an introduction to ecology and the biosphereocw.nthu.edu.tw/ocw/upload/17/349/【l16...
TRANSCRIPT
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
BiologyEighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Chapter 52
An Introduction to Ecology
and the Biosphere
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Key concepts
1. Ecology is to study “interaction”
within, between, and across
species, as well as the environment.
2. Ecology is an integrated discipline.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Scope of Ecology
• Ecology is the scientific study of the
interactions between organisms and the
environment
• These interactions determine distribution of
organisms and their abundance
• Ecology reveals the richness of the biosphere
Fig. 52-1
Why do gray whales migrate?
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• Organismal ecology studies how an
organism‟s structure, physiology, and (for
animals) behavior meet environmental
challenges
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• A population is a group of individuals of the
same species living in an area
• Population ecology focuses on factors
affecting how many individuals of a species live
in an area
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• A community is a group of populations of
different species in an area
• Community ecology deals with the whole
array of interacting species in a community
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• An ecosystem is the community of organisms
in an area and the physical factors with which
they interact
• Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow
and chemical cycling among the various biotic
and abiotic components
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• A landscape is a mosaic of connected
ecosystems
• Landscape ecology deals with arrays of
ecosystems and how they are arranged in a
geographic region
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• The biosphere is the global ecosystem, the
sum of all the planet‟s ecosystems
• Global ecology examines the influence of
energy and materials on organisms across the
biosphere
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Fig. 52-2Organismal
ecology
Population
ecology
Community
ecology
Ecosystem
ecology
Landscape
ecology
Global
ecology
Fig. 52-3
TroughPipe
“Dry” “Wet” “Ambient”
Studying how a forest responds to altered precipitation
Ecology has a long history as a descriptive science,
but it is also a rigorous experimental science
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Ecology and Environmental Issues
• Ecology
– Provides the scientific understanding
underlying environmental issues
• Rachel Carson
Silent Spring (1962)
“The „control of nature‟ is a
phrase conceived in
arrogance, born of the
Neanderthal age of biology
and philosophy, when it was
supposed that nature exists for
the convenience of man.”
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Concept 52.2: Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species
• Ecologists recognize two kinds of factors that
determine distribution: biotic, or living factors,
and abiotic, or nonliving factors
Fig. 52-5
Kangaroos/km2
0–0.1
0.1–1
1–5
5–10
10–20
> 20Limits ofdistribution
Distribution and abundance of the
red kangaroo in Australia, based
on aerial surveys
Fig. 52-6
Why is species X absentfrom an area?
Does dispersallimit its
distribution?Does behavior
limit itsdistribution?
Area inaccessibleor insufficient time
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
YesHabitat selection
Do biotic factors(other species)
limit itsdistribution?
Predation, parasitism,competition, disease
Do abiotic factorslimit its
distribution?
Chemicalfactors
Physicalfactors
WaterOxygenSalinitypHSoil nutrients, etc.
TemperatureLightSoil structureFireMoisture, etc.
Flowchart of factors limiting geographic distribution
Fig. 52-7
Current
1966
1970
1965 1960
1961
1958
1951
1943
1937
1956
1970
Dispersal of the cattle
egret in the Americas
Natural range
expansions show
the influence of
dispersal on
distribution
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Species Transplants
• Species transplants include organisms that are
intentionally or accidentally relocated from their
original distribution
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Behavior and Habitat Selection
• Some organisms do not occupy all of their
potential range
• Species distribution may be limited by habitat
selection behavior
Fig. 52-8
RESULTS
Sea urchin
100
80
60
40
20
0
Limpet
Seaw
eed
co
ve
r (%
)Both limpets and urchinsremoved
Only urchinsremoved
Only limpets removed
Control (both urchinsand limpets present)
August1982
August1983
February1983
February1984
Does feeding by sea urchins limit seaweed
distribution?
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Biotic Factors
• Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include:
– Interactions with other species
– Predation
– Competition
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Abiotic Factors
• Abiotic factors affecting distribution of
organisms include:
– Temperature
– Water
– Sunlight
– Wind
– Rocks and soil
• Most abiotic factors vary in space and time
Fig. 52-9
Fig. 52-10aLatitudinal Variation in Sunlight Intensity
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Sun directly overhead at equinoxes
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Atmosphere
90ºS (South Pole)60ºS
30ºS
23.5ºS (Tropic ofCapricorn)
0º (equator)
30ºN23.5ºN (Tropic ofCancer)
60ºN
90ºN (North Pole)
Seasonal Variation in Sunlight Intensity
60ºN
30ºN
30ºS
0º (equator)
March equinox
June solstice
Constant tiltof 23.5º
September equinox
December solstice
Fig. 52-10dGlobal Air Circulation and Precipitation Patterns
60ºN
30ºN
0º (equator)
30ºS
60ºS
Global Wind Patterns
Descendingdry airabsorbsmoisture
Ascendingmoist airreleasesmoisture
Descendingdry airabsorbsmoisture
Aridzone
Tropics Aridzone
0º
66.5ºN(Arctic Circle)
60ºN
30ºN
0º
(equator)
30ºS
60ºS66.5ºS(Antarctic Circle)
Westerlies
Northeast trades
Doldrums
Southeast trades
Westerlies
23.5º30º 23.5º 30º
Fig. 52-11
Labrador
current
Gulf
stream
Equator
Cold water
The great ocean conveyor belt
Fig. 52-12
Warm air
over land rises.1
23
4
Air cools at
high elevation.
Cool air over water
moves inland, replacingrising warm air over land.
Cooler
air sinksover water.
Moderating
effects of a large
body of water on
climate
Fig. 52-13
Winddirection
Mountainrange
Leeward sideof mountain
Ocean
How mountains affect rainfall
Currentrange
Predictedrange
Overlap
(a) 4.5ºC warming overnext century
(b) 6.5ºC warming overnext century
Current range and predicted range for the American beech
(Fagus grandifolia) under two scenarios of climate change
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Concept 52.3: Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth
• Biomes are the major ecological associations
that occupy broad geographic regions of land
or water
• Varying combinations of biotic and abiotic
factors determine the nature of biomes
Fig. 52-15
LakesCoral reefs
RiversOceanicpelagic andbenthic zones
Estuaries
Intertidal zones
Tropic ofCancer
Equator
Tropic ofCapricorn
30ºN
30ºS
The distribution of major aquatic biomes
Fig. 52-16
Littoralzone Limnetic
zone
Photiczone
PelagiczoneBenthic
zoneAphoticzone
(a) Zonation in a lake (b) Marine zonation
2,000–6,000 mAbyssal zone
Benthiczone
Aphoticzone
Pelagiczone
Continentalshelf
200 mPhotic zone
0
Oceanic zoneNeritic zone
Intertidal zone
Zonation in aquatic environments
Fig. 52-17-5
Winter
4º4º
4º
4ºC
4º4º
Spring Summer Autumn
Thermocline
4º4º
4º
4ºC
4º4º
4º4º
4º
4ºC
2º0º
4ºC5º6º
8º18º
20º22º
Seasonal turnover in lakes with winter ice cover
Fig. 52-18a
An oligotrophic lake in GrandTeton National Park, Wyoming
Fig. 52-18b
A eutrophic lake in theOkavango Delta, Botswana
Fig. 52-18c
Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia
Fig. 52-18d
A headwater stream in the GreatSmoky Mountains
Fig. 52-18e
The Mississippi River far fromits headwaters
Fig. 52-18f
An estuary in a low coastal plain of Georgia
Fig. 52-18g
Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coast
Fig. 52-18h
Open ocean off the island of Hawaii
Fig. 52-18i
A coral reef in the Red Sea
Fig. 52-18j
A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community
Fig. 52-19
Tropical forest
Savanna
Desert
Chaparral
Temperategrassland
Temperatebroadleaf forest
Northernconiferous forest
Tundra
High mountains
Polar ice
30ºN
Tropic ofCancer
Equator
Tropic ofCapricorn
30ºS
The distribution of major terrestrial biomes
Fig. 52-20
Tropical forestTemperate grasslandDesert
Temperatebroadleafforest
Northernconiferousforest
Arctic andalpinetundraA
nn
ua
l m
ean
te
mp
era
ture
(ºC
)
Annual mean precipitation (cm)
30
15
0
0
–15
100 200 300 400
Climograph
Fig. 52-21a
A tropical rain forest in Borneo
Fig. 52-21b
A desert in the southwesternUnited States
Fig. 52-21c
A savanna in Kenya
Fig. 52-21d
An area of chaparralin California
Fig. 52-21e
Sheyenne National Grasslandin North Dakota
Fig. 52-21f
Rocky Mountain National Parkin Colorado
northern coniferous forest
Fig. 52-21g
Great Smoky MountainsNational Park in North Carolinatemperate broadleaf forest
Fig. 52-21h
Denali National Park, Alaska,in autumntundra
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You should now be able to:
1. Distinguish among the following types of
ecology: organismal, population, community,
ecosystem, and landscape
2. Explain how dispersal may contribute to a
species‟ distribution
3. Distinguish between the following pairs of
terms: potential and actual range, biotic and
abiotic factors, macroclimate and microclimate
patterns
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4. Explain how a body of water or mountain
range might affect regional climatic conditions
5. Define the following terms: photic zone,
aphotic zone, benthic zone, abyssal zone,
thermal stratification, thermocline, seasonal
turnover, climograph, disturbance
6. List and describe the characteristics of the
major aquatic biomes
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7. List and describe the characteristics of the
major terrestrial biomes
8. Compare the vertical layering of a forest and
grassland