stone columns - an overview(ground improvement)
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Stone Columns: An Overviewby
S.V. Abhishek & V. Tarachand
Department of Civil EngineeringCollege of Engineering (A)
Andhra UniversityVisakhapatnam
Stone ColumnsAmongst various techniques for improving in-
situ ground conditions, stone columns are probably the most versatile, due to their ability to perform a variety of important geotechnical functions.
Origin Germany (1950s) In India, the use of stone columns began in the
early 1970s.Load bearing columns of well compacted coarse
aggregate installed in the ground to serve various purposes such as reinforcement, densification and drainage.
Applicable Soil TypesSoft, Non-Compactible, Weak SoilsGranular Soils with High Fines
Content (in excess of 15%)Organic SoilsMarine/Alluvial ClaysLiquefiable SoilsWaste FillsReclaimed Fly Ash/Pond Ash Ponds
Functions Improve the bearing capacity of weak soils. Carry high shear stresses by acting as stiff
elements and hence increase the stability of embankments founded on soft ground.
Facilitate radial drainage (by acting as vertical drains) and dissipate rapidly the excess pore water pressure leading to acceleration of consolidation process and reduced post-construction settlements.
Mitigate the potential for liquefaction and damage by preventing build up of high pore pressure, providing a drainage path and increasing the strength and stiffness of the ground.
Due to high angle of internal friction and stiffness of stone column when compared to that of in-situ weak soil, majority of applied load is transferred to stone column.
As a result, less load is transferred to surrounding weak soil which leads to reduction in settlement.
Installation Patterns
Area of Influence = (√3/2)S2 Area of Influence = S2
De = 1.05S De = 1.13S
Time required for consolidation is directly proportional to square of the drainage path.
Load Carrying Mechanism Lateral earth pressure/radial confining stress against bulging from surrounding soil.
Surface resistance or frictional resistance developed between the column material and surrounding weak soil acting upwards within the critical length.
Passive resistance mobilized by column material.
Load carrying capacity of stone columns = 100 to 400 kN.
Note: End bearing is not considered in estimation of load carrying capacity because load carrying mechanism is local perimeter shear.
Estimation of Load Carrying CapacityAssumed that foundation loads are carried only
by the stone columns with no contribution from the intermediate ground.
Hughes & Withers (1974)where,
qa = allowable bearing capacity of stone column
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure = tan2(45+φ/2)
c = cohesion of soil
σr’ = average effective radial stress over a depth of ‘4d’ where ‘d’ is the diameter of the column
F.S. = factor of safety = 1.5 to 3.0
.S.F
)c4(Kq
'rp
a
Settlement ControlStone columns should extend through weak
soil to harder firm strata to control settlements.
Provision of stone columns does not reduce the entire consolidation settlement. The reduction depends on the spacing of stone columns (generally 2.0 to 3.0 m c/c over the site).
Maximum percentage reduction of settlement is 75%.
Drainage Function of Stone ColumnsLoad carrying capacity of stone columns is
generated by the top section of the column which extends to about 4 times the diameter of the stone column.
The length below 4d allows for radial drainage and acceleration of settlements.
To retain continuity of drainage path, it is necessary to provide a 150 mm thick drainage blanket on top of the stone columns.
Failure Mechanism (IS: 15284 Part 1 – 2003)
Installation Techniques
1. Rammed Stone Column Technique
2. Vibro-ReplacementWet Top-Feed Method
Dry Bottom-Feed Method
Rammed Stone Column by Cased Borehole Method (Datye and Nagaraju, 1975)
Vibro-Replacement
Extension Tube
Coupling
Air or WaterSupplyMotor
Excentric Weight
Tip
The Depth Vibrator Principle:
Depth Vibrator (Courtesy of Keller Group)
Top-Feed Vibrator
Bottom-Feed Vibrator
Air Chamber and Lock
Extension Tube
Flexible Coupling
Electric Motor
Stone Feeder Pipe
Eccentric Weight
Wet Top-Feed Method(Courtesy of Keller Group)
Dry Bottom-Feed Method with Leader Supported Rig (Courtesy of Keller Group)
Vibrocat (Courtesy of Keller Group)
Dry Bottom-Feed Crane Hung System (Courtesy of Keller Group)
Quality Control - Production Monitoring
On-board M4 Computer: Depth, Compaction, Length of Pull, Re-penetration, Increase in Power Consumption, Column Diameter
Stone Column after Installation
Post-Installation Quality Control (Load Test)
Applications in Civil EngineeringRail and Road EmbankmentsBridge Approaches and AbutmentsOffshore Bridge AbutmentsAirport Runways and TaxiwaysStorage Tanks (LNG, Crude Oil, LPG etc)Power Plants
Ipoh-Rawang Electrified Double Track(Malaysia)
Ipoh-Rawang Electrified Double Track(Malaysia)
KVMRT Kajang Maintenance Depot(Malaysia)
Bridge Approaches and Abutments
Putrajaya, Malaysia
Putrajaya Bridge Approach Embankment
RL +12.0
Top of Bridge Deck
Bored piles
Water Lev. RL +21.5
Pile cap
EEmmbbaannkkmmeenntt
R.C. Structure
Stone columns Stone columns
RL +32.0
Offshore Bridge Abutments
Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Airport Runways and Taxiways
Alor Setar Airport Project, Malaysia
Storage Tanks
Hazira LNG Terminal, Gujarat
Case History of Highway Embankment on Stone Column Treated Ground in Queensland,
Australia (Oh et al. 2007)
Subsoil Properties
Untreated SC @ 3m c/c
SC @ 2m c/c
520 mm495 mm
390 mm
Lateral Displacement Profiles
Conclusions Stone Columns are one of the most versatile
techniques for engineering the ground. They can be installed to improve a variety of
ground conditions through several variants of the technique such as rammed stone columns and vibro-replacement (wet top-feed and dry bottom-feed methods).
The in-situ ground is improved by reinforcement, densification and drainage functions performed by the stone columns.
From the case history, the embankment treated with stone columns spaced at 2 m centre to centre experienced the least settlement and lateral displacement when compared to the other cases.
Acknowledgments
Prof. M.R. MadhavProfessor Emeritus, JNTU
Visiting Professor, IIT Hyderabad
Dr. V.R. RajuManaging Director
Keller Asia
Earthquake Rose
Thank You
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