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4/13/2015 1 Clinical Value and Cost Effectiveness of PreNatal Testing of Average Risk Patient Populations . Peter Benn, PhD, DSc Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences University of Connecticut Health Center Conflicts of interest: Consultant to Natera , Inc. Conventional Screening Approaches: maternal serum and ultrasound Approximately 70% women receive conventional screening 5% false positive rate ACOG Practice Bulletin #77, Screening for Fetal Chromosomal Abnormalities Therefore the majority of patients with a positive result are NOT affected (falsepositive) and undergo unwanted test with inherent risk for unnecessary miscarriage

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4/13/2015

1

Clinical Value and Cost Effectiveness of Pre‐Natal Testing of Average Risk Patient Populations 

.

Peter Benn, PhD, DSc

Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences

University of Connecticut Health Center

Conflicts of interest:  Consultant to Natera , Inc. 

Conventional  Screening Approaches: maternal serum and ultrasound

Approximately 70% women receive conventional screening

• 5% false positive rate

ACOG Practice Bulletin #77, Screening for Fetal Chromosomal Abnormalities 

Therefore the majority of patients with a positive result are NOT affected(false‐positive) and 

undergo unwanted test with inherent risk for 

unnecessary miscarriage

4/13/2015

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Non invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) for fetal aneuploidy using sequencing

• First testing in China, early 2011

• Introduced into US in October 2011

• Available in many countries, worldwide

• Now a US industry with a >$1b market value

• Estimated > 650,000 tests performed per year in the US for 4th

quarter 2014

• Aspects of the technology are proprietary; subject of patents

• “Disruptive innovation”: Radically transforming prenatal counseling, screening and diagnostic landscape 

Free “fetal” DNA in maternal plasma 

• First discovered by Dennis Lo et al (1997)

• Detectable at 7+ weeks gestational age

• Generally ~10‐12% of the cell‐free DNA present in a sample

• Amount approximately constant in the late first trimester through the second trimester

• Origin: placenta (trophoblasts)

• Small size: 99% is <313 bp length, average ~162 bp

• No carry‐over from one pregnancy to the next

4/13/2015

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Massively parallel genome-wide shotgun sequencing

Chiu R. W. K. et.al. PNAS 2008;105:20458-20463

10million 25bp sequence tags

Father FatherMother Mother

Counting method identifies the relative excess of DNA  for the trisomic chromosome 

Fetus, disomy Fetus, trisomy

excess of trisomy chromosome fragments in the plasma

Trisomy in the mother versus fetus cannot be distinguished

reference casecase or normal chromosome

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SNP‐based Approach 

Father FatherMother Mother

SNP based method identifies trisomy, the parental origin and recombination 

Fetus, disomy Fetus, trisomy

extra copy in plasma

extra copy in plasma

Fetal chromosomes are not identical to parent chromosome due to recombination

SNPs provide a unique characterization (color) for each chromosome

4/13/2015

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Slide: Courtesy Natera, Inc (modified)

Maternal blood

Buffy coat = Maternal DNA

Plasma = Maternal + Fetal DNA

SNPSequencing

SNPSequencing

Maternal Genotype 

Maternal + Fetal Genotype

Fetal  Ploidy stateRisk score for each condition 

Concepts behind use of SNPs for non‐invasive prenatal testing

Multiple hypothesesfor each chromosomeHapMap 

crossover data

Bayesian analysis

Different Methods ‐ NIPT

Counting SNPs

Baby

Mom

Limited information; not able to distinguish 

babyor mom

4/13/2015

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Clinical trial DR and FPR for trisomies 21, 18, and 13 combined

Based on 11 reports for shotgun, 6 reports for targeted, 2 reports for SNP‐based NIPTBenn, P.  J. Clin. Med. 2014, 3(2), 537‐565

Detection rates, false‐positive rates, and expected PPVs for Down syndrome screening

TEST DR FPR  PPV High‐riskpopulation (1/100)

PPVLow‐riskpopulation(1/500)

Combined (NT, PAPPA,  hCG)

80% 3% 21% 5%

Quad (AFP, uE3, hCG, INH‐A)

60% 3% 17% 4%

Sequential(Combined & Quad)

93% 3% 24% 6%

NIPT (composite of all methods)

99.3% 0.1% 91% 67%

DR, FPR, for conventional screening: Benn et al. Prenat Diagn. 2013; 31:519‐22NIPT Based on meta‐analysis of 19 validation studies (all methods)

Positive predictive value= True positives / (True + False positives)

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Some expected reasons for discordancy between IPT and NIPT and the method of testing

Cause Genome wide seq Targeted seq SNP‐based

True fetal mosaicism + + +

Confined placental mosaicism + + +

Aneuploid dizygotic twin demise (vanishing twin)

+ + ‐

Non‐mosaic maternal aneuploidy + + ‐

Maternal somatic cell mosaicism + + ‐

Non‐mosaic maternal CNV + + ? ‐

Maternal malignancy  + + ‐

Laboratory error + + ? + ?

Low fetal fraction/low counts + + + ?

SNP‐based method distinguishes between fetal maternal imbalances, more than one fetus  

Positive predictive values based on clinical practice,confirmed cases, SNP‐based NIPT

14

Combined(4 aneuploidies) T21 T18 T13 45X

Aneuploid calls with confirmatory studies

222   154 29 21 18

True positives 184  140 27 8 9

False Positives 38 14 2a 13b 9

Positive Predictive Values (PPV) 83% 91% 93% 38% 50%

Based on a clinical follow-up cohort (n=17,885), mean maternal age 33.3 years and GA 14 weeksa Includes one confined placental mosaic (CPM) case. b Includes two CPM cases.

Dar et al. AJOG 2014; 527.e1-527.e17

Positive predictive value= True positives /(True + False positives)

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Dar ‐ AJOG

Avg Risk Studies

15

BCBS Tech Assessment –T21

2012 2013 2014 2015

Norton ‐ NEJMZhang ‐ UOG

Nicolaides ‐AJOG

Song – Pre Diag

Gil ‐ UOGBianchi ‐NEJM

Pergament –Ob Gy

BCBS Tech Assessment – T18, T13

92,117 Average Risk patients have been evaluated in 8 studies since 2012

Low Risk<35 yo

Low Risk, screening

All women

Total Women 11,994 14,957 15,841

Prevalence of T21

19/11,994(0.16%)

8/14,957(0.05%)

38/15,841 (0.24%)

Detection Rate19/19(100%)

8/8(100%)

38/38 (100%)

False Positive Rate

6/11,975(0.05%)

8/14,949(0.05%)

9/15,803(0.06%)

PPV 76.0% 50.0% 80.9%

NEXT study, trisomy 21 in an all risk population

Lower PPV in the low risk group is consistent with the lower prevalence, testing is still highly effectivePPV for conventional screening 3.4% 

Norton et al 2015. NEJM Eprint.

4/13/2015

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Guidance for offering NIPT

Organization Policy  Reference

ACMG All risk (indications unspecified) Gregg et al Genet Med; 2013;15:345‐8

ACOG High risk (AMA, conventional screen positive, etc.)Likely to be revised soon

ACOG Committee on Genetics Opinion. Obstet Gynecol. 2012;120:1532‐4.

ISPD All risk (most effective) Benn et al. Prenat Diagn. 2015. In Press

ESHG/ASHG Different scenarios are possible, including NIPT as an alternative first tier option

Dondorp et al. Europ J Hum Genet. 2015. Eprint.

Blue Cross Blue ShieldAssociation Tec assessment

…in either high‐risk or average‐risk pregnant women...meets the Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association Technology Evaluation Center (TEC) criteria.”

2013, 2014

A barrier to greater utilization is a perceived increase in overall costs 

• Evaluated NIPT only for T21

• Mostly  based on a comparison of NIPT vs the first trimester Combined test (NT plus serum markers)

• Justified use of NIPT for high risk groups (Contingent screening)

• Based on a “European” public healthcare perspective– US healthcare system is based on ad hoc additional procedures (ultrasound, serum tests, counseling, office visits) which add substantial additional expenditures in prenatal screening

Past Economic Studies

4/13/2015

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• Primary goal: Establish the per‐case cost of NIPT that would be cost neutral to the US healthcare system

• Decision analysis model• Based on the US pregnancy population for 2012• Takes into consideration maternal ages• T21, T18, T13, & Monosomy X• Primary model considers patients entering screening in the 

first trimester (Combined test plus…)• Includes costs of screening, all related follow‐up testing, 

care for an affected child• Use published rates for decisions related to testing• Does not include non‐medical costs such as loss of earnings

New Economic Paper

Benn et al, submitted manuscript, 2015

Total Population

No Screening

Counseling Combined Test

Sonogram

TN, Live birth

FP, Live birth

Quad Test

Counseling ±sonogram amnio

TP, TOP

TP, Live Birth

FP, Live Birth

Sonogram No Action

Counseling CVS

TP, TOP

TP, Live Birth

FP, Live Birth

First Trimester

Second Trimester

Decision tree for Conventional screening

‐+ or ‐

+

+

+

4/13/2015

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Total Population

No Screening

± Counseling NIPT

TN, Live birth

FP, Live birth

Counseling CVS or Amnio

TP, TOP

TP, Live Birth

FP, Live BirthNo Action

First or Second Trimester

Decision tree for NIPT

+

+

Model structure: conventional screening rates

• Performance based on modeling using established parameters (SURUSS, etc.) 

• 1:270 cut‐off for DS and 1:100 for t18• MX first trimester DR 75% (Spencer et al 2000); DR 54% second 

trimester (Benn & Ying 2004)• 53% of first trimester also receive second trimester tests (CAP, 

Palomaki et al., 2013) • Invasive testing: 73% DS true positive (Benn et al 2005);  90% T18, 

t13, MX true positive, 43.1% false positives (Shah et al 2014)• Separate office visits for NT (73%) (Ad. Board Survey)• Genetic sonogram (43%) for second trimester AMA and high risk 

(Shamshirsaz et al. 2013)• For first trimester positives with no other screening  CVS: Amnio

24%:76% (Blumenfeld et al 2005)

Benn et al, submitted manuscript, 2015

4/13/2015

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Model structure: NIPT screening rates

• NIPT performance based on meta‐analysis of all methods (19 validation studies)

• T21 (DR=99.3% FPR=0.1%)

• T18 (DR= 96.8% FPR=0.1%)

• T13 (DR=87.2% FPR=0.2%) 

• MX (89.5%; 0.2%)

• 65% of tests in the first trimester (Dar et al 2014)

• 90% invasive testing for NIPT positive

Benn et al, submitted manuscript, 2015

Not included

• Conditions other than aneuploidy detected through NT• Conditions other than aneuploidy detected through biochemical tests, notably MS‐AFP

• Other cytogenetic abnormalities identified by NIPT (e.g. triploidy, other SCA), serum screening or invasive testing

• Test failures• By‐passing components of screening• Microdeletion/microduplications• Differences between the various NIPT laboratories• Value of early reassurance for unaffected pregnancies

Benn et al, submitted manuscript, 2015

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Model structure : costs

• Medicaid & Medicare (CMS) fee schedule

• Adjusted for inflation to 2014

• +20% for private and carrier payers

• Lifetime costs associated with DS (Walzman et al., 1994) adjusted for inflation

• Hospital cost associated with t18, t13 (Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project)

• Medical costs for MX including human growth hormone, cardiac defects

Benn et al, submitted manuscript, 2015

Model Component Cost (2014 USD)

Clinical Test/Clinical CareAmniocentesis $835Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) $892Second trimester screening $136Sequential screening $136Genetic Counseling $56Prenatal care $6,552Ultrasound $168Office Visit $96NT Charge $147Papp A $25HCG $25Genetic sonogram $223HCG $25AFP $27Unconjugated estriol (uE3) $40Inhibin A $26

Cost of elective terminationEarly, following CVS $562Late, following amniocentesis $2,997

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Lifetime costs of an affected child Cost (2014 USD)

Trisomy 21 (a) $677,000

Trisomy 18 (b) $29,307Trisomy 13 (b) $33,577Monosomy X (c) $271,010

(a) Based on Waitzman et al. 1994, adjusted for medical inflation.  A recent study used $1,497,000 (12% medical, 16.4%  educational,  71.6%  indirect) based on the data form Waitzman adjusted for survival and inflation  (Walker et al., 2015).

(b) Based on hospital costs only (Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project ‐Kids’ Inpatient Database (HCUP‐KID)

(c) The cost of HGH therapy $12,000 per year for 12 years ($144,000). Additionally, cost for 30% of patients with congenital heart defects. 

Benn et al, submitted manuscript, 2015

Price point NIPT is cost neutral 

General Population High Risk

Increase in affected pregnancies prenatally detected

1,403/11,314 (12.4%)

364/6,149 (5.9%)

Reduction in affected births1,213/3,629(33.4%)

604/2,017 (29.9%)

Reduction in invasive tests36,834/61,430 

(60%)19,037/26,355 

(71.7%)

Reduction in procedure related losses194/264 (73.5%)

100/110 (90.9%)

Cost offset for NIPT <= $744 <= $1,474

Healthcare benefits of NIPT are not confined to high‐risk women and many providers feel they are obligated to offer NIPT to all women 

Benn et al, submitted manuscript, 2015

4/13/2015

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Cost offset analysis for conventional screening and NIPT for the general pregnancy population; average per/case costs for women 

entering testing in the first trimester

Component USD

Cost  of conventional screening* 369

Cost of follow‐up diagnostic testing 86

Post test genetic counseling 3

Lifetime costs of affected births 286

TOTAL $744

If NIPT can be provided for <$744 for a total US pregnancy population, there is no net increase in healthcare costs

*Includes $70 for separate office visit for NT; $10 for genetic counseling; $76 for ultrasound; $17 second trimester genetic sonogram; $147 NT measurement; $49 serum analytes

Benn et al, submitted manuscript, 2015

Sensitivity analysis of the cost offset

Baseline Model Range

Model Input Variable VariableNIPTValue

VariablesNIPTValue

Practice Patterns% entering first trimester for conventional screening

100% 0%-100% $486-744

% entering first trimester for NIPT 66% 0%-100% $743-745

Invasive testing uptake for conventional screen FPs

45% 25%-100% $738-747

Termination Rates 65-90% 0%-100% $459-788

Key Cost Variables

Cost of first trimester screening $369 $222-443 $597-818

Cost of sequential screening $136 $744 $82-164 $714-759

Cost of invasive testing (amnio/CVS) $835 / $892 $501-1,070 $740-747

Lifetime costs of an affected child

Trisomy 21 $677,000 $541,600-812,400

$687-802Trisomy 18 $29,307 $23,446-35,168

Trisomy 13 $33,577 $26,862-40,292

Monosomy X $271,010 $216,808-325,212

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• NIPT is a substantially better approach to prenatal screening and is likely to become the first tier test for all women, regardless of their prior risk

• Model predicts NIPT is associated with large reductions in affected births, invasive tests and procedure related losses

• Benefits are not limited to advanced maternal age women • NIPT can be cost neutral if the cost is ≤ $744 for the general 

pregnancy population• Key variables are cost of conventional screening, lifetime 

costs of DS, and pregnancy termination rates• Analysis does not include the intangible value of early 

diagnosis or reassurance

Summary