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Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding

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Page 1: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Chapter 9Ionic and Covalent

Bonding

Page 2: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Chemical Bonding

9 | 2

1. A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance.

الرابطة الكيميائية هي قوة جذب قوية ما بين ذرات معينة في المادة

1. There are three types of chemical bonds:

Ionic bonds

Covalent bonds

Metallic bonds

Page 3: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Ionic Bonds

9 | 3

An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.

الرابطة األيونية هي الرابطة الكيميائية التي شكلتها قوى الجذب الكهربائي بين األيونات الموجبة والسالبة.

Page 4: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Electron Transfer

9 | 4

An ionic bond forms when one or more electrons are transferred from the valence shell of one atom to the valence shell of another atom.

Na ([Ne]3s1) + Cl ([Ne]3s23p5) Na+ ([Ne]) + Cl- ([Ne]3s23p6)

The atom that transferred the electron(s) becomes a cation.

The atom that gained the electron(s) becomes an anion. الرابطة االيونية تتشكل من انتقال الكترون

او اكثر من غالف التكافؤ في ذرة الى غالف التكافؤ في ذرة اخرى، الذرة المعطية تصبح كاتيون .واالخرى الكاسبة انيون

Page 5: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Lewis Dot Symbols

9 | 5

A Lewis electron-dot symbol is a notation in which the electrons in the valence shell of an atom or ion are represented by dots placed around the chemical symbol of the element.

Note: Dots are placed one to a side, until all four sides are occupied.

هو تدوين تمثل فيه اإللكترونات في غالف التكافؤ لذرة أو أيون على شكل نقاط توضع حول رمز الكيميائي للعنصر.

مالحظة: يتم وضع النقاط بالتجانب، حتى يتم شغل جميع الجوانب األربعة للعنصر.

Page 6: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Lewis Dot Symbols

9 | 6

Table 9.1 illustrates the Lewis electron-dot symbols for second- and third-period atoms.

Page 7: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Example 1

9 | 7

Represent the transfer of electrons in forming calcium oxide, CaO, from atoms.

+ Ca2+Ca O + O 2-][

Page 8: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Formations of Ions

9 | 8

Let’s look next at the energy involved in forming ionic compounds.

The energy to remove an electron is the ionization energy.

كما قلنا سابقا الطاقة الالزمة لنزع الكترون من ذرة هي طاقة التأين

The energy to add an electron is the electron affinity.

والطاقة الالزمة الضافة الكترون هي االلفة االلكترونية

Page 9: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

9 | 9

The combination of ionization energy and electron affinity is still endothermic; the process requires energy.

However, when the two ions bond, more than enough energy is released, making the overall process exothermic.

المزيج من طاقة التأين واأللفة اإللكترونية ال يزال ماص للحرارة، والعملية تتطلب طاقة.

ومع ذلك، عندما يرتبط الكترونيتين، يتم تولد طاقة اعلى من الطاقة الكافية بشكل يجعل العملية عملية طاردة للحراراة

Formation of Ionic Bonds

Page 10: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Lattice Energy

9 | 10

The lattice energy is the change in energy that occurs when an ionic solid is separated into gas-phase ions.

It is very difficult to measure lattice energy directly. It can be found, however, by using the energy changes for steps that give the same result.

هو التغير في الطاقة التي تحدث عندما يتم فصل مادة صلبة ايونية إلى ايونات في الحالة الغازية

من الصعب جدا لقياس هذه الطاقة مباشرة.، ومع ذلك، يمكن معرفتها باستخدام التغير في الطاقة للخطوات التي

تعطي تؤدي الى نفس النتيجة.

Page 11: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Lattice Energy

9 | 11

For example, to find the lattice energy for NaCl, we can use the following steps.

Page 12: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Born-Haber Cycle

9 | 12

The combination of thermochemical steps that allows the indirect calculation of lattice energy is called the Born–Haber cycle.

مزيج من خطوات الكيمياء الحرارية الذي يسمح بحساب بشكل غير المباشر للطاقة.

Page 13: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Coulomb’s Law

9 | 13

Ionic substances are typically high-melting solids.

المواد االيونية عادة ما تكون مادة صلبا عالية الذوبان وهناك عامالن يؤثران قوة الرابطة االيونية وهما الشحنة االيونية والمسافة بين

االيونات There are two factors that affect the strength of the ionic bond. They are given by Coulomb’s law:

Where Q1 and Q2 are the charges on the ions, r is the distance between ions, and k is a proportionality constant. The higher the ionic charge, the stronger the force; the smaller the ion, the stronger the force.

221

r

QkQF

Page 14: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Lattice Energy

9 | 14

Based on this relationship, we can predict the relative melting points of NaCl and MgO.

باالعتماد على هذه العالقة نستطيع توقع درجة الذوبان.The charge on the ions of MgO is double the charge on the ions of NaCl. Because the charge is double, the force will be four times stronger.

شحنة ايون اكسيد الماغنيسيوم هي ضعف شحنة ايون كلويد الصوديوم، وألن الشحنة ضعف القوة ستكون اقوى اربع مرات. حجم الصوديوم اكبر

من الماغنيسيوم وحجم الكلوريد اكبر من االكسجين وألن المسافة بين الماغنيسيوم واالكسجين اكبر منها في الصوديوم والكلور فقوة الرابطة

بين الماغنيسيوم واالكسجين ستكون اكبر.The size of Na+ is larger than that of Mg2+; the size of Cl- is larger than that of O2-. Because the distance between Mg2+ and O2- is smaller than the distance between Na+ and Cl-, the force between Mg2+ and O2- will be greater.

Page 15: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Lattice Energy

9 | 15

Based on the higher charge and the smaller distance for MgO, its melting point of MgO should be significantly higher than the melting point of NaCl.

اذن اعتمدن على الشحنة االكبر والمسافة القل بين الذرات، وفي هذه الحالة تكون درجة الذوبان الكسيد

الماغنيسيوم اعلى بشكل واضح من تلك للصوديوم كلوريد.

The actual melting point of NaCl is 801°C; that for MgO is 2800°C.

Page 16: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Ionization Trends

9 | 16

When we examine the electron configuration of main-group ions, we find that each element gains or loses electrons to attain a noble-gas configuration.

عندما ندرس ترتيب اإللكترون في أيونات المجموعة الرئيسية ، نجد أن كل عنصر يكسب أو يفقد اإللكترونات

للوصول الى ترتيب الغازات النبيلة..

Page 17: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Example 2

9 | 17

Give the electron configuration and the Lewis symbol for the chloride ion, Cl-.

Cl -][

For chlorine, Cl, Z = 17, so the Cl- ion has 18 electrons. The electron configuration for Cl- is

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

The Lewis symbol for Cl- is

Page 18: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Ionization Trends

9 | 18

Group IIIA to VA metals often exhibit two different ionic charges: one that is equal to the group number and one that is 2 less than the group number.

فلزات المجموعات من الثالثة الى الخامسة عادة يكون لها شحنتين ايونيتين واحدة بنفس رقم المجموعة واالخرى اقل من

رقم المجموعة باثنين. The higher charge is due to the loss of both the s subshell electrons and the p subshells electron(s). The lower charge is due to the loss of only the p subshell electron(s).

. p و sالشحنة االعلى تعود الى فقدان االلكترونات من المدارين .pوالشحنة االقل تعود الى فقدان االلكترونات من المدار

For example, in Group IVA, tin and lead each form both +4 and +2 ions. In Group VA, bismuth forms +5 and +3 ions.

Page 19: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Polyatomic Ions

9 | 19

Polyatomic ions are atoms held together by covalent bonds as a group and that, as a group, have gained or lost one or more electron.

هي ذرات التي عقدت معا عن طريق الرابطة التساهمية كمجموعة وهي كمجموعة، قد اكتسبت أو فقدت واحدا

أو أكثر من اإللكترونات.

Page 20: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Ions of Transition Metals

9 | 20

Transition metals form several ions.

العناصر االنتقالية تشكل عدة ايوناتThe atoms generally lose the ns electrons before losing the (n – 1) d electrons.

في مستوى محدد من sيعني تفقد من المدار الفرعي في pالطاقة قبل ان تفقد اي الكترون من المدار الفرعي

المستوى الذي قبلهAs a result, one of the ions transition metals generally form is the +2 ion.

كنتيجة واحد من ايونات الفلزات االنتقالية يكون موجب اثنان

Page 21: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Example 3

9 | 21

Give the electron configurations of Mn and Mn2+.

Manganese, Z = 25, has 25 electrons;. Its electron configuration is

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s23d5

Mn2+ has 23 electrons. When ionized, Mn loses the 4s electrons first; the electron configuration for Mn2+ is

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p6 3d5

Page 22: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Example 4

9 | 22

Page 23: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Example 4 (Cont)

9 | 23

a. Fe2+: [Ar]3d44s2

No. The 4s2 electrons would be lost before the 3d electrons.

b. N2-: [He]2s22p5

No. Nitrogen will gain three electrons to fill the shell, forming N3-.

c. Zn2+: [Ar]3d10

Yes! d. Na2+: [He]2s22p5

No. Sodium will lose only its one valence electron, forming Na+.

e. Ca2+: [Ne]3s23p6

Yes!

Page 24: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Ionic Radius

9 | 24

Ionic radius is a measure of the size of the spherical region around the nucleus of an ion within which the electrons are most likely to be found. While ionic radius, like atomic radius, can be somewhat arbitrary, it can be measured in ionic compounds.

هو مقياس لحجم المنطقة الكروية حول نواة أيون والذي يتواجد غالبا خالله اإللكترونات. بينما نصف قطر األيونية،

مثل نصف القطر الذري، يمكن أن تكون غير واضحة إلى حد ما، يمكن قياس نصف القطر االيوني في المركبات

األيونية.

Page 25: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

9 | 25

A cation is always smaller than its neutral atom.

An anion is always larger than its neutral atom.

Ionic Radius

Page 26: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Ionic Radius

9 | 26

The term isoelectronic refers to different species having the same number and configuration of electrons.

هذا المصطلح يعود الى العناصر المختلفة التي لديها نفس الرقم والتوزيع االلكتروني

For example, Ne, Na+, and F- are isoelectronic.

10على سبيل المثال النيون والصوديوم والفلور )جميعها لديها الكترونات(

Ionic radius for an isoelectronic series decreases with increasing atomic number.

Page 27: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Ionic Radius

9 | 27

Using the periodic table only, arrange the following ions in order of increasing ionic radius: Br-, Se2-, Sr2+.

35Br

34Se

38Sr

These ions are isoelectronic, so their size decreases with increasing atomic number:Sr2+ < Br- < Se2-

Page 28: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Covalent Bond

9 | 28

A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by sharing a pair of electrons.

هي رابطة تتشكل بالمشاركة في زوج من االكترونات.

Page 29: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Covalent Bond

9 | 29

To consider how a covalent bond forms, we can monitor the energy of two isolated hydrogen atoms as they move closer together. لمعرفة كيف تتشكل هذه الرابطة نستطيع مراقبة تصرف الطاقة

لذرتي هيدروجين منفصلتين عندما تتحركان بجانب بعضهما، الطاقة تقل تدريجيا في البداية ومن ثم الى اقل مستوى. وعندما تتحرك هذه الذرات بشكل اقرب تبدأ بالزيادة بشكل دراماتيكي. المسافة هنا بين الذرات عندما الطاقة تكون في ادنى مستواها

تدعى طول الرابطة. The energy decreases—first gradually, and then more steeply—to a minimum. As the atoms continue to move closer, it increases dramatically.The distance between the atoms when energy is at a minimum is called the bond length. This is illustrated on the following graph, from right to left.

Page 30: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Covalent Bond Formation

9 | 30

Page 31: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

9 | 31

As the hydrogen atoms move closer together, the electron of each atom is attracted to both its own nucleus and the nucleus of the second atom. The electron probability distribution illustrates this relationship.

Covalent Bond Formation

Page 32: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Lewis Structures

9 | 32

A formula using dots to represent valence electrons is called a Lewis electron-dot formula, or commonly, a Lewis structure.

صيغة لتمثيل الكترونات التكافؤ باستخدام النقاط وتسمى صيغة او تركيب لويس

An electron pair is represented by two dots.

زوج االلكترونات تمثل بنقطتين، وزوج االلكترونات بين ذرتين هو زوج مرتبط، ويمثل ايضا بخط لكل زوج مرتبط، وزوج االلكترونات

الغير مرتبطين تسمى غير مرتبطة او زوج الكترونات وحيدة.

A electron pair that is between two atoms is a bonding pair. It can also be represented by one line for each bonding pair. Electron pairs that are not bonding are called nonbonding, or lone pair electrons.

Page 33: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Coordinate Covalent Bonds

9 | 33

A coordinate covalent bond is formed when both electrons of the bond are donated by one atom.

الرابطة التساهمية الممثلة تتشكل عندما يكون كال االلكترونين في الرابطة معطيان من ذرة واحدة. الهيدروجين في المثال متأين ال

يوجد لديه الكترون

The two electrons forming the bond with the hydrogen on the left were both donated by the nitrogen. Once shared, they are indistinguishable from the other N—H bonds.

هنا االلكترونين يشكالن الرابطة مع الهيدروجين في اليسار وكال االلكترونين معطيان من قبل النيتروجين. وعندما يتشاركان يمكن

تمييزها عن غيرها

H+ + N HH

HNHH

HH+

Page 34: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Octet Rule

9 | 34

In forming covalent bonds, atoms tend to form bonds in such a way as to achieve a state where they have a full eight electrons in their valence shell. This tendency is called the octet rule.

في تشكيل الرابطة التساهمية تلجأ الذرات الى تشكيل روابط بطريقة تصل بها الى حالة الكمال بثمانية الكترونات في مدار التكافؤ االخير. ويسمى هذا الميول بقاعدة اوكتت. الهيدرجين

حالة السثنائية خاصة خارج هذه القاعدة، ألن قدرته فقط الكترونين في مدارالتكافؤ.

Hydrogen is an exception to the octet rule: it has two electrons in its valence shell (a duet).

Page 35: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Covalent Bonds

9 | 35

A single bond is a covalent bond in which one pair of electrons is shared by two atoms.

رابطة احادية: زوج الكترونات واحد تتشارك فيه ذرتان.A double bond is a covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.

رابطة مزدجة: زوجين من االلكترونات تتشارك فيها ذرتين.A triple bond is a covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.

رابطة ثالثية: ثالث ازواج من االلكترونات تتشارك فيها ذرتين .Double bonds form primarily with C, N, and O. Triple bonds form primarily with C and N.

الرابطة المزدوجة من الكربون والنتروجين و االكسجين بينما الثالثية مع الكربون والنتروجين.

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Polar Covalent Bonds

9 | 36

A polar covalent bond (or polar bond) is a covalent bond in which the bonding electrons spend more time near one atom than near the other atom.

الرابطة القطبية هي تساهمية يقضي فيها االلكترونات الرتبطة وقت اكثر بالقرب من ذرة اكثر من االخرى.

Electronegativity, X, is a measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to draw bonding electrons to itself. Electronegativity is related to ionization energy and electron affinity.

السالبية هي مقياس لقدرة ذرة في جزيء لجذب ربط اإللكترونات لنفسها.

وهي ذات عالقة بطاقة التأين واأللفة االلكترونية.

Page 37: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Electronegativity

9 | 37

Electronegativity increases from left to right and from bottom to top in the periodic table. F, O, N, and Cl have the highest electronegativity values.

Page 38: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Bond Polarity

9 | 38

The difference in electronegativity between the two atoms in a bond is a rough measure of bond polarity.

هذا يقودنا لقطبية الرابطة وهو الفرق في السالبية بين الذرتين المشاركتين في الرابطة. اذا كان الفرق في السالبية كبير جدا يحدث هنا االستئثار او االستقطاب لاللكترون من الذرة االعلى

سالبية وهنا تصبح الرابطة ايونية. واذا كان كبير نسبيا لذرة تكون الرابطة قطبية. واذا كان صغير تكون الرابطة غير قطبية. When the difference is very large, an ionic bond forms. When the difference is large, the bond is polar. When the difference is small, the bond is nonpolar.

Page 39: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Example 5

9 | 39

Using electronegativities, arrange the following bonds in order by increasing polarity: C—N, Na—F, O—H.

For Na—F, the difference is 4.0 (F) – 0.9 (Na) = 3.1

For C—N, the difference is 3.0 (N) – 2.5 (C) = 0.5

For O—H, the difference is 3.5 (O) – 2.1 (H) = 1.4

C—N <Bond polarities: O—H < Na—F

Page 40: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Lewis Structures

9 | 40

Writing Lewis Structuresكيف نكتب تركيب لويس Calculate the number of valence electrons.

نحسب رقم شحنة التكافؤ لاللكتروناتWrite the skeleton structure of the molecule or ion. نكتب

هيكل التركيب للجزيء او االيونDistribute electrons to the atoms surrounding the central

atom or atoms to satisfy the octet rule.

نوزع االلكترونات حول الذرة/ات المركزية لنطبق قاعدة اوكتت بثمانية الكترونات.

Distribute the remaining electrons as pairs to the central atom or atoms.

نوزع متبقيات االلكترونات على شكل ازواج للذرة المركزية.

Page 41: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Example 6

9 | 41

Write Lewis structures for the following:

a. OF2

b. NF3

c. NH2OH, hydroxylamine

Page 42: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

Example 6 (Cont)

9 | 42

OF F

Count the valence electrons in OF2:

O 1(6)

F 2(7)

20 valence electrons

O is the central atom (it is less electronegative). Now, we distribute the remaining 16 electrons, beginning with the outer atoms. The last four electrons go on O.

Page 43: Chapter 9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding. Chemical Bonding 9 | 2 1.A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between certain atoms in a substance

9 | 43

Count the valence electrons in NF3:

N 1(5)

F 3(7)

26 valence electrons

N is the central atom (it is less electronegative). Now, we distribute the remaining 20 electrons, beginning with the outer atoms. The last two electrons go on N.

F FN

F

Example 6 (Cont)

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9 | 44

Count the electrons in NH2OH:

N 1(5)

H 3(1)

O 1(6)

14 valence electrons

N is the central atom. Now, we distribute the remaining six electrons, beginning with the outer atoms. The last two electrons go on N.

H

NH HO

Example 6 (Cont)

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Example 7

9 | 45

Write electron-dot formulas for the following:

a. CO2

b. HCN

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9 | 46

Count the electrons in CO2:

C 1(4)

O 2(6)

16 valence electronsC is the central atom. Now, we distribute the

remaining 12 electrons, beginning with the outer atoms.

Carbon does not have an octet, so two of the lone pairs shift to become a bonding pair, forming double bonds.

OO CO O

Example 7 (Cont)

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9 | 47

Count the electrons in HCN:H 1(1)C 1(4)N 1(5)

10 valence electrons.

C is the central atom. The remaining electrons go on N.

Carbon does not have an octet, so two of the lone pairs shift to become a bonding pair, forming a triple bond.

CH NN

Example 7 (Cont)

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Example 8

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Phosphorus pentachloride exists in solid state as the ionic compound [PCl4]+[PCl6]-; it exists in the gas phase as the PCl5 molecule. Write the Lewis formula of the PCl4+ ion.

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9 | 49

Count the valence

electrons in PCl4+:

P 1(5)

Cl4(7)

-1

32

P is the central atom. The remaining 24 nonbonding electrons are placed on Cl atoms. Add square brackets with the charge around the ion.

Cl

Cl

ClCl P

+

Example 8 (Cont)

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Delocalized Bonding

9 | 50

Delocalized bonding is a type of bonding in which a bonding pair of electrons is spread over a number of atoms rather than being localized between two atoms.

نوع رابطة يكون فيها زوج االلكترونات المرتبط متوزع على عدد من الذرات اكثر من تمركزه بين ذرتين.

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Resonance

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Sometimes a single Lewis structure cannot properly describe delocalized bonding. Using the resonance description, the electron structure of a molecule or ion having delocalized bonding is given by writing all possible electron-dot formulas. They are connected with a double-headed arrow.

التذبذب او التأرجح : احيانا بسبب عملية عدم تموضع االللكترونات عند ذرتين محددتين، يجب وصف الرابطة

بالمتأرجحة والذي يكون فيه تركيب االلكترونات او االيونات بروابط غير متموضعة بحيث يعطى بكتابة كل احتماالت االشكال النقطية في وصف الرابطة. وترتبط

الرابطة باسهم متأرجحة.

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Example 9

9 | 52

Draw the resonance formulas of the acetate ion, CH3COO-.

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9 | 53

CH3COO-

Valence electrons: 2(4) + 3(1) + 2(6) + 1 = 24

C is the central atom.

A double bond is needed between C—O.

There are two equivalent places for it, so two resonance structures are required.

C

H

H

H CO

O

-

C

H

H

H CO

O

-

Example 9 (Cont)

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Octet Rule Violations

9 | 54

Some molecules have electron-dot structures that do not satisfy the octet rule. Some have an odd number of electrons, such as NO. Structures with odd numbers of electrons, called radicals, are often associated with those containing nitrogen or phosphorus as the central atom. Other molecules either have too few or too many electrons around the central atom. In general, the central atom will be assigned the unusual number of electrons.

بعض الجزيئات ال تتبع قاعدة رول في تركيبها النقطي فبعضها لديه عدد فردي من االلكترونات مثل اول اكسيد النيتروجين، التركيب مع

عدد فردي من االلكترونات يسمى مجمع الذرات او الجذر وهو ذو عالقة مع الجزيئات التي تحتوي على النيتروجين والفوسفور كذرات مركزية، اما الجزيئات االخرى فاما ان يكون لديه الكترونات قليلة او

كثيرة حول الذرة المركزية )عدد غير اعتيادي(

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Radicals

9 | 55

Consider the Lewis structure of NO2. The odd number of electrons becomes obvious as soon as we do a valence count:

Valence count: 1(5) + 2(6) = 17

In the Lewis structure, odd electrons are placed on the central atom as follows:

O N O....

..: :.

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9 | 56

Elements that have too few electrons are in Groups IIA and IIIA. Be, B, and Al exhibit too few electrons around the central atom. The elements have less than four valence electrons, and are unable to achieve an octet through covalent bonding.

العناصر ذات االلكترونات القليلة جدا هي في المجموعة الثانية والثالثة، البيريليوم والبورون وااللمنيوم ايضا لديهم الكترونات

قليلة حول الذرة المركزية، العناصر التي لها اقل من اربع الكترونات وغير قادرة على الوصول الى االوكتت من خالل

الرابطة التساهمية.

Al

FF

F

B

FF

F

BeF F

Octet Rule Violations

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9 | 57

There are many examples of central atoms with more than an octet. Because elements of the third period and beyond have a d subshell, they can expand their valence electron configurations. S, P, Cl (as a central atom), and other elements in period 3 are examples of atoms in this situation.

dمثال العناصر في المجموعة الثالثة وما بعدها لديها المدار الفرعي ويستطيعون توسيع توزيع الكترون التكافؤ. الكبريت والفوسفور والكلور والعناصر االخرى في المجموعة الثالثة هي امثلة على

ذرات في هذا الوضع.Elements in the second period, having only s and p subshells, are unable to do this.

وغير قادرة pو sالعناصر في الدورة الثانية لديها فقط مدارات على هذا التوسيع او التكيف مع الكترونات التكافؤ.

Octet Rule Violations

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Example 10

9 | 58

Give the Lewis structure of the IF5 molecule.

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9 | 59

Count the valence electrons in IF5:

I 1(7)

F 5(7)

42 valence electrons

I is the central atom. Thirty-two electrons remain; they first complete F octets. The remaining electrons go on I.

F

F

F

I

F

F

Example 10 (Cont)

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Formal Charge

9 | 60

The formal charge on an atom in the Lewis formula is the hypothetical charge you obtain by assuming that bonding electrons are equally shared between bonded atoms and that the electrons of each lone pair belong completely to one atom.

الشحنة الشكلية لذرة في نموذج لويس هي شحنة افتراضية تحصل عليها بواسطة افتراض ان االلكترونات

المترابطة يتم تقاسمها بالتساوي ما بين الذرات الرابطة و تلك االلكترونات لكل زوج وحيد ينتمي تماما لذرة

واحدة.

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Formal Charge

9 | 61

Formal charge

= valence electrons on free atom

– ½ (number of electrons in bonds)

– (number of lone-pair electrons)

The sum of the formal charges on the atoms equals the charge on the formula.

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Formal charges can help to determine the most likely electron-dot formula using three rules:

1. Whenever you can write several Lewis structures for a molecule, choose the one having the lowest magnitudes of formal charges.

اينما كنت تستطيع كتابة اكثر من شكل لويس اختار واحدا لديه اقل قدر من الشحنة الشكلية

2.When two proposed Lewis structures have the same magnitudes of formal charges, choose the one having the negative formal charge on the more electronegative atom.

اذا توفر هناك الثنان بنفس القيمة اختر ذو الشحنة السالبة على الذرة ذات السالبية االعلى. ان امكن اختر نموذج لويس الذي ال

يوجد فيه شحنات على الذرات المجاورة.3. When possible, choose Lewis formulas that do not have like charges on adjacent atoms.

Formal Charge

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Example 11

9 | 63

Compare the formal charges for the following Lewis Structures for CO2.

For the left structure: For the right structure:

O: 6 – 2 – 4 = 0C: 4 – 4 – 0 = 0

The left structure is better.

Formal charge = group number – (number of bond pairs) – (number of nonbonding electrons)

C: 4 – 4 – 0 = 0O: 6 – 1 – 6 = –1O: 6 – 3 – 2 = +1

CO O CO O

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Bond Length and Bond Order

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Bond length (or bond distance) is the distance between nuclei in a bond.

Bond order is, defined in terms of the Lewis formula, the number of pairs of electrons in a bond.

Bond length decreases as bond order increases.

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Example 12

9 | 65

C C C

H

H

H

H

H

H

134 pm 150 pm

Consider the propylene molecule:

The shorter bond is the double bond; the longer bond is the single bond.

One of the carbon–carbon bonds has a length of 150 pm; the other 134 pm. Identify each bond with a bond length.

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Bond Energy

9 | 66

Bond energy is defined as the average enthalpy change for breaking the A—B bond in a molecule in the gas phase. Bond energy is a measure of bond strength: the larger the bond energy, the stronger the bond.

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Bond Energy

9 | 67

Bond energies can be used to estimate the enthalpy change, H, for a reaction. To do so, we imagine the reaction in two steps: breaking bonds and forming new bonds.

H = sum of the bond energies for bonds broken

– sum of the bond energies for bonds formed

When H is negative, heat is released. When H is positive, heat is absorbed.

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Example 13

9 | 68

Estimate the enthalpy change for the following reaction, using bond energies:

Bonds Broken:

1 C=C 602 kJ

1 Cl—Cl 240 kJ

Absorbed 842 kJ

Bonds Formed:

1 C—C 346 kJ

2 C—Cl 654 kJ

Released 1000 kJH = 842 kJ – 1000 kJH = –158 kJ

C C

H

H

H

H

+ Cl2 C C

H

H

Cl

H

Cl

H