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1
Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry
8th Edition
Grnelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry
Prepared and issued by
Founded by
8th Edition
Continued by
8th Edition
Gmelin Handbuch der Anorganischen Chemie
Achte, voUig neu bearbeitete Auflage
Gmelin-Institut fUr Anorganische Chemie der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften
Director: Ekkehard Fluck
Leopold Gmelin
8th Edition begun under the auspices of the Deutsche Chemische GeseUschaft by R. J. Meyer
E. H. E. Pietsch and A. Kotowski, and by Margot Becke-Goehring
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH 1989
GmeLin-lnstitut fUr Anorganische Chemie der Max-PLanck-GeseLLsc.haft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften
ADVISORY BOARD
Dr. G. BreiL, Chairman (Ruhrchemie AG, Oberhausen-HoLten), Prof. Dr. K. Dehnicke (PhiLippsUniversitat, Marburg), Prof. Dr. N. N. Greenwood (University of Leeds), Prof. Dr. H. GrunewaLd (Bayer AG, Leverkusen), Prof. Dr. H. Harnisch (Hoechst AG, Frankfurt/Main-Hochst), Prof. Dr. H. Noth (Universitat Munchen), Prof. Dr. H. Offermanns (Degussa AG, Frankfurt/Main), Prof. Dr. G. zu PutLitz (Universitat HeideLberg), Prof. Dr. A. Rabenau (Max-PLanck-lnstitut fUr Festkorperforschung, Stuttgart), Prof. Dr. A. Simon (Max-PLanck-lnstitut fUr Festkorperforschung, Stuttgart), Prot. Dr. Dr. A. H. Staab (Prasident der Max-PLanck-GeseLLschaft, Munchen), Prof. Dr. Dr. h. c. muLt. G. WiLke (Max-PLanck-lnstitut fur KohLenforschung, MuLheim/Ruhr)
DIRECTOR DEPUTY DIRECTOR
Prof. Dr. Dr. h. c. Ekkehard Fluck Dr. W. Lippert
CORRESPONDENT MEMBERS OF THE SCIENTIFIC STAFF Dr. B. Baker, Dr. P. L. BayLess, Dr. V. Haase, Dr. E. F. Hockings, DipL.-Ing. G. Kirschstein,
EMERITUS MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE
CORRESPONDENT MEMBERS OF THE INSTITUTE
Dr. W. F. McNamara, Dr. K. Rumpf, Dr. K. Swars
Prof. Dr. Dr. E. h. Margot Becke
Prof. Dr. Hans Bock Prof. Dr. Dr. ALois Haas, Sc. D. (Cantab.)
GMELIN HANDBOOK
CHIEF EDITORS
Dr. K.-C. Buschbeck - Dr. H. Bergmann, J. FusseL, H. Hartwig, Dr. H. Katscher, Dr. R. Keim, Dr. E. Koch, DipL.-Phys. D. KoscheL, Dr. U. Kruerke, Dr. P. MerLet, Dr. E. SchLeitzer-Rust, Dr. F. A. Schroder, Dr. A. SLawisch, Dr. W. Topper
STAFF
Dr. G. Bar, D. BartheL, Dr. N. Baumann, Dr. W. Behrendt, D. Benzaid, Dr. L. Berg, Dr. R. Bohrer, K. D. Bonn, P. Born-Heck, DipL.-lng. V. A. Chavizon, E. CLoos, DipL.-Phys. G. Czack, I. Deim, DipL.-Chem. H. Demmer, U. Dietz, DipL.-GeoL. R. Ditz, R. Dowideit, DipL.-Chem. M. DroBmar, U. Duggen, Dr. H.-J. Fachmann, Dr. J. Faust, B. Fischer, G. Funk, DipL.-lng. N. GageL, Dr. D. Germeshausen, Dr. U. W. Gerwarth, DipL.-Phys. D. Gras, DipL.-BibL. W. Grieser, Dr. I. Haas, R. Hanz, Dr. R. HauboLd, B. HeibeL, DipL.-Min. H. Hein, A. Heise-Schuster, H.-P. Hente, H. W. HeroLd, U. Hettwer, Dr. R. HeumuLLer, Dr. G. Hones, Dr. W. Hoffmann, G. Horndasch, Dr. W. HuisL, B. Jaeger, Dr. R. Jotter, Dr. J. von Jouanne, Dr. B. KaLbskopf, DipL.-Chem. W. KarL, H.-G. Karrenberg, DipL.-Phys. H. KeLLer-Rudek, B. Kirchner, P. KLauck, DipL.-Chem. C. KoeppeL, R. KoLb, Dr. M. Kotowski, E. Kranz, DipL.-Chem. I. KreuzbichLer, Dr. A. Kubny, Dr. W. Kurtz, M. Langer, Dr. U. Lanzendorfer, Dr. B. Leduc, Dr. A. Leonard, H. Mathis, E. Meinhard, M. MeBer, C. Metz, K. Meyer, Dr. M. Mirbach, DipL.-Chem. B. Mohsin, Dr. U. Neu-Becker, K. Noring, DipL.-Min. U. NohL, Dr. U.Ohms-Bredemann, Prof. Dr. W. Petz, I. Rangnow, DipL.Phys. H.-J. Richter-Ditten, E. Rieth, E. RudoLph, G. RudoLph, DipL.-Chem. S. Ruprecht, Dr. B. Sarbas, Dr. H. Schafer, Dr. R. Schemm, Dr. D. Schioberg, V. Schlicht, DipL.-Chem. D. Schneider, DipL.-Min. P. Schubert, A. SchwarzeL, Dr. B. Schwager, DipL.-lng. H. M. Somer, Dr. C. Strametz, G. Strauss, Dr. G. Swoboda, Dr. U. TaubaLd, M. Teichmann, Dr. D. TiLLe, DipL.Chem. P. VeLie, DipL.-lng. U. Vetter, H.-M. Wagner, DipL.-Phys. J. Wagner, R. Wagner, Dr. E. Warkentin, Dr. C. Weber, Dr. A. WieteLmann, Dr. M. Winter, Dr. B. Wobke, K. WoLff
GMELIN ONLINE
EXECUTIVE MANAGER HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Dr. R. DepLanque Dr. P. Kuhn, Dr. G. OLbrich
STAFF
Dr. R. Baier, Dr. B. Becker, DipL.-Chem. E. Best, DipL.-Phys. R. Bost, Dr. A. BrandL, Dr. R. Braun, DipL.-Chem. R. Durban, Dr. A. Kirchhoff, DipL.-Chem. H. KotteLwesch, W. Korba, Dr. M. Kunz, Dr. A. NebeL, DipL.-Chem. R. NohL, Dr. B. Rempfer, Dr. K. Schucke, U. ToLLe, DipL.-lng. H. Vanecek
Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry
AUTHORS
CHIEF EDITORS
8th Edition
Th Thorium Supplement Volume A 4
General Properties. Spectra. Recoil Reactions
With 54 illustrations
Robert G. Behrens, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA Michael Bickel, Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany Rolf Engleman Jr., University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
Jean Fuger, Commission of the European Communities, Institute for Transuranium Elements, Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany
Lawrence E. Grimes, Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico, USA Basil Kanellakopulos, Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany Daniel J. Lam, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, USA
Kurt Roessler, Kernforschungsanlage Julich, JUlich, Federal Republic of Germany
Boyd W. Veal, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, USA
Rudolf Keirn, Gmelin-Institut, Frankfurt am Main Cornelius Keller, Supervising Scientific Coordinator for the Thorium Supplement Volumes, Schule fur Kerntechnik, Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe
System Number 44
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH 1989
LITERATURE CLOSING DATE: MID OF 1987
IN SOME CASES MORE RECENT DATA HAVE BEEN CONSIDERED
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: Agr 25-1383
ISBN 978-3-662-07412-1 ISBN 978-3-662-07410-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-07410-7
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved. whether the whole or part of the material is concerned. specifically those of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, broadcasting. reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means, and storage in data banks. Under § 54 of the German Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is payable to "Verwertungsgesellschaft Wort", Munich.
© by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1989 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo in 1989 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 8th edition 1989
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc., in this publication does not Imply, even in the absence of a specific statement. that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Typesetting, printing, and bookbinding: LN-Druck Lubeck
Preface
The present volume describes the general properties of the thorium atom and ions, the thermodynamics of its compounds and solutions, the behavior of solutions and solid compounds under the influence of its own radiation as well as an external radiation field, and spectroscopic data in great detail.
The different chapters are of special interest to scientists who work in these fields, and also in the corresponding fields of other elements. In some special fields there exists a detailed knowledge of this radioelement whereas in other fields, such as M6Bbauer spectra, lower oxidation states, or radiation stability, there are large gaps. Due to the fact that the significance of thorium as a breeder fuel (232"fh to be converted to fissile 233U after thermal neutron capture) has decreased within the last decade, the behavior of thorium is not as yet so thoroughly investigated as the heavier radioactive element uranium.
Many of these data, however, are not only of academic interest, e.g., the knowledge of atomic spectra is needed for some analytical methods, especially in the trace concentration region. Due to the noble gaS-like electronic configuration of the tetravalent ion, there are no absorption bands in the visible region so that in general spectra and data are very scarce.
This volume is a very detailed and critically reviewed compilation, written by experts from the Federal Republic of Germany, Belgium, and the United States.
I want to thank the authors for their excellent contributions and good cooperation. Special thanks also to the Gmelin Institute, especially to the editor-in-charge Dr. R. Keim and the Institutes director, Prof. Dr. E. Fluck.
Karlsruhe June 1989
Cornelius Keller
Volumes published on "Radium and Actinides"
Ac Actinium
Main Volume
Suppl. Vol. 1: Element and Compounds
Np, Pu, ... Transuranium Elements
Main Volume
Part A: The Elements
A 1, I History, Occurrence, Properties of Atomic Nuclei A 1, II Nuclides: Manufacture, Recovery, Enrichment A 2 General Properties, Uses, Storage, Biology
Part B: The Metals
B 1 Metals B 2 Binary Alloy Systems 1 B 3 Binary Alloy Systems 2
Part C: The Compounds
C Compounds
Part 0: Chemistry in Solution
D 1 Aqueous Solutions. Coordination Chemistry D 2 Extraction, Ion Exchange. Molten Salts
Index
Pa Protactinium Main Volume
Suppl. Vol. 1: Element
Suppl. Vol. 2: Metal. Alloys. Compounds. Chemistry in Solution
Ra Radium
Main Volume
Suppl. Vol. 1: History. Cosmochemistry. Geochemistry Suppl. Vol. 2: Element. Compounds
Th Thorium
Main Volume
Suppl. Vol. Part A: The Element A 1 Thorium Deposits. Geochemistry (in preparation) A 2 History. Isotopes. Recovery of Thorium from Ores A 3 Technology. Uses. Irradiated Fuel. Reprocessing A 4 General Properties. Spectra. Recoil Reactions (present volume)
- 1942
- 1981
- 1973 - 1974 - 1973
- 1976 - 1976 - 1977
- 1972
- 1975 - 1975
- 1979
- 1942
- 1977
- 1977
- 1928
- 1977 - 1977
- 1955
- 1986 - 1988 - 1989
SuppL VoL Part C: The Compounds C 1 Compounds with Noble Gases, Hydrogen, Oxygen - 1978 C 2 Ternary and Polynary Oxides - 1976 C 3 Compounds with Nitrogen - 1987 C 5 Compounds with S, Se, Te, B - 1986 C 7 Compounds with Carbon: Carbonates, Thiocyanates, Alkoxides, Carboxylates - 1988
Suppl. VoL Part D: Chemistry in Solution D 1 Properties of Ions in Solutions - 1988 D 2 Solvent Extraction - 1985
Suppl. VoL Part E: Coordination Compounds E Coordination Compounds - 1985
U Uranium
Main Volume - 1936
SuppL VoL Part A: The Element A 1 Uranium Deposits - 1979 A2 Isotopes - 1980 A 3 Technology. Uses - 1981 A 4 Irradiated Fuel. Reprocessing - 1982 A5 Spectra - 1982 A 6 General Properties. Criticality - 1983 A 7 Analysis. Biology - 1982
Suppl. VoL Part B: The Alloys (in preparation)
Suppl. VoL Part C: The Compounds C 1 Compounds with Noble Gases and Hydrogen. Uranium-Oxygen System - 1977 C 2 Oxides U30 a and U03. Hydroxides, Oxide Hydrates, and Peroxides - 1978 C 3 Ternary and Polynary Oxides - 1975 C 4 U02, Preparation and Crystallographic Properties - 1984 C 5 U02, Physical Properties. Electrochemical Behavior - 1986 C 6 U02, Chemical Properties (in preparation) C 7 Compounds with Nitrogen - 1981 C 8 Compounds with Fluorine - 1980 C 9 Compounds with Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine - 1979 C 10 Compounds with Sulfur - 1984 C 11 Compounds with Selenium, Tellurium, and Boron - 1981 C 12 Carbides - 1987 C 13 Carbonates, Cyanides, Thiocyanates, Alkoxides, Carboxylates - 1983
Compounds with Silicon C 14 Compounds with Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, and Germanium - 1981
SuppL VoL Part D: Chemistry in Solution D 1 Properties of the Ions. Molten Salts - 1984 D 2 Solvent Extraction - 1982 D 3 Anion Exchange - 1982 D 4 Cation Exchange and Chromatography - 1983
Suppl. VoL Part E: Coordination Compounds E 1 Coordination Compounds 1 - 1979 E 2 Coordination Compounds 2 (including Organouranium Compounds) - 1980
XIII
Table of Contents Page
1 General Properties of the Thorium Atom and Thorium Ions .................... 1
1.1 Introduction ......................................................... .
1.2 Electronic Structure ................................................... 2
1.3 Metallic Radius ....................................................... 6
1.4 Ionic Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Coordination Numbers ................................................. 7
1.6 Oxidation-Reduction Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Excited Electronic Configurations. .. . ... . . . . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . .. 10
1.8 Spin-Orbit Coupling Parameters, Radial Integrals .......................... 10
1.9 Ionization Potentials ................................................... 12
1.10 Magnetic Susceptibility ............................................... 13
2 Spectra 17
2.1 The Atomic Spectroscopy of Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Historical Background ................................................ 17
2.1.2 General Description of Thorium Spectra ................................. 17
2.1.3 Line Lists and Energy Levels ........................................... 18 Th I .................................................................... 18 Th II . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . ... . . . . .. . . . . ....... .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 48 Th III ................................................................... 66 ThIV ................................................................... 79 Higher Ion Stages ........................................................ 81
2.1.4 Ionization Potentials .................................................. 81
2.1.5 Zeeman Stud ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.1.6 Isotope Shifts........................................................ 82
2.1.7 Hyperfine Structure................................................... 83
2.1.8 Transition Probabilities ............................................... 84
2.1.9 Wavelength Standards ................................................ 85
2.2 Absorption Spectra .................................................... 88
2.3 Thorium X-Ray Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Gmelin Handbook Th Suppl. Vol. A4
XIV
Page
2.3.1 X-Ray Emission Spectra ............................................... 90 General Remarks ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Energies, Wavelengths .................................................. 90 Radiative and Nonradiative Transition Probabilities, Intensities,
Line Widths, Fluorescence Yields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 X-Rays from lon-Ion Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
The K Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Emission Lines ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Transition Probabilities, Intensities, Line Widths ............................. 93 Fluorescence Yield ..................................................... 94
The L Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Emission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Transition Probabilities, Intensities, Line Widths ............................. 96 Fluorescence Yields .................................................... 97
The M Series ............................................................ 100 Emission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Radiative Rates, Fluorescence Yields, Level Widths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
The Nand 0 Series ........................................................ 102 Emission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Radiative Rates, Fluorescence Yields, Level Widths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.3.2 Auger and Coster-Kronig Transitions .................................... 103
2.3.3 Absorption Edges .................................................... 106
2.3.4 Muonic X-Rays ...................................................... 106
2.4 Photoemission Spectra ................................................ 11 0
2.4.1 Introduction ................................ :......................... 110
2.4.2 Core Levels ......................................................... 111 Binding Energies - Thorium Metal .......................................... 111 Intensities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Satellites ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.4.3 Thorium Metal ....................................................... 117 Valence Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Chemisorption ........................................................... 119
2.4.4 Intermetallic Compounds and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 NaCI-Type Compounds..... .............. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. .. .. . .. . ... .. . 120 Angle-Resolved UP5-ThPd3 and UPd3 .....••••.........••................... 122 Other Th and U Alloys and Intermetalllc Compounds ........................... 125 Thorium Hydrides and Hydrogen Absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Catalytic Activity ......................................................... 128
2.4.5 Oxygen Compounds.... ............. . ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . 129 Th02 and U02 - Electronic Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Binding Energies of Thorium-Oxygen Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.4.6 Thorium-Halogen Compounds ......................................... 132
2.4.7 Organometallic Complexes 134
Gmelin Handbook Th Suppl. Vol. A 4
xv
Page
2.5 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) ................................. 137
2.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) ..................................... 139
2.7 Mossbauer Spectroscopy .............................................. 140
2.8 Thorium Mass Spectrometry ............................................ 143
2.8.1 Measurement of Atomic Mass of Thorium by Mass Spectrometry ............. 143
2.8.2 The Ionization Potential of Thorium by Mass Spectrometry .................. 144
2.8.3 Phase Equilibria, Vaporization Processes, and Thermochemical Studies of Thorium Compounds Using Mass Spectrometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Introduction ............................................................. 145 The Thorium-Oxygen System. .. . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . ... .. .. .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .... 147 The Thorium-Nitrogen System. ........ .. ...... ..... . .. ... . . . . . .. . . . . ...... . 151 The Thorium-Fluorine System .............................................. 151 The Thorium-Iodine System ................................................ 151 The Thorium-Carbon System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 The NaF-Th F 4 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156 The U02- Th02 System .................................................... 157 Intermetallic Systems Containing Thorium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 The Thorium-Ozone System.. . ........... . .... . ... ... .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.8.4 Structural Chemistry of Thorium-Containing Complexes Using Mass Spectrometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 162
2.8.5 Analytical Mass Spectrometric Techniques for Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Isotope Dilution Mass Spectrometry (IDMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Field Desorption and Field Ionization Mass Spectrometry (FDMS and FIMS) ........ 167 Spark Source Mass Spectrometry (SSMS) .................................... 168 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICPMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Resonance Ionization Mass Spectrometry (RIMS) ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Scanning Laser Mass Spectrometry Milliprobe (SLMS) ......................... 172 Secondary Ionization Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) .............................. 173
3 Chemical Thermodynamic Properties - Selected Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4 Effects of Ionizing Radiations ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Introduction 191
Metals and Alloys .......................................................... 191
Refractory Compounds ..................................................... 193
Other Compounds ......................................................... 196
5 Thorium Recoil Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.1 Introduction
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5.2 Primary Energy, Differential Energy Loss, and Range of Thorium Recoils ...... 201
5.3 Charge States of Energetic Thorium Species .............................. 210
5.4 Physical Consequences of Energetic Motion of Thorium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217
5.5 Classic Hot Atom Chemistry ............................................ 225
5.6 Thorium Recoils in Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 228
5.7 A New Model of a-Recoil Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Physical Constants and Conversion Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
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