Cristina Alfaro, Ph.D.

1. Typologies of multilingual learners

2. Educators with global (linguistic and cultural) competence

3. Research-based Dual Language education that responds to characteristics of the community (e.g., State Seal of Biliteracy)

1 in 5 persons in the U.S. speaks a

language other than English at home (40

million Spanish speakers)

English learners are more likely than any

other group to be taught by teachers who

lack the appropriate preparation

(U.S. Census, 2013)

(Gndara, Maxwell-Jolly, & Rumberger, 2008)

The story of Moises: Ten-year-old Moises

has just immigrated to California from

Mexico. He doesn't speak English, but he's

good at math, so he hopes to do well on

his first math test in the USA.

Factors Inhibiting

Student Learning

Factors Supporting

Student Learning

Grade-level content knowledge in primary language

Primary language literacy

Teacher body language Language broker Visual aides (Stick-figure

drawing) Personal Spanish-

English dictionary Student initiative to ask

for help

English-only program

Little to no proficiency in

language of instruction

Classroom Factors: Pedagogy characterized by

teacher-frontedness

Lack of effective scaffolding

Limited opportunity for oral

language production

False cognate (blocks)

English-only assessment

No authentic student

engagement

Bilingual

Some Spoken English

No Spoken English

Primary Language Literacy

Ethnic Background/Dialect

Quality of Prior Schooling

Socioeconomic Status

The promise of bilingualism is especially important for Latinos who demonstrate some of the lowest academic outcomes of any subgroup in the US, and are expected to comprise one in five American residents by 2025

Currently Latinos comprise 22% of the school-age population and are the least likely to graduate from High School

(Tienda & Mitchell, 2006)

(Gndara & Contreras, 2009)

Element Practices

Assess Cultural and Linguistic Knowledge

(Contextualize Instruction)

Learn about communitys cultural and

linguistic assets

Engage families, communities and

agencies as partners in education

Value Diversity Create inclusive school community

Manage the Dynamics of Difference Include and value multiple perspectives

Use problem-solving and conflict-

resolution strategies

Adapt to Diversity Achieve equitable educational and

socially just outcomes

Use formative and summative

assessments to inform services and

instruction

Institutionalize Cultural Knowledge Close access gaps, opportunity gaps,

and achievement gaps

(Adapted from Quezada, Lindsey, & Lindsey; 2015)

Views students cultural backgrounds of

language, race, gender, and

socioeconomic status as assets on which

to construct their educational experiences

Teachers as: Researchers

Facilitators

Collaborators

(Alfaro, et. al., 2015; Quezada & Alfaro; 2012)

(Alfaro, et al., 2015)

(Howard, Sugarman, Christian, Lindholm-Leary, & Rogers; 2007)

Type of program Linguistic profile of

students

Language of the

classroom

Societal and

educational aim Linguistic goal

Su

btr

ac

tive

Bilin

gu

al E

du

ca

tio

n

Mainstream English Native English

speakers and English

Learners

English Assimilation English-only

Sheltered/Structured

English Immersion

(SEI)

English Learners English with some

primary language

support

Assimilation

English-only

Transitional Bilingual English Learners Begins with primary

language; transition

into English (usually by

grade 2)

Assimilation

English dominant

Ad

dit

ive

Bilin

gu

al E

du

ca

tio

n Developmental

Bilingual

Native speakers of

partner language

English and partner

language

Maintenance Bilingualism and

biliteracy in English

and partner language

One-Way Immersion Native English

speakers

English & partner

language with initial

emphasis on partner

language

Global (cultural and

linguistic) competence

Bilingualism and

biliteracy in English

and partner language

Two-Way Immersion Native English

speakers & native

speakers of partner

language

English & partner

language

Global (cultural and

linguistic) competence

Bilingualism and

biliteracy in English

and partner language

(Adapted from Baker; 2006)

Defi

cit

A

sset

interactive and engaging, meaningful and relevant, and intellectually rich and challenging;

appropriately scaffolded in order to provide strategic support that moves the learner toward independence;

value and build on home language and culture and other forms of prior knowledge; and

build both academic English and content knowledge.

(CA ELD Standards, 2012; Callahan & Gndara, 2014; Collier & Thomas, 2004)

Dual language programs promote

bilingualism, bicognition, biliteracy,

academic achievement, and multicultural

awareness for all students, consequently

programs are growing in popularity.

(National Dual Language Consortium, 2011)

Popularity demonstrates native

English-speaking parents recognition

of language as an important resource

for the 21st century.

These forward facing parents call

attention to the needs of the nation.

(Callahan & Gndara, 2014)

Research on DL programs has consistently

found them to result in superior academic

outcomes for both the English speakers

and speakers of other languages

(Genesse et al., 2007; Umansky &

Reardon, 2014), as well as increased

respect for the other culture (Genesee &

Gndara, 1999).

Nationwide: 458 DL Programs

California: 201 DL Programs

San Diego: 75 DL Programs (San Diego County Office of Education, 2014)

(Center for Applied Linguistics, 2015)

(California Department of Education, 2015)

The Seal of Biliteracy is an award given by a school, school district or county office of education in recognition of students who have studied and attained proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation. The Seal of Biliteracy takes the form of a gold seal that appears on the diploma of the graduating senior and is a statement of accomplishment for future employers and for college admissions. The Seal of Biliteracy marks attainment of high level mastery of two or more languages.

2012 California adopted the State Seal of

Biliteracy (SSB)

To date over 50,000 students have earned

the Seal of Biliteracy

http://www.californianstogether.org

(Californians Together, 2015)

Economists have long argued that

investment in human capital through

education can improve a countrys

economic growth by increasing earnings

and productivity

(Reardon & Bischoff; 2010)

1. Todays students come with a variety of language typologies

2. Teachers as researchers and intellectuals

3. Educators with linguistic and cultural competence

4. Research-based Dual Language education that responds to characteristics of the community

5. State Seal of Biliteracy (21st Century Skills) Nine states have adopted

Cristina Alfaro, Ph.D. calfaro@mail.sdsu.edu

http://go.sdsu.edu/education/dle/

mailto:calfaro@mail.sdsu.eduhttp://go.sdsu.edu/education/dle/http://go.sdsu.edu/education/dle/

Biliteracy The use of two of more languages in and around

writing (Hornberger, 2003)

Bilingualism The ability to orally communicate with varying

degrees of proficiency in two languages (Butler &

Hakuta, 2006). This is slightly different than

biliteracy, which includes literacy (reading and

writing) in two languages.

Bilingual Education Bilingual education is an umbrella term for many types

of programs in which two languages are used for

instruction.

Dual Language Education Educational programs that use the partner language

for at least 50% of the day during the elementary

years (National Dual Language Consortium, 2011).

The goal is biliteracy. One-way immersion and two-

way immersion programs are two types of dual

language programs.

Dual Language Learner A student who is enrolled in one of the various program models

recognized as Dual Language English Language Learner

A student who has been identified as speaking a language other than English at home (based upon the Home Language Survey) and is not yet proficient in English as determined by standardized tests in oral language and literacy (CDE, 2013).

Heritage Language Learner A student who is dominant in English but whose parents,

grandaparents, or other ancestors spoke a different language (National Dual Language Consortium, 2014).

Second Language Learner An individual who is learning a second language in addition to the

one that is spoken at home. A native English speaker (regardless of ethnicity) learning Spanish is an example, as is a native Spanish speaker learning English (August & Shanahan, 2006).

English Language Mainstream/ Mainstream English only (EO) A classroom in which the instruction is only in English, regardless

of the native language(s) of the students. Students in an EO classroom are expected to have reasonable fluency or good working knowledge of English (CDE, 2006); however, this is not always the case.

One-way immersion Dual-language programs in which the students are native English

speakers and are learning a second (partner) language (National Dual Language Consortium, 2014).

Transitional bilingual An educational program for English learners, with the intention of

moving them from instruction in their primary language to English-only instruction as quickly as possible (usually within three years). Transitional bilingual is not considered a dual-language program (CAL, 2011).

Two-way immersion Dual-language programs in which both native English

speakers and native speakers of the partner language are enrolled with the intention of developing biliteracy in both languages (CAL, 2011).

50:50 program model A dual-language model in which the partner language (e.g.,

Spanish) and English are used equally (each 50% of the time) throughout the program (CAL, 2011).

90:10 program model A dual-language model in which students begin their

educational careers spending 90% of their time learning in the partner language (e.g., Spanish). This amount gradually decreases by year until a 50/50 balance of instructional time is maintained in both languages.

Alfaro, C., Duran, R., Hunt, A., & Aragon, M.J. (2015). Steps toward Unifying

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17-30.

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California Department of Education:

www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/ip/ap/directory.aspx

Callahan, R.M. & Gndara, P.C. (Eds.). (2014). The bilingual advantage:

Language, literacy and the US labor market. (pp. 286-297). St. Nicholas

House, UK: Multilingual Matters LTD.

Center for Applied Linguistics (n.d.). Directory of Two-Way Bilingual Immersion

Programs in the U.S. Retrieved May 25, 2015, from

http://www2.cal.org/jsp/TWI/SchoolListings.jsp

Collier, V.P. & Thomas, W.P. (2004). The astounding effectiveness of dual

language education for all. NABE Journal of research and Practice, 2:1,

Winter 2004.

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Consequence of Failed Social Policies. Cambridge: Harvard Education

press.

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Learners in California Schools: Unequal resources, unequal outcomes.

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November 19, 2014 from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n36/

http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n36/

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Howard, E. R., Sugarman, J., Christian, D., Lindholm-Leary, K. J., & Rogers, D.

(2007). Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education (2nd ed.).

Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Levien, R. (Writer and Director). (2009). Immersion. Movie retrieved from

http://www.immersionfilm.com

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Quezada, R. & Alfaro, C. (2012). Cutting to the Common Core: Moving

Pedagogic Mountains. Language Magazine, 11(12), 19-22.

Quezada, Lindsey, & Lindsey, 2013. A Culturally Proficient Lens: Five essential

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learning students. Principal Magazine, November/December 2013.

Retrieved from https://www.naesp.org/principal

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segregation. American Journal of Sociology 116(4), 1092-1153.

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