[book sample] the chinese as seen by the western illustrators in the 19th...

世界華人與華人世界

十

九

世

紀

西

洋

畫

刊

圖

文

精

選

徐宗懋圖文館編

李佳達

撰文

世界華人與華人世界十九世紀西洋畫刊圖文精選 THE CHINESE AS SEEN BY THE WESTERN ILLUSTRATORS IN THE 19TH CENTURY

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THE CHINESE AS SEEN BY THE WESTERN

ILLUSTRATORS IN THE 19TH CENTURY3

主編：徐宗懋圖文館

撰文：李佳達

英譯：何邦婕

設計：周慶輝、黃寶琴

出版者：新世語文化有限公司

地址：台北市大安區羅斯福路三段 125號 5樓之 2

電話：(02)2368-4364

傳真：(02)2368-4207

電子信箱：[email protected]

郵政劃撥帳號：50231453／新世語文化有限公司

印製：優秀藝印

初版一刷：2012年 7月

ISBN 978-986-88520-0-6

定價：(精裝 )新台幣 4,800元

PUBLISHER : NUEVA VISION CO. LTD

ADDRESS : 5F-2, NO.125, Sec 3, Roosevelt Rd,

Da-an District, Taipei City 106, Taiwan

TEL : (02)2368-4364

FAX : (02)2368-4207

EMAIL : [email protected]

PRINTER : USHOW E-INK Media Information Co., Ltd.

FIRST PRINT : JULY, 2012

ISBN 978-986-88520-0-6

PRICE : NTD.4,800

世界華人與華人世界十九世紀西洋畫刊圖文精選


ILLUSTRATORS IN THE 19TH CENTURY

本書工作團隊

徐宗懋，收藏家和編者，台灣《中國時報》20年新聞工作經歷，

主要採訪國際和大陸新聞。2000年成立台灣文史工作室，專門

收藏和編輯中國歷史圖片，出版歷史影像書籍，以及舉辦相關

展覽，致力於中華歷史文化傳播教育工作。

李佳達，撰稿人，法律專業背景，曾擔任美國《哈佛大學》訪

問學人，並因致力於公共服務獲頒台灣青年最高榮譽《青舵

獎》，從事文史研究及寫作多年，作品曾獲得《台北文學獎》、

《法律文學獎》首獎肯定。

何邦婕，英文譯者，國立台灣大學外國語文系畢業，大學時期

除了一般課程外，同時專注探討亞裔北美文學和後殖民之課

題，並撰寫相關論文，同時以從事外國文學研究和中英文翻譯

工作，為畢生志業。

周慶輝、黃寶琴，美術設計。周慶輝，國際級攝影師，曾於臺

北市立美術館、義大利佛羅倫斯育嬰堂、東京都寫真美術館等

舉辦個展及聯展，並多次受邀參加重要攝影雙年展，作品廣受

國際肯定。黃寶琴，知名美術設計家，作品曾獲頒德國 IF及紅

點設計等大獎。兩人的合作融合了攝影、設計、出版、策展等

各種特長，致力於創造更多元的視覺藝術呈現方式。

OUR WORK TEAM

HSU CHUNG-MAO, as the collector and editor, has worked as a journalist

for China Times for twenty years, his ¿eld focusing on international affairs

and the news events in Mainland China. In 2000, he founded a working studio

that commits itself to preserving and promoting Chinese cultural history by

publishing historical illustrations.

LEE CHIA-TA, as the writer, possesses a professional background in law and

once served as Visiting Scholar in Harvard University. He has been honored

with the National Youth Contribution Award for his devotion to public service

and has dedicated himself to modern Chinese history research for years. His

works have won awards in the Taipei Literature Festival and the ¿rst prize in

the Law and Literature Award sponsored by the Taipei Bar Association.

HO PANG-CHIEH, as the English translator, graduated from the Department

of Foreign Languages and Literature of National Taiwan University in 2012.

During her undergraduate years, she came into contact with Asian-American

literature and post-colonial studies and has since then steadily developed her

interest in this ¿eld. She aspires to become both a scholar of English literature

and a translator as her future career.

CHOU CHING-HUI and HUANG PAO-CHIN are the art designers.

CHOU, an international photographer whose works have been shown in

the Taipei Fine Arts Museum, the Institute of Innocenti of Florence, the

Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography and also many international

Photography Biennial Exhibitions. HUANG, has garnered prizes from the

IF Award and the Red Dot Design Award. Together, the two of them have

collaborated in photography, design, publishing and gallery management, and

they hope that through their creations, more ways of artistic expression can be

sought and developed.

國家圖書館出版品預行編目 (CIP)資料

世界華人與華人世界 : 十九世紀西洋畫刊圖文精選

/ 李佳達撰文 ; 何邦婕英譯 . -- 初版 . -- 臺北市 :

新世語文化 , 2012.07

　面 ; 　公分

ISBN 978-986-88520-0-6(精裝 )

1.華僑史 2.新聞報導 3.西洋畫

577.2 101012960



世界華人與華人世界十九世紀西洋畫刊圖文精選 THE CHINESE AS SEEN BY THE WESTERN


本書簡介

十九世紀的世界對於所有人來說，正好處於一種最充滿想像力

的距離，國際間的事件不斷發生，人們卻只能道聽塗說，這

種認識世界的渴望導致了西洋畫刊的興起，在資訊不流通的年

代，這些精緻的新聞版畫，就是唯一被描述的真實，左右了一

般人民看事情的角度和立場，從而發揮重大的政治影響力。

徐宗懋圖文館認識到西洋畫刊的重要性，並倡議新的歷史影像

製作的革命，堅持透過歷史原件的蒐集，呈現讀者最高畫質的

視覺知識饗宴。2012年是美國通過排華法案的 130週年，這個

法案同時象徵著華人在世界的興起又如何被世界排斥，是海外

華人歷史中最重要的分水嶺。本書紀錄了超過三十種的歐美畫

刊媒體，再現十九世紀時主流西方社會對華人的認識與歧視。

由李佳達先生撰文、何邦婕小姐翻譯，以及周慶輝先生和黃寶

琴小姐設計，同時以精緻的印刷技術，讓讀者可以從每一道精

工的版畫刻痕中，感受百餘年來世界華人經歷的美麗與哀愁。

Book Description

The 19th century was an era when the distance between nations and people

were closing. Awareness of a globalized world was rising, but there still

existed a sense of distance between the readers of newspapers and the farway

events that were accounted in such newspapers. At a time like this, the lush

illustrations and the articles in the newspapers were the dominant reality that

was represented to the readers. The mass media held great political sway

and they influenced the viewpoints and stances of the general public upon

controversial matters.

Hsu Chung-Mao Studio acknowledges the historical significance of these

illustrations and hopes to provide the reader with a quality reading experience

using authentic manuscripts. To us, 2012 is a year of importance for it marks

the 130th year anniversary of the passing of the Chinese Exclusion Act.

The Chinese Exclusion Act was a great historical juncture for the Chinese

expatriates around the world and in the year 2012, we look back at that

time through the eyes of the news media in late 19th century. This book

encompasses over thirty source materials from magazines and newspapers

and strives to reÀect the dominant values of anti-Chinese sentiment in society

at that time. It is written by Lee Chia-Ta, translated by Ho Pang-Chieh, and

designed by Chou Ching-Hui and Huang Pao-Chin, and the lithographs,

exquisitely made and collected in the book, speak to us of the sorrows and

hopes of the Chinese around the world in the 19th century.



目次

總言 :中國歷史圖像的出版使命 -徐宗懋

PREFACE: THE MISSION OF RE-PIECING THE PICTORIAL

HISTORY OF CHINA

HSU CHUNG-MAO

序言 :中國人走向世界的悲喜劇 -李佳達

INTRODUCTION: THE DRAMA OF THE CHINESE WALKING

ONTO THE WORLD STAGE

LEE CHIA-TA

海外華人大事紀

CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS OF THE OVERSEAS CHINESE

美國華人與排華法案相關報導

CHINESE IN AMERICA AND THE CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT

兩大洋來的害蟲 Pestilence Flanking from Both Sides

一視同仁的要求 High Hopes for Equality

無所不能的華工 “Omnipotent” Chinaman

中美外交牌局 Square deal

三個大麻煩 Trio of Trouble

她該如何是好 ? What to Do?

失意的三重唱 A Dejected Trio

非請勿入 Unwelcomed Guests

三藩市的街景 Streets of San Francisco City

三藩市的中國城 Chinatown in San Francisco

與事實相反的外交圖 Contrary to Reality

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060

062

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066

068

070



ILLUSTRATORS IN THE 19TH CENTURY8 9

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獅子大開口的英國人 !e Lion’s Share

罪惡磁鐵 Magnet of Sin

解放枷鎖 Cutting Loose the Chains

冷戰時期的三藩市中國城 San Francisco’s Chinatown

新彗星奇觀 Ambiguous Comet

白人資本家利用華工對抗白人勞工 Using Workers against Each Other

種族主義的暴力和法律 Violence of Law

華人新年習俗的文化衝突 Cultural Clashes in Chinese New Year

華人的祭拜儀式 Chinese Prayers

貿易銀元與紙幣 Trade Dollars

中國新年 Chinese New Year

民族的大熔爐的理想與現實 “A Melting Pot,” Myth and Reality

船艙裡的渡海者 Seafarers

三藩市海關的嚴格檢查 Customs at San Francisco

三藩市的中式宴席 Chinese Banquet at San Francisco City

郵輪上的宣教活動 Promulgation of Christianity at Sea

華人的算命攤位 Fortune Telling

傳統的戲劇與葬禮 Traditional Drama Performances and Funerals

印地安人對華人 :遲早輪到你 ! It’ll Be You Someday!

餓肚子的中國人 Famished Chinese

布萊恩議員的激進言論 In"ammatory Words

白人勞工向議員陳情 Petition

華人和黑人各奔東西 Going Separate Ways

沒空陪你聊 ! No Time to Talkee

教堂充當華人的英語學校 Church, English School for the Chinese

請求美國收留的華人 Seeking Protection

西雅圖的排華暴動 Outbreaks in Seattle

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三藩市唐人街歡度中國新年 Chinese New Year at San Francisco City

美國修改蒲安臣條約 Revision of the Burlingame Treaty

華人在海關被徹底搜身 Body Search at Customs

隆重的華人葬禮 Solemn Funeral Rituals

英國不樂見中國之圖強 Worries over China’s Growing Strength

華工也打棒球嗎 ? Planning to Invade Baseball Too?

華人努力融入美國社會 Desperate Attempt at Integration

唐人街的照相業務 Portraits Taken in China Street

紐約華埠歡度中秋 Chinese Moon Festival at New York City

遇害華人無處申冤 No Justice for the Chinese Immigrants

主持正義的白人遇害 As the Righteous are Killed

華人慘案賠款問題 Matters of Reparation

紐約華埠寫真 Sketches in the Chinese Quarter in New York City

黑旗軍首領長眠紐約 Black-Flag Chieftain Forever Settled in New York Soil

紐約的華人墓地 Chinese Cemetery in New York City

星條旗上的歷史污點 Stain on the Star-Spangled Banner

經典種族歧視連環畫 A Comic Strip of Racial Bigotry

嘲弄中國人辮子的明信片 Mockery of the Queue

取笑華人的樂曲 A Tune to Make Fun of the Chinese

那個姓張的來自香港 Mr. Chong from Hong Kong

海外其他地區的華人

CHINESE LIVING IN OTHER AREAS OF THE WORLD

東南亞的華人群像 Images of Southeast Asians

巴黎世博會中國館 Chinese Section in Paris World Exposition

俄國華埠的中式街道 China Street in Russia




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慈禧太后 Empress Dowager Cixi

庚子之亂後議和的李鴻章 Li Hongzhang Seeking Peace

中國民族主義宣傳畫之一 Anti-Western Propaganda (I)

中國民族主義宣傳畫之二 Anti-Western Propaganda (II)

列強共同綁住中國 A Stronghold upon China

列強瓜分中國的野心 All Hungry for Pie

英軍侵略西藏 British Invasion of Tibet

上海鴉片館的逮捕行動 Raid of Shanghai Opium House

早期西方人對李鴻章的尊敬 Respect for Lee Hongzhang

大清賢臣許景澄 A Portrait of Shu King-Chen

「正義」的法國對抗「邪惡」的中國 “Righteous” France against the “Evil” China

光緒皇帝禁絕鴉片 Banning Opium

華洋雜處的上海榮景 Shanghai, Glorious and Bustling

人命如蟻的中國飢荒 Famine and Death

中國人與法國人衝突加劇 Intensifying Con"ict between the French and the Chinese

法軍登陸台北淡水的想像圖 Imaginary Map of Danshui

台灣常民剪影 Sketches of the Taiwanese Local Life

中國文人的房間 Room of Chinese Literatus

中國人的生活之一 Slices of Life as a Chinese (I)

中國人的生活之二 Slices of Life as a Chinese (II)

中國人的生活之三 Slices of Life as a Chinese (III)

中國人的生活之四 Slices of Life as a Chinese (IV)

中國人的生活之五 Slices of Life as a Chinese (V)

圖錄 PICTURE INDEX

印尼的華人慶典 Chinese Celebration in Indonesia

中國孤兒在法國教堂受洗 Baptism of Chinese Orphan at French Church

法國對華人的諷刺畫 Sardonic Portrayal of the Chinese

越南的華人賭場 Chinese Casino in Vietnam

越南北部的中法情報戰 Intelligence War between the Chinese and the French

歐洲人對中國瓷器的偏好 An Expensive Indulgence

英國輿論支持美國的歧視政策 Standing on the Side of the Americans

英國茶公司的廣告 Commercial of English Tea Company

俄國海參崴的鴉片館 Opium House in Vladivostok

非洲的華人幫傭 Asian House Servants in Africa

南非的華人礦工 Chinese Miners in South Africa

南非華工上岸後拍攝檔案照 File Pictures of the Chinese Miners in South Africa

南非華工金礦開採實景 Mining Scenarios

中國海盜打劫法國船 Chinese Pirates Pillaging French Ships

荷蘭街頭賣花生的華人 Peanut Vendors on the Streets of the Netherlands

荷蘭小說 :我的好友花生仔 A Holland Novel: My Good Friend, the Pindaman

大清皇室與臣民

THE QING DYNASTY, THE ROYAL FAMILIES AND THE SUBJECTS

道光皇帝的肖像 Portrait of Daoguang Emperor

咸豐皇帝及皇后鈕祜祿氏 Xianfeng Emperor with His Empress

咸豐皇帝與兩京景緻 Xianfeng Emperor and the Two Cities

同治皇帝的肖像 Portrait of Tongzhi Emperor

洪秀全自稱上帝的二兒子 God’s Second Son ?

洪秀全與隨從巡視天京 Inspection of the Heavenly Capital

慈禧太后與洋人相互仇視 Cixi and the Foreign Nations

208

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美國華人與排華法案

CHINESE IN AMERICA AND THE CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT




Political cartoons and illustrations intended for realistic

documentation were both an important part of early news

coverage. Not only did they help represent events in a visually

compelling manner, they also informed the readers of the political

stances behind such visual representation. In an era where the

diffusion of information was less developed as nowadays, media

such as these news illustrations held great influence upon its

readership.

The material of this chapter can roughly be divided into

five main sources: Wasp Magazine, Frank Leslie’s Illustrated

Newspaper, Harper’s Weekly, Puck Magazine and Judge Magazine,

all publications of different styles and political viewpoints. The

FRPELQDWLRQ�RI�WKHVH�¿YH�GLIIHUHQW�VRXUFHV�KHOSV�SURYLGH�WKH�UHDGHU�with a more holistic understanding of the passing of the Chinese

Exclusion Act in 1882.

The word “wasp” in Wasp Magazine is actually an acronym,

originating from the word “White Anglo-Saxon Protestant,” and

which is generally used to include people of western Europe

Germanic descent (such as the British descendants of the U.S.,

Canada, and Australia) and which also includes the Protestants

from France, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and northern

Europe. The magazine itself was founded in 1876 by the Korbel

brothers in San Francisco and its publication lasted until 1928.

The Korbel brothers were Czech immigrants and were originally

in the business of making cigar cases, a business which helped

them acquire the techniques of lithography. The magazine’s central

stance of white chauvinism is apparent in the choosing of the name

itself, a stance that was further consolidated by the fact that the

magazine’s headquarters was in California, the main battleground

where anti-Chinese sentiment was played out. Despite its evidently

discriminatory stance towards the Chinese immigrants, its quality

in lithographs was also the crème de la crème among all the

magazines.

Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper was founded in 1855 and

ceased publication in 1922. Its founder was British immigrant Frank

Leslie, who named the magazine after himself and who enjoyed a

colorful and eventful life. As a little boy, he was sent to London to

PDVWHU�WKH�VNLOOV�RI�FORWKLQJ�PDQXIDFWXUH��PRUH�VSHFL¿FDOO\�LQ�WKH�making of gloves and managing the business transactions. He also

worked part-time at the Illustrated London News, and it is there that

he acquired the techniques of sketching and wooden engraving.

After he immigrated to the U.S., he made good on his knowledge in

illustrations and founded the Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper,

a newspaper noted for its pioneering use of pictorial representations

in news coverage. While the newspaper enjoyed great fame during

its prime, it was eventually sold to Judge Magazine after business

started to decline.

Harper’s Weekly was founded in 1857 and closed down in

1916. Its founder Fletcher Harper sought to emulate the Illustrated

London News in its extensive usage of illustrations, an ingenious

investment that earned it its popularity. Harper’s Weekly was

considered the most authoritative news medium of the 19th century:

its opinion held great sway in five presidential elections and it

also boasted of a wide international readership, with its volume of

circulation nearing three hundred thousand at its peak.

Harper’s Weekly was also the starting point for many talented

editors and political cartoonists. Thomas Nast, who would later

be lauded as the father of political cartoons, started at Harper’s

Weekly; of all his created political icons, perhaps the most famous

is the donkey and the elephant, representative of the Democrat

Party and the Republican Party.

Puck Magazine started in 1876 and ceased publication in 1918.

Its founder was Austrian immigrant cartoonist Joseph Keppler and

the name of the magazine was inspired by a mischievous character

in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Following in the

same spirit as its namesake, the magazine was known for its wit

DQG�ZDV�DOVR�WKH�¿UVW�ZHHNO\�PDJD]LQH�WR�XVH�IXOO�FRORU�OLWKRJUDSKV��The content of the magazine mostly centered upon domestic affairs,

and at its prime, nine thousand copies would be sold in one week.

The magazine was sold in 1917 after sales started to fall and in

the following year it was forced to close down completely. Puck

0DJD]LQH�ZDV�SUR�'HPRFUDW�DQG�HYHQ�XVHG�LWV�LQÀXHQFH�WR�KHOS�WKH�

Democrat Party win the presidential election in 1884. To counter

LWV�LQÀXHQFH��WKH�5HSXEOLFDQ�3DUW\�VXSSRUWHG�WKH�-XGJH�0DJD]LQH�and pulled its weight the help the Judge Magazine become the most

popular political magazine.

Judge Magazine was founded in 1881 and closed down in 1939.

Based in New York, its founder, James A. Wales was once a cartoonist

of Puck Magazine. After clashing with his superior, Wales left and

founded his own magazine, Judge Magazine, which bore great

similarity to Puck Magazine in its content. In an attempt to weaken

3XFN�0DJD]LQH¶V�LQÀXHQFH��LW�ZDV�UXPRUHG�WKDW�WKH�5HSXEOLFDQ�3DUW\�helped fund the Judge Magazine in recruiting its competitor’s talents.

The Judge Magazine sold for nearly eighty thousand copies in the

1880s, slightly behind Puck Magazine, and it was only after Puck

Magazine had reached its decline in the 1920s that the sales of Judge

0DJD]LQH�URFNHWHG�WR�WZR�KXQGUHG�¿IW\�WKRXVDQG�The competition between “the judge and the puck” also served

as a historical context that gave birth to the existence of humorous

political news commentary. Famous magazines such as The New

Yorker also came into existence at that time – its founder was also

once an editor of Judge Magazine. The popularity of the humorous

political commentary has sustained to this day, an indication of the

LQÀXHQFH�WKH�PHGLD�KDV�XSRQ�SROLWLFV�DQG�WKH�SXEOLF�LQ�JHQHUDO�With its founder being of Austrian descent and because its

initial readership was mostly Germanic, the political stance of Puck

Magazine was friendlier to the German immigrants and less amiable

towards Irish and Chinese immigrants. Its competition, Judge

Magazine, was by contrast more sympathetic towards the Chinese

EHFDXVH�RI�LWV�DI¿OLDWLRQV�ZLWK�WKH�5HSXEOLFDQ�3DUW\��+RZHYHU��LQ�terms of depth and width of the news coverage, Harper’s Weekly

was the most authoritative among all the news media. The editors

of Harper’s Weekly were deeply interested in the matters of the

Chinese immigrants: they would send correspondents to cover a

more in-depth report of the ways of living of the Chinese, and they

often published editorials that spoke in favor of the underprivileged

&KLQHVH�SHRSOH��1DVW��RQH�RI�WKH�PRVW�LQÀXHQWLDO�FDUWRRQLVWV�RI�WKH�

QHZVSDSHU��RQFH�SXEOLVKHG�RYHU�¿IW\�LOOXVWUDWLRQV�WKDW�GHSLFWHG�WKH�sufferings and discrimination the Chinese had to endure in their

lives abroad.

*HQHUDOO\�VSHDNLQJ��DOO�¿YH�VRXUFHV�SURYLGH�¿UVW�KDQG�PDWHULDO�on the circumstances and outlooks of the Chinese Americans in

the 19th century. Looking back at these illustrations from a more

modern perspective, the reader can see that even though there

were people who spoke on behalf of the Chinese immigrants,

most of the images and documentations that regarded the Chinese

were negative stereotypes of opium addicts and coolies. These

illustrations were crucial in fostering a long-term misunderstanding

of the Chinese population and which would later become inductive

to the passing of discriminatory laws against the immigrants.

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兩大洋來的害蟲（見 46頁）

1892年 12月 17日，《法官雜誌》圖文報導。彩色石印畫一幅。標題：咱們

大西洋和太平洋彼岸來的害蟲。圖說：山姆大叔：放心，你們倆都會被美國

拒之於門外，不會有差別待遇。圖中象徵美國的山姆大叔，叉起雙手厭惡地

看著兩旁的外籍移民，在他的眼中，外來移民就是貧窮、暴力和傳染病的罪

魁禍首。左方來自太平洋的華人帶來削價競爭以及罪惡的鴉片。右方來自大

西洋的歐洲移民更帶來了可怕的疾病和象徵政治動亂的社會主義及無政府主

義，兩個人都該儘快被趕出美國。最右方忽隱乍現的死神陰影是當時最可怕

的傳染病霍亂，大多數的美國民眾都把霍亂的流行歸因於歐洲移民身上，而

要求政府採取強烈的手段。紐約市政府就曾以防止霍亂為由，將來自東歐的

猶太移民強制隔離在船上，任其自生自滅，最後在船艙的密閉空間和極差的

衛生條件下，船上的人開始交叉感染，最後集體病死。

Pestilence Flanking from Both Sides (See P.46)

Color lithograph from Judge Magazine, December 17th, 1892. Title: The pests of our

Pacific and Atlantic coasts. In the picture, Uncle Sam declares “There shall be no

discrimination. I will shut you both out.” Uncle Sam glares disdainfully at the two

immigrants that have come from the Pacific and the Atlantic coasts. To most of the

Americans then, immigrants were the origins and perpetuators of poverty, violence and

disease. The Chinaman on the left of the picture brings forward the threats of opium and

cheap working wages, while the European immigrant on the right carries with him diseases

and the even more contagious spreading of socialist and anarchist thought. The shadow of

death looming in the far right is meant to represent cholera, one of the most notoriously

infectious diseases at that time and whose transmission was blamed upon the European

immigrants. Governments were pressured to take up extreme measures of prevention: the

New York City government once quarantined immigrants from Eastern Europe on their

boats for fear of transmission. Forced to stay on the ship, which provided only closed

spaces and poor hygiene situations, every member of the ship eventually died after they’ve

all contracted the disease.

一視同仁的要求（見 50頁）

1893年，《法官雜誌》圖文報導。彩色石印畫一幅。標題：連對華人都要一

視同仁。圖說：法官對哥倫比亞小姐說：你不該收了這個華人小孩卻又把他

踢出去，不過你未來倒是可以不要再接受他的兄弟。美國從排華法案通過後，

對華人的態度就急轉直下，圖中象徵美國的女子哥倫比亞正準備把華人小孩

趕出學校，圖左方其他少數族裔如黑人、印地安人等則拍手叫好，排華最嚴

重的愛爾蘭人更在旁邊推波助瀾，舉起要政客趕走華人的牌子，充分顯示出

華人在當時政治上的弱勢。為了能夠得到白人的認同，他們會幫小孩取類似

白人的名字，熱心參與教會活動和各種捐獻，消除異教徒的形象，並且努力

切斷任何跟黑人的關係。有一位在地方上很有勢力的白人曾說過：「許多華

人朋友來找我，他們早先在南北戰爭公債上捐了很多錢，希望他們的小孩可

以進入白人的公立學校，我和他們說，你們雖然已經不和黑人來往，但還不

夠好。你們還應該把你們的店舖整理乾淨，並且讓你們小孩穿戴整齊，然後

我們再看著辦吧！」

High Hopes for Equality (See P.50)

Color lithograph from Judge Magazine, 1893. Title: Be Just Even to John Chinamen.

(JUDGE to Miss Columbia - "You allowed that boy to come into your school, it

ZRXOG�EH�LQKXPDQ�WR�WKURZ�KLP�RXW�QRZ��LW�ZLOO�EH�VXI¿FLHQW�LQ�WKH�IXWXUH�WR�NHHS�

his brothers out!") $QWL�&KLQHVH�VHQWLPHQW�ZDV�IXUWKHU�LQÀDPHG�DIWHU�WKH�SDVVLQJ�RI�WKH�

Chinese Exclusion Act. In the picture, Miss Columbia is expelling the Chinese immigrant

from school while other racial minorities, the African-Americans, the Native-Americans,

and the Irish immigrants cheer on. Placed at a severe political disadvantage, the Chinese

were desperate to seek any means of validation: they gave their children Anglo-Saxon

names, they participated avidly in church to remedy their images as heathens, and they

avoided any connection with the African Americans. Their efforts however were often

in vain and they were still told that they had to straighten their appearances, both in their

wearing and the storefronts they owned, before they could wish for approval.

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A 03

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無所不能的華工（見 52頁）

1885年至 1890年間，《法官雜誌》圖文報導。彩色石印畫一幅。圖說：即

將發生的詛咒。本幅組圖生動地描繪出美國人害怕華人搶走一切的心理。若

從左下角的圖開始，順時鐘方向閱讀，著深藍色唐裝和西式圓帽的華人拿起

球棒毆打白人，被打的白人被掐住領口，眼神慌亂且重心不穩，象徵著華人

已扭轉了社會情勢，即將成為美國的主導者。接著華人以便宜的人力和技術

接下了水管工、油漆工、擦窗工、育嬰看護、裁縫洗衣等各種工作，被搶走

工作的美國人，不論黑白、男女都只能在旁邊乾瞪眼。最後，圖正中荷包滿

滿的華人，以暴發戶的姿態，打上紅色領結，穿起名牌西裝，翹起二郎腿，

再點燃一根昂貴的雪茄，放鬆地躺臥在擁有絲絨座椅的豪華馬車上。對於當

時一般美國白人來說，光是想像華人成為美國上流社會的一員，就讓他們很

不舒服。

“Omnipotent” Chinaman (See P.52)

Color lithograph from Judge Magazine between 1885 and 1890. Title: The coming

curse. The drawing is illustrative of the fear the Americans harbored towards the Chinese

immigrants, fearful that they would still everything away from them. Starting from the

picture on the lower left corner, the picture shows a Chinese man, dressed in a blue Tang

suit and a Westernized bowler hat, clobbering an American with a bat. The Chinese man

has the American by the collar and has now become the power-holder of the society.

Studying the pictures from a clockwise order, we can see the Chinese stealing jobs from the

Americans because of their cheap labor: the Chinese have usurped all trades, ranging from

plumbing to child care. The ultimate nightmare is consummated in the picture of a Chinese

lounging in an expensive carriage, wearing a designer suit and enjoying a cigar with all the

embellishments of an upstart. It was the fear of all Americans back then that the Chinese

immigrants would someday join in the ranks of upper society.

中美外交牌局（見 56頁）

1904年，《法官雜誌》圖文報導。彩色石印畫一幅。標題：公正的新牌。圖說：

羅斯福總統：別這樣，兩位，該是時候把舊牌丟了，試試這些公平的新牌吧！

1882年通過排華法案之後，美國就進入歧視和限制華工的黑暗時期，最早排

華法案中只規定限制華人十年的時間，美國國會卻一延再延，甚至在 1904

年通過無限期延長排華法案的法律，此舉引發中國政府和僑界一陣嘩然，中

國國內商人和民眾醞釀反制美國歧視華人的政策，之後由上海總商會率先發

難，要求美國政府兩個月內修改苛律，不然將發起全中國人民抵制美貨，各

地的商會迅速串連響應此舉，並在報紙上發表了「籌拒美國華工禁約工啟」，

號召人民「合群策群力以謀抵制」。美國亞洲商會感受到中國的民情激憤，

怕影響美國在中國龐大的貿易利益，急忙上書羅斯福總統，要求修改排華法

律，讓除了華工以外的華人可以自由進出美國，避免中國對於美國商品、教

會和航運的全面抵制，羅斯福總統這才意識到事情的嚴重性，但依然延續著

自己「胡蘿蔔加棒子」的外交政策，一方面發出行政命令，讓華工以外的華

商、留學生、遊客和官員可以享受最惠國待遇，自由進出美國，並宣示所有

騷擾或歧視華人的官員將被革職查辦，但另一方面也透過外交途徑向中國政

府施壓，要求清廷自行壓制這場抵制美貨的運動。圖中的華人和象徵美國的

山姆大叔，正拿著彼此的政治籌碼輪流出牌，誰也不肯退讓，從右方進門的

羅斯福總統則拿著一手新牌，呼籲兩人休戰，重新制定公平的牌局規則。

Square deal (See P.56)

Color lithograph from Judge Magazine, 1904. Title: The New Square-Deal Deck. In the

picture, president Roosevelt coaxes the gentlemen “Come, now, gentlemen; it is time

to throw aside that worn-out deck and try one which will give both of you a square

deal.” The passing of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 pushed the Chinese workers

into a deeper mire of discrimination and restrictions. Although the act was originally

designated to last for only ten years, it was postponed repetitively by the Parliament. The

Extension Act of 1904 made the act permanent, a political decision that instigated strong

remonstration from the Chinese immigrants and the government of China. As a response to

the Extension Act, the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce threatened to launch a nationwide

boycott of American exports if the American government refused to repeal the act in two

months time. Alarmed, the United States-Asia Chamber of Commerce alerted President

Roosevelt of the economic losses that would have to be suffered if the boycott was put into

practice. Roosevelt tried to remedy the situation by issuing a political order stating that

DSDUW�IURP�WKH�&KLQHVH�PHUFKDQWV��VWXGHQWV��WRXULVWV��DQG�RI¿FLDOV�ZRXOG�EH�UHFHLYHG�IURP�

a most favored nation status. They would be allowed free entry to the United States and

UDFLDO�GLVFULPLQDWLRQ�RU�KDUDVVPHQW�IURP�WKH�RI¿FLDOV�ZRXOG�QRW�EH�WROHUDWHG��7KH�FKDQJH�RI�

diplomatic policy was of course not all carrots and no bones: in exchange for this, the Qing

government was expected to suppress the boycotting of American goods. In the picture, the

Chinaman and Uncle Sam face a stalemate on the card table, neither of them willing to give

in. President Roosevelt comes in from the door, calling truce between the two parties, and

holds up a new deck of cards to announce a new set of playing rules

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罪惡磁鐵1902年 4月 6日，《法官雜誌》圖文報導。彩色石印畫一幅。標題：磁鐵。

圖說：美國繁榮的唯一陰暗面。1890到1920年間是美國建設中引以為傲的「進

步時代」，美國自開國以來一直強調自己是民族的融爐，相信可以透過自由、

民主的本質，同化世界各地到來的民族，但從歷史的現實觀察，這種族群融

合背後有嚴重的種族歧視，主流社會必須以白種人為主，而無法跨越種族的

鴻溝，排華法案就是最好的實例。許多社會學家認為美國應該更尊重多元的

文化，所有種族就好像「沙拉吧」一樣，提供美國社會不同的菜色和選擇。

本圖描述美國在繁榮的背後，也吸引了許多不好的元素，像是犯罪、疾病、

貧窮及道德問題，圖中央下方赫然有華人在列，正好說明美國主流社會無視

華人為美國各種經濟建設的貢獻，卻因為種族歧視而把華人當作經濟發展帶

來的副作用。

Magnet of SinColor lithograph from Judge Magazine, April 6th, 1902. Title: The Magnet. (The only

bad feature of our prosperity) The United States considered the period between 1890

to 1920 as “the progressive era,” and the U.S. has always prided their nation as being an

ethnical and racial melting pot, one in which different races from all over the world come

EH�KRPRJHQL]HG�LQWR�XQL¿HG�KDUPRQ\�YLD�OLEHUW\�DQG�IUHHGRP��+LVWRULFDO�UHFRUGV��KRZHYHU��

would suggest otherwise: instead, we see the grim reality of racial discrimination and social

GLVFRUG��EHVW�H[HPSOL¿HG�E\�WKH�&KLQHVH�([FOXVLRQ�$FW�LQ��6RFLRORJLVWV�ZRXOG�ODWHU�

opt for “the salad bowl” as a better solution for social harmony; unlike the concept of a

melting pot, the image of a salad bowl offers variety and choice and furthers the causes

of multiculturalism. In this picture, we can also see that underneath the veneer of material

DIÀXHQFH��VRFLDO�LOOV�DQG�EDQHV�KDYH�DOVR�ÀRFNHG�WR�WKH�FLWLHV�RI�WKH�FRXQWU\��SUREOHPV�VXFK�

as crime, poverty, and disease. The Chinese people were often viewed as one such social

bane, a side effect of the economic boom, rather than its main contributors.

A 13

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華人的祭拜儀式（見 90頁）

1873年 8月 23日，《哈潑週報》圖文報導。木刻版畫一幅。圖說：焚香祭拜－

華人的迷信。傳統信仰無疑是在美華人最大的精神支柱，即使日常生活中遭

到各種歧視和壓迫，當熟悉的檀香味隨著裊裊的煙霧散開，任何人都可以暫

時放下一切，向神明祈禱許願，或遙想故鄉的親族，讓自己得到動力。但華

人寺廟中的眾多神祇卻淪為指控華人異教徒偶像崇拜的證據，被基督教徒歸

類為無知的迷信。圖中是三藩市的華人寺廟，以精工的筆法細緻地描繪木製

供桌、神龕的雕刻，以及神像的衣冠花飾，由於畫者不識中文，牌匾僅以類

似的筆劃替代文字。圖中央的主祭者穿著精美刺繡的馬褂，顯示其不平凡的

地位，其他信眾則跪在地上，有人頂禮，有的焚燒紙錢。右下圖則是寺廟外

販賣香燭的商販，可看到背景中連寺廟的屋頂及飛簷都完全依照古法打造，

非常講究。

報導文章一篇。標題：焚香祭拜－華人的迷信。報導中對於華人焚香祭拜的

習俗十分好奇，記者無法理解華人為何不像西方人直接向上帝說出禱告，而

必須透過焚燒的方式來傳遞和神明的訊息。報導中還記載了一個當時特殊的

葬禮習俗，由於華人相信死在異地的人的靈魂仍然會回到中國，因此會將自

己想捎回故鄉的信件放在死者的棺木中，相信死者會幫他們把信帶給他們在

故鄉的親人，雖然註定無法收到回信，但仍然是一種心靈上的重要慰藉。

Chinese Prayers (See P.90)

Black and white wood engraving from Harper’s Weekly, August 23rd, 1873. Title: Burning

the prayer - Chinese superstitions. Traditional religious beliefs were undoubtedly a

pillar of spiritual strength for the immigrants: facing a life of endless toil and bullying, the

Chinese would rely on spiritual balms to help them transcend their present pain. The clouds

of smoke, the scent of joss sticks, the familiar words of prayer to the gods and to their

ancestors brought back both memories and hope and it was through these brief moments of

praying that they managed to survive through the drudges of their daily life. Little would

they expect that such an important presence of their lives could be used as another target

against them: the locals accused the immigrants of heathen beliefs, of idol worship, and

cited the existence of their temples and rituals as evidence of malicious superstition, In the

picture, the Chinese temples have been rendered with careful detail, but the words inscribed

on the entrance boards aren’t real Chinese characters, just perfunctory scrawls that the

illustrator has drawn because of his ignorance of Chinese script.

Article, title: Burning the prayer – Chinese superstitions.

In the article, the reporter reveals his curiosity over Chinese religious rituals. He is

befuddled over the fact that the Chinese have to burn joss sticks in order to communicate

with their deities, much different from the Christian way of praying to God.

A 20 1, A 20 2

貿易銀元與紙幣（見 94頁）

1874年 4月 25日，《哈潑週報》圖文報導。木刻版畫一幅。標題：給美國

人紙鈔，給外國人錢幣。圖說：哥倫比亞：喔，天哪！根本就不應該把銀元

給這些中國佬，他們帶回去的是真正值錢的銀幣，我們拿到的卻是一籃子隨

時會貶值的紙鈔，連孩子的晚餐都不知道買不買得起。當中美貿易開通以來，

中國的棉布、絲綢、茶葉就深受美國人喜愛，導致美國將大量的金銀輸出到

中國購買各種貨物，為了和列強競爭中國的市場，美國特別發行了「美國貿

易銀元」，希望能用來交換中國價值較高的白銀和貨物。圖右方的山姆大叔

愁眉苦臉地忙著鑄造銀元，好讓華人整桶帶走。而圖左方財政部的官員則不

停把印好的鈔票上架，其中一名官員把紙鈔發給哥倫比亞小姐當作薪水，看

到堆積成山的鈔票，讓她生氣地質問官員，值錢的金銀都被華人賺走了，誰

來保障美國勞工拿到的紙鈔會不會最後一文不值，連孩子的晚餐都買不起？

Trade Dollars (See P.94)

Black and white wood engraving from Harper’s Weekly, April 25th, 1874. Title: Rags for

our working men – Specie for the foreigner. (Columbia-“Dear me, I do think it very

wrong that the good nice Trade Dollar(worth one hundred cents) should be sent out

of the country for the benefit of the ‘Heathen Chinee.’ For if these gentlemen are

permitted to have their own way, it will take a basketful of their greenbacks(worth---?)

to buy a dinner for my children.”) Even since trade between the United States and China

was initiated, the wares from China, such as cotton, silk, and tea have been in rage. The

Trade Dollar was then invented in order for the U.S. to compete with other foreign nations

in sharing the Chinese market and also for purposes of trading in the more valuable silver

from China. In the right of the picture, Uncle Sam is busy printing out trade dollars for the

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the locals. Upon seeing the mounds of trade dollars, the Columbia lady at the back of the

GHVN�DQJULO\�TXHVWLRQV�WKH�RI¿FLDO�RYHU�ZKDW�ZLOO�KDSSHQ�WR�WKH�YDOXH�RI�WKH�GROODU�ZKHQ�WKH�

more valuable trade dollar has been given out to foreigners.

N0 A 21

作品圖錄

PICTURE INDEX

N0 A 01

兩大洋來的害蟲Pestilence Flanking from Both Sides

N0 A 16

新彗星奇觀Ambiguous Comet

N0 A 02

一視同仁的要求High Hopes for Equality

N0 A 17

白人資本家利用華工對抗白人勞工Using Workers against Each Other

N0 A 03

無所不能的華工“Omnipotent” Chinaman

N0 A 18 1

種族主義的暴力和法律Violence of Law

N0 A 04

中美外交牌局Square deal

N0 A 18 2

種族主義的暴力和法律Violence of Law

N0 A 05

三個大麻煩Trio of Trouble

N0 A 19

華人新年習俗的文化衝突Cultural Clashes in Chinese New Year

N0 A 06

她該如何是好？What to Do?

N0 A 20 1

華人的祭拜儀式Chinese Prayers

N0 A 07

失意的三重唱A Dejected Trio

N0 A 20 2

華人的祭拜儀式Chinese Prayers

N0 A 08

非請勿入Unwelcomed Guests

N0 A 21

貿易銀元與紙幣Trade Dollars

N0 A 09

三藩市的街景Streets of San Francisco City

N0 A 22

中國新年 Chinese New Year

N0 A 10

三藩市的中國城Chinatown in San Francisco

N0 A 23 1

「民族的大熔爐」的理想與現實“A Melting Pot,” Myth and Reality

N0 A 11

與事實相反的外交圖Contrary to Reality

N0 A 23 2

「民族的大熔爐」的理想與現實“A Melting Pot,” Myth and Reality

N0 A 12

獅子大開口的英國人The Lion’s Share

N0 A 24 1

船艙裡的渡海者Seafarers

N0 A 13

罪惡磁鐵Magnet of Sin

N0 A 24 2

船艙裡的渡海者Seafarers

N0 A 14

解放枷鎖Cutting Loose the Chains

N0 A 25 1

三藩市海關的嚴格檢查Customs at San Francisco

N0 A 15

冷戰時期的三藩市中國城San Francisco’s Chinatown

N0 A 25 2

三藩市海關的嚴格檢查Customs at San Francisco

N0 A 26 1


N0 A 37

請求美國收留的華人Seeking Protection

N0 A 26 2


N0 A 38

西雅圖的排華暴動Outbreaks in Seattle

N0 A 27 1

郵輪上的宣教活動Promulgation of Christianity at Sea

N0 A 39

三藩市唐人街歡度中國新年Chinese New Year at San Francisco City

N0 A 27 2

郵輪上的宣教活動Promulgation of Christianity at Sea

N0 A 40

美國修改蒲安臣條約Revision of the Burlingame Treaty

N0 A 28 1

華人的算命攤位Fortune Telling

N0 A 41

華人在海關被徹底搜身Body Search at Customs

N0 A 28 2

華人的算命攤位Fortune Telling

N0 A 42 1


N0 A 29

傳統的戲劇與葬禮Traditional Drama Performances and Funerals

N0 A 42 2


N0 A 30

印地安人對華人：遲早輪到你！It’ll Be You Someday!

N0 A 43

英國不樂見中國之圖強Worries over China’s Growing Strength

N0 A 31 1

餓肚子的中國人Famished Chinese

N0 A 44

華工也打棒球嗎？ Planning to Invade Baseball Too?

N0 A 31 2

餓肚子的中國人Famished Chinese

N0 A 45 1

華人努力融入美國社會Desperate Attempt at Integration

N0 A 32

布萊恩議員的激進言論,QÀDPPDWRU\�:RUGV

N0 A 45 2

華人努力融入美國社會Desperate Attempt at Integration

N0 A 33

白人勞工向議員陳情Petition

N0 A 46

唐人街的照相業務Portraits Taken in China Street

N0 A 34

華人和黑人各奔東西Going Separate Ways

N0 A 47

紐約華埠歡度中秋Chinese Moon Festival at New York City

N0 A 35

沒空陪你聊！No Time to Talkee

N0 A 48

遇害華人無處申冤No Justice for the Chinese Immigrants

N0 A 36

教堂充當華人的英語學校Church, English School for the Chinese

N0 A 49

主持正義的白人遇害 As the Righteous are Killed

N0 A 50

華人慘案賠款問題Matters of Reparation

N0 A 58 2

那個姓「張」的來自香港 Mr. Chang from Hong Kong

N0 A 51

紐約華埠寫真Sketches in the Chinese Quarter in New York City

N0 A 52

黑旗軍首領長眠紐約Black-Flag Chieftain Forever Settled in New York Soil

N0 A 55 01


N0 A 55 04


N0 A 55 07


N0 A 55 10


N0 A 53

紐約的華人墓地Chinese Cemetery in New York City

N0 A 55 02


N0 A 55 05


N0 A 55 08


N0 B 02

巴黎世博會中國館Chinese Section in Paris World Exposition

N0 A 57 4

取笑華人的樂曲A Tune to Make Fun of the Chinese

N0 A 57 1


N0 A 55 11


N0 A 54

星條旗上的歷史污點Stain on the Star-Spangled Banner

N0 A 55 03


N0 A 55 06


N0 A 55 09


N0 B 03

俄國華埠的中式街道China Street in Russias

N0 A 57 5


N0 A 57 2


N0 A 56 1

嘲弄的中國人辮子的明信片 Mockery of the Queue

N0 B 04

印尼的華人慶典Chinese Celebration in Indonesia

N0 A 58 1

那個姓「張」的來自香港 Mr. Chong from Hong Kong

N0 A 57 3


N0 A 56 2

嘲弄的中國人辮子的明信片 Mockery of the Queue

N0 B 01

東南亞的華人群相Images of Southeast Asians

N0 A 58 3

那個姓「張」的來自香港 Mr. Chang from Hong Kong

N0 B 14

南非的華人礦工Chinese Miners in South Africa

N0 B 18 09

荷蘭小說：我的好友花生仔 A Holland Novel: My Good Friend, the Pindaman

N0 B 15 1

南非華工上岸後拍攝檔案照File Pictures of the Chinese Miners in South Africa

N0 B 18 10


N0 B 15 2

南非華工金礦開採實景Mining Scenarios

N0 C 01

道光皇帝的肖像Portrait of Daoguang Emperor

N0 B 16

中國海盜打劫法國船Chinese Pirates Pillaging French Ships

N0 C 02

咸豐皇帝及皇后鈕祜祿氏Xianfeng Emperor with His Empress

N0 B 17 1

荷蘭街頭賣花生的華人Peanut Vendors on the Streets of the Netherlands

N0 C 03

咸豐皇帝與兩京景緻Xianfeng Emperor and the Two Cities

N0 B 17 2


N0 C 04

同治皇帝的肖像Portrait of Tongzhi Emperor

N0 B 17 3


N0 B 18 01


N0 B 18 02


N0 B 18 03


N0 B 18 04


N0 B 18 05


N0 B 18 06


N0 B 18 07


N0 B 18 08


N0 B 05

中國孤兒在法國教堂受洗Baptism of Chinese Orphan at French Church

N0 B 06

法國對華人的諷刺畫Sardonic Portrayal of the Chinese

N0 B 07

越南的華人賭場Chinese Casino in Vietnam

N0 B 08

越南北部的中法情報戰Intelligence War between the Chinese and the French

N0 B 09

歐洲人對中國瓷器的偏好An Expensive Indulgence

N0 B 10

英國輿論支持美國的歧視政策Standing on the Side of the Americans

N0 B 11

英國茶公司的廣告Commercial of English Tea Company

N0 B 12

俄國海參崴的鴉片館Opium House in Vladivostok

N0 B 13

非洲的華人幫傭Asian House Servants in Africa

N0 C 14

英軍侵略西藏 British Invasion of Tibet

N0 C 29

中國人的生活之四Slices of Life as a Chinese (IV)

N0 C 15

上海鴉片館的逮捕行動Raid of Shanghai Opium House

N0 C 30

中國人的生活之五Slices of Life as a Chinese (V)

N0 C 16

早期西方人對李鴻章的尊敬Respect for Lee Hongzhang

N0 C 17

大清賢臣許景澄A Portrait of Shu King-Chen

N0 C 18

「正義」的法國對抗「邪惡」的中國“Righteous” France against the “Evil” China

N0 C 19

光緒皇帝禁絕鴉片Banning Opium

N0 C 20

華洋雜處的上海榮景Shanghai, Glorious and Bustling

N0 C 21

人命如螻蟻的中國飢荒Famine and Death

N0 C 22

中國人與法國人衝突加劇,QWHQVLI\LQJ�&RQÀLFW�EHWZHHQ�WKH�)UHQFK�DQG�WKH�&KL-nese

N0 C 23

法軍登陸台北淡水的想像圖Imaginary Map of Danshui

N0 C 24

台灣常民剪影Sketches of the Taiwanese Local Life

N0 C 25

中國文人的房間Room of Chinese Literatus

N0 C 26

中國人的生活之一Slices of Life as a Chinese (I)

N0 C 27

中國人的生活之二Slices of Life as a Chinese (II)

N0 C 28

中國人的生活之三Slices of Life as a Chinese (III)

N0 C 05

洪秀全自稱上帝的二兒子God’s Second Son?

N0 C 06

洪秀全與隨從巡視天京Inspection of the Heavenly Capital

N0 C 07

慈禧太后與洋人相互仇視Cixi and the Foreign Nations

N0 C 08

慈禧太后Empress Dowager Cixi

N0 C 09

庚子之亂後議和的李鴻章Li Hongzhang Seeking Peace

N0 C 10

中國民族主義宣傳畫之一Anti-Western Propaganda (I)

N0 C 11

中國民族主義宣傳畫之二Anti-Western Propaganda (II)

N0 C 12

列強共同綁住中國A Stronghold upon China

N0 C 13

列強瓜分中國的野心All Hungry for Pie

[book sample] the chinese as seen by the western illustrators in the 19th...

Art & Photos