data
processed and while it undertakes to keep data confidential, the notice admits that there are
circumstances where the data will be disclosed to third parties. A provision is also included
allowing data subjects (customers of Maybank) to amend any incorrect data being processed,
as well as the actions to be taken by the data subject to amend or correct the data.
2.4.2 CELCOM
The privacy policy of CELCOM is available online through its website and expressly
states that the Customer Service Division is responsible for the customer access and
correction of personal data, notice and choice process to limit processing of personal data and
the Privacy Department in Legal Division is responsible for the monitoring the administration
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of this notice and monitoring its compliance. The privacy policy includes provisions on all the
data protection principles, where CELCOM promises compliance. The policy also has a
clause regarding the processing of sensitive personal data where it states “that it does not
process any sensitive personal data in its ordinary course of business but if the need arises,
CELCOM will obtain explicit consent from the customer before or when it processes sensitive
personal data. At this point, CELCOM may process personal data without the customer’s
consent only in limited circumstances as permitted by law”.
2.4.3 Telekom Malaysia Berhad
Similar to other data users, Telekom has prepared a privacy policy in line with the
requirement of PDPA. The policy contains provisions detailing the company’s processing of
customers’ personal data and all seven principles of personal data are dealt with in the policy.
While promising to safeguard the personal data, the company admits to using the data
collected for purposes mentioned in the policy. The policy contains information on how data
subjects (referred to as ‘Members” in the policy) may choose to ‘opt out” from receiving mail,
and how the ycan modify their information or make any other necessary changes.
3. LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES AHEAD
Section 2(2) of PDPA provides that the Act applies to a data user in multiple ways.
Firstly, where the data user is established in Malaysia and the data user processes data.
Secondly, when the data user that is established in Malaysia, employs or engages someone to
process personal data. Thirdly, when a data user who is not established in Malaysia, uses
equipment in Malaysia to process personal data. Therefore, it can be said that the applicability
of this Act is limited to Malaysian data users or at least to data that was processed in this
country.
A severe limitation of this Act that has also been a subject of criticism by many is the
fact that this Act, as stated in section 3(1) does not cover both the Federal and State
governments of Malaysia. As a huge amount or personal data is processed by government
agencies, the exclusion of these entities would surely have implications on the successful
implementation of this law.
Section 3(2) also excludes data wholly processed outside of Malaysia unless that
personal data is intended to be further processed in Malaysia. The effect of this is that the
PDPA is not applicable to internet based data gatherers, unless the data collected is used or is
to be used in Malaysia. For example, if a Hong Kong based bank (the data user) gathers
information from Malaysian consumers (the data subjects) through the internet, the PDPA is
not applicable unless the data collected is used or is intended to be used in Malaysia.
Another important element in discussing the applicability of PDPA is that this law is
only applicable to the processing of personal data in respect of commercial transactions.
Therefore, any personal processed for non-commercial or private use is exempted from this
legislation. Section 4 of the PDPA defines commercial transaction to mean any transaction of
a commercial nature, whether contractual or not, which includes any matters relating to the
supply or exchange of goods or services, agencies, investments, financing, banking and
insurance. The definition provided by the Act does not include credit reporting which is under
the purview the Credit Rating Agency Act 2010.
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With the fast changing world of information and communication technology where
international data transfer is unavoidable it has increased the complexity of personal data
management itself from the moment data is collected, used, stored, and destroyed. The PDPA
is equally applicable to all customers, employees, and third party service providers that handle
personal data. Overall, companies businesses will also be affected as processes will be
required to be refined to comply with the requirements of the Act.
Besides the issue of applicability of PDPA, another challenge that is being faced is the
lack of knowledge on PDPA specifically or on the concept of personal data protection as a
whole. Many business owners are clueless as to their status as data users. They are unsure if
they fall under the purview of the PDPA and if they are, what are the steps that need to be
taken by them. Business owners are still unsure of what constitutes personal data? For
example, a wedding planner deals with many parties, from the couple getting married to the
various contractors that he engages for wedding related services. Is the wedding planner
breaking the law by keeping a collection of pictures and videos of his clients’ weddings? It is
unsure if the Act applies in this context. (The Star Online, 2 February 2014)
Another aspect that impedes the successful implementation of PDPA is the limitation
in terms of data users being ‘technology savvy’. According to the managing director of a
security solution company, Goh Chee Hoh “it is not easy now for businesses to equip
themselves with the proper tools to help them to secure their customers’ personal data because
people today are using a diverse set of mobile devices, operating systems and consumer apps
to handle sensitive data”. (The Star Online, 2 February 2014)
While much effort to increase knowledge awareness on PDPA has been conducted in
the forms of seminars and public awareness campaigns through the media, it is clear that
much more needs to be done. For many of the multinational companies, compliance with the
PDPA should not be a big problem as they already have in place a global policy that just
needs to fit to the Malaysian requirements. Those who seem to struggle the most with
compliance are the small and medium enterprises (SME). (The Star Online, 2 February 2014)
This view is supported by Kuok Yew Chen, a lawyer at Christopher & Lee Ong, one
of many law firms providing legal consultancy over the PDPA. Kuok believes that many
companies already have some sort of privacy policy in place. “Generally, the multinationals
would already have global privacy policies and so they would simply need to adapt these to
meet the requirements of Malaysia’s PDPA. It is, perhaps, the small- and medium-enterprises
that would be least prepared, given that not many would have internal policies or procedures
on privacy and protection of personal data,” said Kuok. (The Star Online, 2 February 2014)
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The PDPA has already been enforced and business entities and service providers are
required to register by 15 February 2014 or face penalties under section 16(4) of the PDPA.
Since the grace period of three months has expired, it means that this is the time for
enforcement. Relevant parties and the authority should take measures to identify the gaps to
meet the legal requirements and industry standards in order to develop a strategic roadmap to
address the gaps and to develop structure, roles and responsibilities, policies and procedures
to be applied by all affected parties. More important, audit processes and systems to assess
compliance with policies, standards, and legal requirements should be set up and enforced to
maintain strict compliance of the law.
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5. REFERENCES
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Farah Mohd Shahwahid
Surianom Miskam
Department of Business Management
Faculty of Management and Muamalah
International Islamic University College Selangor
farahms@kuis.edu.my
surianom@kuis.edu.my
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